First Law of Thermodynamics Energy can be in two forms: (a) energy in transit, like heat and work transfer observed at the boundaries of a system, and (b) energy in storage, where energy is stored either macroscopically by virtue of motion, position or configuration of the system, or microscopically in the molecules or atoms constituting the system. 4.1 First Law for a Closed System Undergoing a Cycle The transfer of heat and the performance of work may both cause the same effect ina system. Heat and work are different forms ofthe same entity, called energy, which is conserved. Energy which enters a system as heat may leave the system. as work, or energy which enters the system as work may leave as heat. Let us consider a closed system which consists of a known mass of water contained in an adiabatic vessel having a thermometer and a paddle wheel, as. shown in Fig. 4.1. Leta certain amount of work W,_, be done upon the system by the paddle wheel. The quantity of work can be measured by the fall of weight which drives the paddle wheel through a pulley. The system was initially at temperature ¢,, the same as that of atmosphere, and after work transfer let the temperature rise to f.. The pressure is always | atm. The process 1-2 undergone by the system is shown in Fig. 4.2 in generalized thermodynamic coordinates X, Y. Let the insulation now be removed. The system and the surroundings interact by heat transfer till the system returns to the original temperature /,, attaining the condition of thermal equilibrium with the atmosphere. The amount of heat transfer Q,_, from the system during this process, 2-1, shown in Fig. 4.2, can be estimated. The system thus executes a cycle, which consists of a definite amount of work input W;_, to the system followed by the transfer of an amount of heat Q,_, from the system. It has been found that this W,_, is always proportional to the heat Q, _,, and the constant of proportionality is called the Joule’s equivalent644 —— Basic and Applied Thermodynamics Weight Fig. 4.1 Adiabatic work or the mechanical equivalent of heat. In the simple example given here, there are only two energy transfer quantities as the system performs a thermodynamic cycle, If the cycle involves many more heat and work quantities, the same result will be found. Expressed algebraically. WM) eycte = J EDeycie (4.1) where J is the Joule’s equivalent. This is also expressed in the form faw =sfag where the symbol f denotes the cyclic integral for the closed path. This is the first law for a closed system undergoing a cycle. It is accepted as a general law of nature, since no violation of it has ever been demonstrated. In the S.I. system of units, both heat and work are measured in the derived unit of energy, the Joule. The constant of proportionality, J, is therefore unity VJ=1Nm/). The first law of thermodynamics owes much to J.P. Joule who, during the period 1840-1849, carried out a series of experiments to investigate the equivalence of work and heat. In one of these experiments, Joule used an apparatus similar to the one shown in Fig. 4.1. Work was transferred to the 2 ~ | Wie » O24 | 1 ee Fig. 4.2 Cycle completed by a system with two energy interactions: adiabatic work transfer Wy.2 followed by heat transfer Q,.,First Law of Thermodynamics = 65 measured mass of water by means of a paddle wheel driven by the falling weight. The rise in the temperature of water was recorded, Joule also used mercury as the fluid system, and later a solid system of metal blocks which absorbed work by friction when rubbed against cach other. Other experiments involved the supplying of work in an electric current. In every case, he found the same ratio (J) between the amount of work and the quantity of heat that would produce identical effects in the system. Prior to Joule, heat was considered to be an invisible fluid flowing from a body of higher calorie to a body of lower calorie, and this was known as the caloric theory of heat. It was Joule who first established that heat is a form of energy, and thus laid the foundation of the first law of thermodynamics. 4.2 First Law for a Closed System Undergoing a Change of State The expression (ZW) yl. = (ZQ) cycle applies only to systems undergoing cycles, and the algebraic summation of all energy transfer across system boundaries is zero. But if a system undergoes a change of state during which both heat transfer and work transfer are involved, the net energy transfer will be stored or accumulated within the system. If@ is the amount of heat transferred to the system and W is the amount of work transferred from the system during the process (Fig. 4.3), the net energy transfer (Q — W) will be stored in the system. Energy in storage is neither heat nor work, and is given the name infernal energy or simply, the energy of the system. Therefore QO-W=AE where AF is the increase in the energy of the system or Q=AE+W (4.2) Here Q, W, and AE are all expressed in the same units (in joules). Energy may be stored by a system in different modes, as explained in Article 4.4, If there are more energy transfer quantities involved in the process, as shown in Fig. 4.4, the first law gives (Q, + Q3 — Q,) = AE + (W, + W3- WF, - Wy) mm Q Si indir surroundings ‘Surroundings Fig. 4.3 Heat and work interactions of a Fig. 4.4 System-surroundings interaction in system with its surroundings in a 4 process involving many energy process fluxes66 — Basic and Applied Thermodynamics Energy is thus conserved in the operation. The first law is a particular formulation of the principle of the conservation of energy. Equation (4.2) may also be considered as the definition of energy. This definition does not give an absolute value of energy E, but only the change of energy AE for the process. It can, however, be shown that the energy has a definite value at every state of a system and is, therefore, a property of the system. 4.3 Energy—A Property of the System ‘Consider a system which changes its state from state I to state 2 by following the path A, and returns from state 2 to state | by following the path B (Fig. 4.5). So the system undergoes a cycle. Writing the first law for path A On, = AE, + Wy (43) and for path B Oy = AER + Wy (44) The processes A and B together constitute a cycle, for which A eycte = ZDYeycte or Wy + Wy=Q4+ Op or Q,-Wy= We- Op (45) From equations (4.3), (4.4), and (4.5), it yields AE, =-AEy (46) Similarly, had the system returned from state 2 to state 1 by following the path C instead of path B AE, =— AEC (47) From equations (4.6) and (4.7) AE, = AEe (4.8) Therefore, it is seen that the change in energy between two states of a system is the same, whatever path the system may follow in undergoing that change of state. If some arbitrary value of energy is assigned to state 2, the value of energy at state I is fixed independent of the path the system follows. Therefore, energy has a definite value for every state of the system. Hence, it is apoint function and a property of the system. —+p —>V Fig. 4.5 Encrgy—a property of a systemFirst Law of Thermodynamics = 67 The energy E is an extensive property. The specific energy, e= E/m (J/kg), is an intensive property. The cyclic integral of any property is zero, because the final state is identical with the initial state, faz =0, fav = 0, etc, So for a cycle, the equation (4.2) reduces to equation (4.1). 4.4 Different Forms of Stored Energy The symbol £ refers to the total energy stored in a system. Basically there are two modes in which energy may be stored in a system: (a) Macroscopic energy mode (b) Microscopic energy mode The macroscopic energy mode includes the macroscopic kinetic energy and potential energy of a system. Let us consider a fluid element of mass m having the centre of mass velocity V (Fig. 4.6). The macroscopic kinetic energy Ex of the fluid element by virtue of its motion is given by mV? 2 If the elevation of the fluid element from an arbitrary datum is z, then the macroscopic potential energy £, by virtue of its position is given by E, = mgz The microscopic energy mode refers to the energy stored in the molecular and atomic structure of the system, which is called the molecular internal energy or simply internal energy, customarily denoted by the symbol U. Matter is composed of molecules. Molecules are in random thermal motion (fora gas) with an average velocity 0, constantly colliding with one another and with the walls (Fig. 4.6). Due to a collision, the molecules may be subjected to rotation as well Ex= Fig. 4.6 Macroscopic and microscopic energy68 —— Basic and Applied Thermodynamics as vibration. They can have translational kinetic energy, rotational kinetic en- ergy, vibrational energy, electronic energy, chemical energy and nuclear energy (Fig. 4.7). If € represents the energy of one molecule, then E= Evans + Erot + Evib + Echem + Eelectronic + Enuclear (4.9) If N is the total number of molecules in the system, then the total internal energy U=Ne (4.10) Nuclear binding energy Electron energy Fig. 4.7 Various components of internal energy stored in a molecule In an ideal gas there are no intermolecular forces of attraction and repulsion, and the internal energy depends only on temperature. Thus U=f(T) only (4.11) for an ideal gas Other forms of energy which can also be possessed by a system are magnetic energy, electrical energy and surface (tension) energy. In the absence of these forms, the total energy £ of a system is given by E=Ex+E,>+ U (4.12) ESET macro micro where Ey, Ep, and U refer to the kinetic, potential and internal energy, respectively, In the absence of motion and gravity Ex =0, Ep=0 E=U and equation (4.2) becomes Q=AU+W (4.13)First Law of Thermodynamics — 69 Uis an extensive property of the system. The specific internal energy u is equal to Ulm and its unit is J/kg. In the differential forms, equations (4.2) and (4.13) become aQ=dE+oW (4.14) do=dU+aw (4.15) where GW = OW ay + Wag + EM epccttcal * <9 considering the different forms of work transfer which may be present. When only pdV work is present, the equations become dQ =dE+ pa (4.16) adQ=dU+pdV (4.17) or, in the integral form O=AE+ | pv (4.18) Q=AU+ J pav (4.19) 4.5 Specific Heat at Constant Volume The specific heat of a substance at constant volume cy is defined as the rate of change of specific internal energy with respect to temperature when the volume is held constant, i.e. ce (3) (4.20) Fora constant-volume process ; (Au), = fear (4.21) q The first law may be written fora closed stationary system composed of a unit mass of a pure substance Q=Aut+W or dQ=dut dw For a process in the absence of work other than pdV work adW=paV o dQ =du+ pdo (4.22) When the volume is held constant (Q), = (Aw), th Qy= fe. ar (4.23) i70 — Basic and Applied Thermodynamics Heat transferred at constant volume increases the internal energy of the system. If the specific heat of a substance is defined in terms of heat transfer, then «(5), Since Q is not a property, this definition does not imply thate, is a property of a substance. Therefore, this is not the appropriate method of defining the specific heat, although (dQ), = du. Since , 7, and v are properties, c, is a property of the system. The product me, = C, is called the heat capacity at constant volume (J/K). 4.6 Enthalpy The enthalpy of a substance, A, is defined as heutpo (4.24) It isan intensive property of a system (ki/kg). Internal energy change is equal to the heat transferred in a constant volume process involving no work other than pdV work. From equation (4.22), it is possible to derive an expression for the heat transfer in a constant pressure process involving no work other than pdV work. In such a process in a closed stationary system of unit mass of a pure substance dQ = du + pdv At-constant pressure pv = d(pv) . (4Q), = du + d(po) or (dQ), = d(u + po) or (40), = dh (4.25) where h = u + pv is the specific enthalpy, a property of the system. Heat transferred at constant pressure increases the enthalpy of a system. For an ideal gas, the enthalpy becomes. h=u+RT (4.26) Since the internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on the temperature (Eq. 4.11), the enthalpy ofan ideal gas also depends on the temperature only, i.e. h = f(T) only (4.27) Total enthalpy H'= mh Also H=U+ pV and he = Him (kg) 4.7 Specific Heat at Constant Pressure The specific heat at constant pressure c, is defined as the rate of change of enthalpy with respect to temperature when the pressure is held constantFirst Law of Thermodynamics =v71 Gp (3), (4.28) Since h, T and p are properties, so c, is a property of the system. Like c,, c, should not be defined in terms of heat transfer of constant pressure, althou; (dQ), = dh. Fora constant pressure process % (Ah) = fi ey -aT (4.29) q The first law for a closed stationary system of unit mass. @Q =du+pdo Again h=utpo os dh = du + pd¥ + vdp =dQ+ vdp “ dQ =dh-vdp (4.30) oo (dQ), = dh or (Q), = (Ah), -. From equations (4.19) and (4.20) y (Q),= fc, dT q ¢, is a property of the system, just likec,. The heat capacity at constant pressure C, is equal to me, (J/K). 4.8 Energy of an Isolated System An isolated system is one in which there is no interaction of the system with the surroundings. For an isolated system, ¢Q =0, d ¥’=0. The first law gives dE=0 or £=constant The energy of an isolated system is always constant. 4.9 Perpetual Motion Machine of the First Kind-PMM1 The first law states the general principle of the conservation of energy. Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but only gets transformed from one form to another. There can be no machine which would continuously supply mechanical ‘work without some other form of energy disappearing simultaneously (Fig. 4.8). Such a fictitious machine is called a perpetual motion machine of the first kind, or in brief, PMM1. A PMM1 is thus impossible.2— Basic and Applied Thermodynamics The converse of the above statement is also true, i.e., there can be no machine which would continuously consume work without some other form of energy appearing simultaneously (Fig. 4.9). Q Y Engine | [aaa Fig. 4.8 A PMMI Fig. 4.9 The converse of PMMI ~W 4.10 Limitations of the First Law The first law deals with the amounts of energy of various forms transferred between the system and its surroundings and with changes in the energy stored in the system. It treats work and heat interactions as equivalent forms of energy in transit and does not indicate the possibility of a spontaneous process proceeding in a certain direction. It is the second law which assigns a quality to different forms of energy, and also indicates the direction of any spontaneous process. SOLVED EXAMPLES Example 4.1 A stationary mass of gas is compressed without friction from an initial state of 0.3 m? and 0.105 MPa to a final state of 0.15 m? and 0.105 MPa, the pressure remaining constant during the process. There is a transfer of 37.6 kJ of heat from the gas during the process. How much does the internal energy of the gas change? Solution First law for a stationary system in a process gives Q=aUu+W or Q\2=U,-U,+W4 (1) Here V3 Woe fdr = 1%, -%) y = 0.105 (0.15 — 0.30) MJ =—15.75 kJ Q)-2=-37.6 KI «. Substituting in equation (1) 37.6 k} = Uy — U, — 15.75 kJ U, - U, =— 21.85 kJ Ans.First Law of Thermodynamics = The internal energy of the gas decreases by 21.85 kJ in the process. Example 4,2 When a system is taken from state a to state b, in Fig, Ex. 4.2, along path ach, 84 kJ of heat flow into the system, and the system does 32 kJ of work, (a) How much will the heat that flows into the system along pathadb be, if the work done is 10.5 kJ? (b) When the system is returned from b to a along the curved path, the work done on the system is 21 kJ. Does the system absorb or liberate heat, and how much of the heat is absorbed or liberated? (c) IfU,=0 and U,= 42 kJ, find the heat absorbed in the processes ad and db. P —- Fig. Ex. 42 Solution Qacy = 84 KI Wag = 32 kJ ‘We have Deep = Up - Un + Weer ‘ U,- U, = 84-32 = 52kI Ans, @) Qaim = Uy~ Ux + Pray =52+ 105 =62.5k) Ans. ) Qa =U,-Up+ Moe =-52-21 =-73kI Ans, The system liberates 73 kJ of heat. © Waay = Wag + Way = Wag = 10.5 kJ . Oya = Ua- Uy * Wag =42-0410.5=52.5k) Now Qaay = 62.5 kJ = Quy + Day . Qsy = 62.5 ~ 52.5 = 10 kT Ans. Example 4.3 A piston and cylinder machine contains a fluid system which passes through a complete cycle of four processes. During a cycle, the sum of all heat transfers is -170 kJ. The system completes 100 cycles per min. Complete the4a Basie and Applied Thermodynamics following table showing the method for each item, and compute the net rate of work output in kW. Process OQ (kJ/min) W (kS/min) AE (K/min) a-b 0 2,170 - be 21,000 0 _ c-d 2,100 = 36,600 d-a _— — — Solution Process a-b: Q=AE+W O=AE+ 2170 ” AE =-2170 kJ/min Process bc: Q=AE+W 21,000 = AE +0 “ AE = 21,000 kJ/min Process c—d: Q=AE+W — 2100 =- 36,600 + “ W = 34,500 kJ/min Process d-a: Yo =-170K5 cycle The system completes 100 cycles/min. . Dai, + Qoe + Dea Dia =— 17,000 ki/min 0 + 21,000 — 2,100 + O,, =— 17,000 Quy = — 35,900 kJ/min Now} d£ = 0, since cyclic integral of any property is zero, AE y+ AEyg + AEs + AE, =0 ~2,170 + 21,000 ~ 36,600 + AE, ,=0 AEs, = 17,770 ki/min Waa=Qas-AFia == 35,900 - 17,770 = - 53,670 kI/min The table becomes Process Q (kJ/min) W (kJ/min) AE (kJ/min) a-b 0 2,170 — 2,170 bec 21,000 0 21,000First Law of Thermodynamics = 75 cd — 2,100 34,500 — 36,600 d-a — 35,900 — 53,670 17,770 Since Rate of work output Yo=-yr cycle cycle =- 17,000 kJ/min =~ 283.3 kW Ans. Example 4.4 The internal energy of a certain substance is given by the following equation u = 3.56 po + 84 where u is given in kJ/kg, p is in kPa, andv is in m/kg. A system composed of 3 kg of this substance expands from an initial pressure of 500 kPa and a volume of 0.22 m’ to a final pressure 100 kPa in a process in. which pressure and volume are related by po'* = constant. (a) Ifthe expansion is quasi-static, find Q, A U, and W for the process. (b) In another process the same system expands according to the same pressure-volume relationship as in part (a), and from the same initial state to the same final state as in part (a), but the heat transfer in this case is 30 kJ. Find the work transfer for this process. (c) Explain the difference in work transfer in parts (a) and (b). Solution (a) u = 3.56 pv + 84 Au = up ~ Hy = 3.56 (p2 02 ~ Py 01) ” AU = 3.56 (p, V,- P,P) Now Pil"? = pW? a2 wn2 Ws (2) = o22{ >) Pr 1 = 0.22 x 3.83 = 0.845 m° ‘ AU = 356 (1 x 0.845 — 5 x 0.22) KI = -356 x 0.255 =-91 KI Ans, (a) For a quasi-static process = = Pala PK 0 joer _ (1 0.845 — 5 x 0,22)100 1-12 QO=AU+W =-91 + 127.5 =36.5 kT Ans, (a) = 127.5kI76% —— Basic and Applied Thermodynamics (b) Here Q = 30 kJ Since the end states are the same, AU would remain the same as in (a). W=Q-AU =30-(-91) = 121K) Ans. (b) (c) The work in (b) is not equal to J pd¥ since the process is not quasi-static. Example 4.5 A fluid is confined in a cylinder by a spring-loaded, frictionless piston so that the pressure in the fluid is a linear function. of the volume (p =a + bP). The internal energy of the fluid is given by the following equation U=3443.15 pV where U is in kJ, p in kPa, and V in cubic metre. If the fluid changes from an initial state of 170 kPa, 0.03 m’ toa final state of 400 kPa, 0.06 m°, with no work other than that done on the piston, find the direction and magnitude of the work and heat transfer. Solution The change in the internal energy of the fluid during the process. U,— U, = 3.15 (pah2— pik) = 315 (4 x 0.06 — 1.7 x 0.03) = 315 x 0.189 = 59.5 kJ Now p=at+bVy 170 =a+ bx 0.03 400 =a + bx 0.06 From these two equations a =~ 60 kN/m? b = 1667 KN/m* Work transfer involved during the process V5 V3 Wa fray = farsnav Ri =a(h,-h)+b 6 205 - Kar tay 4) = 0.03 m'[-60 kN/m? + Ae EN x 0.09 | m = 8.55 kJ Work is done by the system, the magnitude being 8.55 kJ.First Law of Thermodynamics =T7 «'. Heat transfer involved is given by QO). = U,-U,+ Mo = 59,5 + 8.55 = 68.05 kJ 68.05 kJ of heat flow into the system during the process. REVIEW QUESTIONS 4.1 State the first law for a closed system undergoing a cycle, 4.2. What was the contribution of J.P. Joule in establishing the first law? 4.3. What is the caloric theory of heat? Why was it rejected? 4.4 Which is the property introduced by the first law? 4.5 State the first law for a closed system undergoing a change of state. 4.6 Show that energy is a property of a system. 4.7 What are the modes in which energy is stored in a system? 4.8 Define internal energy. How is energy stored in molecules and atoms? 4.9 What is the difference between the standard symbols of E and U? 4,10 What is the difference between heat and internal energy? 4.11 Define enthalpy. Why does the enthalpy of an ideal gas depend only on temperature? 4.12. Define the specific heats at constant volume and constant pressure. 4.13. Why should specific heat not be defined in terms of heat transfer? 4.14 Which property of a system increases when heat is transferred: (..) at constant volume, (b) at constant pressure? 4.15 What is a PMM1? Why is it impossible? PROBLEMS 4.1 Anengine is tested by means ofa water brake at 1000 rpm. The measured torque of the engine is 10000 mN and the water consumption of the brake is 0.5m'/s, its inlet temperature being 20°C. Calculate the water temperature at exit, assuming that the whole of the engine power is ultimately transformed into heat which is absorbed by the cooling water. Ans. 20.5°C 4.2 In a cyclic process, heat transfers are + 14.7 kJ, — 25.2 kJ, — 3.56 kJ and + 31.5 kJ. What is the net work for this cycle process? Ans. 17,34 kJ 43 A slow chemical reaction takes place in a fluid at the constant pressure of 0.1 MPa. The fluid is surrounded by a perfect heat insulator during the reaction which begins at state | and ends at state 2. The insulation is then removed and 105 kJ of heat flow to the surroundings as the fluid goes to state 3. The following data are observed for the fluid at states 1, 2 and 3. State Via?) We) 1 0.003 20BB Basic and Applied Thermodynamics 44 45 46 47 48 49 4.12 2 03 370 3 0.06 20 For the fluid system, calculate £, and £;, if £, =0 Ans, Ey = 29.1 kJ, Ey=- 110.7 KF During one cycle the working fluid in an engine engages in two work interactions: 15 kJ to the fluid and 44 kJ from the fluid, and three heat interactions, two of which are known: 75 kJ to the fluid and 40 kJ from the fluid. Evaluate the magnitude and direction of the third heat transfer. Ans. - 6 kJ A domestic refrigerator is loaded with food and the door closed. During a certain period the machine consumes | kW h of energy and the intemal energy of the system drops by 5000 kJ. Find the net heat transfer for the system. Ans. - 8.6 MJ 1.5 kg of liquid having a constant specific heat of 2.5 kJ/kg K is stirred in a well- insulated chamber causing the temperature to rise by 15°C, Find AE and W for the process. Ans, AE = 56.25 kJ, W=- 56.25 kJ The same liquid as in Problem 4.6 is stirred in a conducting chamber. During the process 1.7 kJ of heat are transferred from the liquid to the surroundings, while the temperature of the liquid is rising by 15°C. Find AE and WV for the process. Ans, AE = 56.25 kJ, W = 57.95 kT The properties of a certain fluid are related as follows u =196+0.7188 po = 0.287 (f+ 273) where u is the specific intemal energy (ki/kg), ris in °C, p is pressure (kN/m?), and v is specific volume (m°/kg). For this fluid, find cy and c, Ans. 0.718, 1.005 ki/kg K * Assystem composed of 2 kg of the above fluid expands ina frictionless piston and cylinder machine from an initial state of 1 MPa, 100°C to a final temperature of 30°C. If there is no heat transfer, find the net work for the process. Ans. 100.52 kJ If all the work in the expansion of Problem 4.9 is done on the moving piston, show that the equation representing the path of the expansion in the pv-plane is given by pv'* = constant. _ A stationary system consisting of 2 kg of the fluid of Problem 4.8 expands in an adiabatic process according to pu? = constant. The initial conditions are 1 MPa and 200°C, and the final pressure is 0.1 MPa. Find W and AU for the process. Why is the work transfer not equal to | pd? Ans, W= 216.83, AU = -216.83 ks, f pdV = 434.41 A mixture of gases expands at constant pressure from 1 MPa, 0.03 m° to 0.06 m* with 84 kJ positive heat transfer. There is no work other than that done on a piston. Find AE for the gaseous mixture. Ans. 54 KI The same mixture expands through the same state path while a stirring device does 21 kJ of work on the system. Find AE, FV, and Q for the process. Ans. $4 kJ, ~21 kJ, 33 kd4.13 4.16 4.17 First Law of Thermodynamics = A mass of 8 kg gas expands within a flexible container so that the p-v relationship is of the form po 2 = const. The initial pressure is 1000 kPa and the initial volume is 1 m>. The final pressure is 5 kPa. If specific internal energy of the gas decreases by 40 kJ/kg, find the heat transfer in magnitude and direction. Ans. + 2615 kJ A gas of mass 1.5 kg undergoes a quasi-static expansion which follows a relationship. p = a + bV, where a and b are constants. The initial and final pressures are 1000 kPa and 200 kPa respectively and the corresponding volumes are 0.20 m? and 1.20 m’. The specific internal energy of the gas is given by the relation w= 1.5 pu- 85 kIkg where p is in kPa and v is in m/kg. Calculate the net heat transfer and the maximum internal energy of the gas attained during expansion. Ans. 660 kJ, 503.3 kJ The heat capacity at constant pressure of a certain system is a function of temperature only and may be expressed as 41.87 C= 2.093 += JK +100 where 1 is the temperature of the system in °C. The system is heated while it is maintained at a pressure of 1 atmosphere until its volume increases from 2000 cm’ to 2400 cm? and its temperature increases from 0°C to 100°C. (a) Find the magnitude of the heat interaction. (6) How much does the internal energy of the system increase? Ans. (a) 238.32) (b) 197.79 J An imaginary engine receives heat and does work on a slowly moving piston at such rates that the cyele of operation of | kg of working fluid can be represented asa circle 10 cm in diameter on a p-v diagram on which | cm = 300 kPa and 1 cm=0.1 m’/kg. (a) How much work is done by each kg of working fluid for each cycle of operation? (b) The thermal efficiency of an engine is defined as the ratio of work done and heat input in a cycle. If the heat rejected by the engine in acycle is 1000 kI per kg of working fluid, what would be its thermal efficiency? Ans. (a) 2356.19 ki/kg, (b) 0.702 A gas undergoes a thermodynamic cycle consisting of three processes beginning at an initial state where p, = 1 bar, F; = 1.5 m? and U, = 512 kJ. The processes are as follows: (i) Process 1-2: Compression withpV’= constant top, = 2 bar, U)= 690 kJ (ii) Process 2-3: W;3 = 0, Qo, = ~ 150 kJ, and (iii) Process 3~1: W3, =+50'kJ. Neglecting KE and PE changes, determine the heat interactions Q,, and Q3,. Ans. 74 kJ, 22 kJ 4.18 A gas undergoes a thermoynamic cycle consisting of the following processes: (i) Process 1-2: Constant pressure p= 1.4 bar, V; = 0.028 m’, W,, = 10.5 kJ, (ii) Process 2-3: Compression with pV = constant, U3 = Uy, (iii) Process 3-1: Constant volume, U; ~ U; == 26.4 kJ. There are no significant changes in KE and PE. (a) Sketch the cycle on ap-V diagram. (b) Calculate the net work for the80 —— Basic and Applied Thermodynamics 421 4.22 cycle in kJ. (c) Calculate the heat transfer for process 1-2 (d) Show that rO==W. cycle cycle Ans. (b) = 8.28 kJ, (c) 36.9 kJ A certain gas of mass 4 kg is contained within a piston cylinder assembly. The gas undergoes a process for which p¥'> = constant. The initial state is given by 3 bar, 0.1 m°, The change in internal energy of the gas in the process is 4, — 4, = — 4.6 kJ/kg. Find the net heat transfer for the process when the final volume is 0.2 m?, Neglect the changes in KE and PE, Ans. - 0.8 kJ Anelectric generator coupled to.a windmill produces an average electrical power ‘output of 5 kW. The power is used to charge a storage battery. Heat transfer from ‘the battery to the surroundings occurs at a constant rate of 0.6 kW. Determine the total amount of energy stored in the battery in 8/ of operation. Ans. 1.27 * 10° kd A gas in a piston-cylinder assembly undergoes two processes in series. From state 1 to state 2 there is energy transfer by heat to the gas of 500-kJ, and the gas does work on the piston amounting 800 kJ. The second process, from state 2 to state 3, is a constant pressure compression at 400 kPa, during which there is a ‘heat transfer from the gas amounting 450 kJ. The following data are also known: U, = 2000 kJ and U, = 3500 kJ. Neglecting changes in KE and PE, calculate the change in volume of the gas during process 2-3. Ans. ~ 5.625 m* Air is contained in a rigid well-insulated tank with a volume of 0.2 m*. The tank is fitted with a paddle wheel which transfers energy to the air at a constant rate of 4 W for 20 min. The initial density of the air is 1.2 kg/m*. If no changes in KE or PE occur, determine (a) the specific volume at the final state, (b) the change in ‘specific internal energy of the air. Ans, (a) 0.833 m*/kg, (b) 20 kJ/kg,