MOBILE AND UBIQUITOUS SYSTEMS

www.computer.org/pervasive

Piezoelectric Nanogenerators
for Self-Powered Nanodevices
Zhong Lin Wang, Xudong Wang, Jinhui Song, Jin Liu, and Yifan Gao

Vol. 7, No. 1
JanuaryMarch 2008

This material is presented to ensure timely dissemination of scholarly and technical

work. Copyright and all rights therein are retained by authors or by other copyright
holders. All persons copying this information are expected to adhere to the terms
and constraints invoked by each author's copyright. In most cases, these works
may not be reposted without the explicit permission of the copyright holder.

2008 IEEE. Personal use of this material is permitted. However, permission to reprint/republish this material for advertising or promotional purposes or
for creating new collective works for resale or redistribution to servers or lists, or to reuse any copyrighted component of this work in other works must be
obtained from the IEEE.
For more information, please see www.ieee.org/web/publications/rights/index.html.

I M PL ANTA B L E E L E CTR O N I C S

Piezoelectric
Nanogenerators
for Self-Powered
Nanodevices
A novel approach converts nanoscale mechanical energy into electric
energy for self-powering nanodevices.

lthough nanodevices fabricated

using nanomaterials such as
nanotubes or nanowires offer low
power consumption, powering
them can still be challenging.13
Adding a battery could sufficiently increase
their size to inhibit their application. Developing miniature power packages and self-powering
methods will be key to their use in a variety of
applications, including those for wireless sensing; in-vivo, real-time, and implantable biological devices; environmental monitoring; and personal electronics. Consequently, researchers are
developing innovative nanotechnologies to convert various
Zhong Lin Wang, Xudong Wang,
forms of energy (such as solar
Jinhui Song, Jin Liu, and Yifan Gao energy4) into electric energy for
Georgia Institute of Technology
low-power nanodevices.
In our own work, weve
used piezoelectric zinc-oxide
nanowire (ZnO NW) arrays
to demonstrate a novel approach for converting nanoscale mechanical energy into electric
energy. 57 Here, we review the fundamental
principle behind the nanogenerator, present an
approach for improving its performance, and
discuss some of the challenges we face in pushing this technology to reach its potential.

bending aligned NW arrays. In theory, a voltage

drop occurs in the NWs cross section when the
NW bends laterally, resulting in positive voltage
on the tensile side and negative voltage on the
compressive side.5
Using small-deflection approximation, we
applied the perturbation theory to calculate the
potential piezoelectricity distribution in a NW
when a lateral force pushes its tip.8
Calculating piezoelectric potential
Our calculation shows that the NWs piezoelectric potential doesnt depend on the z-coordinate along the NW except when close to the two
ends. The magnitude of piezoelectric potential
for a NW thats 50 nanometers in diameter and
600 nm long is approximately 0.4 volts under a
lateral deflection force of 80 nanonewtons (see
figure 1). The maximum potential at the NWs
surface is directly proportional to the NWs lateral displacement and inversely proportional to
the NWs length-to-diameter aspect ratio. The
maximum potential voltage (V) at the NWs
surface at the tensile (T) and compressive (C)
sides is
(T,C)
Vmax
=

The nanowire nanogenerator

The nanogenerator relies on some external
disturbance, such as a vibration or sonic wave,

Published by the IEEE CS 1536-1268/08/$25.00 2008 IEEE

fy
1
1
0 + E

[e33 2(1 + )e15 2 e31 ]

(1)
1
a

P ER VA SI V E computing

49

IMPLANTABLE ELECTRONICS

Maximum 0.405

Maximum 0.268

0.4

0.25
0.20
0.15
0.05
0
0.05
0.15
0.20
0.25
Minimum 0.268

0.2

Potential (V)

Potential (V)

0.3
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Minimum 0.398

(a)

(b)

where f y is the transverse force for

deflecting the NW; 0 is the permittivity
in vacuum; 11 = 22 = is the dielectric constant; e31, e33, and e 15 are the
piezoelectric coefficients; is the Poisson ratio; and a is the NWs radius.
We can restate equation 1 in terms of
the NWs maximum deflection at the
tip as
(T,C)
Vmax
=

3
4( 0 + )

[e33 2(1 + )e15 2 e31 ]

(2)
a3
l3

vmax

where max is the NW tips maximum

deflection and l is the NWs length.
This means that the electrostatic potential directly relates to the NWs aspect
ratio instead of its dimensionality. For
a NW with a fi xed aspect ratio, the
piezoelectric potential is proportional
to the maximum deflection at the tip.
Figure 2 presents the mechanism for
creating and separating the charges
through a NW. For a vertical and
straight ZnO NW (figure 2a), the NWs
deflection by an atomic force microscope (AFM) tip creates a strain field
that stretches the outer surface and compresses the inner surface (figure 2b). As
a result, a piezoelectric potential builds
across the NW, making the stretched
side positive and the compressed side

50

P ER VA SI V E computing

negative (figure 2c) if the electrode at

the NWs base is grounded. The relative
displacement of the Zn2+ cations with
respect to the O2 anionscaused by
the piezoelectric effect in the wurtzite
crystal structurecreates this potential. Consequently, these ionic charges
cant freely move or recombine without releasing the strain. The potential
difference is maintained as long as the
deformation is in place and no foreign
free charges (such as from the metal
contacts) are injected.
We now consider the charge-accumulation and -releasing processes. The
first step is a charge-accumulation process, which occurs when the AFM conductive tip that induces the deformation
is in contact with the stretched surface
of positive potential V T (see figure 3a).
The platinum metal tip has a potential
of nearly zero, Vm = 0, so the metaltip ZnO interface is negatively biased
for V = Vm V T < 0. Considering the
as-synthesized (that is, synthesized
without any modifications) ZnO NWs
n-type (negative charge) semiconductor characteristic, the platinum ZnO
semiconductor interface is, in this case,
a reverse-biased Schottky diode (see figure 3a), and little current flows across
the interface. (A Schottky diode is like a
one-way gate that only allows a current
to flow from the metal into the semiconductor.)
The next step is the charge-releas-

Figure 1. Potential distribution for a

zinc-oxide nanowire (ZnO NW) thats
50 nanometers in diameter and 600 nm
long at a lateral bending force of 80
nanonewtons: (a) side and (b) top crosssectional (at z0 = 300 nm) output of the
piezoelectric potential in the NW given
by finite-element calculation.

ing process. When the AFM tip is in

contact with the NWs compressed
side (figure 3b), the metal-tip ZnO
interface is positively biased for V =
Vm VC > 0. In this case, the metal
semiconductor interface is a positively
biased Schottky diode, and it produces
a sudden increase in the output electric
current. The current is the result of a
potential V-driven flow of electrons
from the semiconductor ZnO NW to
the metal tip. The flow of the free electrons from the loop through the NW to
the tip will neutralize the ionic charges
distributed in the volume of the NW,
thus reducing the magnitudes of the
potential VC and V T.
Realizing piezoelectric potential
We designed a set of experiments to
prove the proposed mechanism. We
used an AFM to mechanically manipulate a single ZnO wire. We selected a
long ZnO wire that was large enough
to see under an optical microscope, and
we used silver paste to affix one end of
the ZnO wire to a silicon substrate and
left the other end free. The substrate
was intrinsic silicon, so its conductivity was rather poor. A small distance
between the wire and the substrate
(except at the affi xed side) eliminated
friction (see figure 4).
We recorded both the topography
(the scanners feedback signal) and
corresponding output-voltage images
across a load simultaneously with the
AFM tips movement across the wire.
The topography image reflects the
change in normal force perpendicular
to the substrate, which shows a bump
only when the tip scans over the wire.
We continuously monitored the out-

www.computer.org/pervasive

Figure 2. Creating and separating

charges through a NW: (a) A schematic
depiction of a wire; (b) longitudinal
strain z distribution in the wire after
being deflected by an atomic force
microscope (ATM) tip from the side; and
(c) potential distribution in the wire as a
result of piezoelectric effect.

put voltage between the conductive tip

and the ground as the tip scanned over
the wire. We didnt apply any external
voltage during the experiment. We
captured the entire experimental process and output images on video, so we
could visualize how this process generates electricity.
We captured the topography image
regardless of whether the tip passed
over the wire, because it was a representation of the normal force that the cantilever received. When the tip pushed
the wire but didnt go over and across it
(see the flat output signal in the topography image in figure 5a), no voltage
output was produced. This indicates
that the stretched side didnt produce a
piezoelectric discharge event. Once the
tip went over the wire and touched the
compressed side, as indicated by a peak
in the topography image, we observed a
sharp voltage output peak (figure 5b).
By analyzing the positions of the
peaks observed in the topography
image and the output voltage image,
we noticed that the discharge occurred
after the tip nearly fi nished crossing
the wire. This clearly indicates that the
compressed side produced the negative
piezoelectric discharge voltage.

z
VT

VC

>0

=0

<0
y

(a)

(b)

(c)

Vm

Vm

I0
VT
RL

VT

VC

VC

ZnO

Ag

(a)

(b)

Figure 3. Accumulating and outputting charges through a NW. Metal and

semiconductor contacts between the AFM tip and the semiconductor ZnO wire at
two reversed local contact potentials (positive and negative), showing (a) reverse
and (b) forward-biased Schottky rectifying behavior.

An innovative design
Although the AFM-based approach
has been useful in exploring the principle
of the nanogenerator and its potential for

technological applications, we needed an

innovative design to drastically improve
the nanogenerators performance.
First, we had to stop using the AFM

20 m

Figure 4. Scanning Electron Microscopy images of a ZnO wire with one end affixed by silver paste onto a silicon substrate and the
other end free.

JANUARYMARCH 2008

P ER VA SI V E computing

51

IMPLANTABLE ELECTRONICS

Topography

V(mV)

Output voltage
R

0
4
0

30

60

30

60

(b)

V(mV)

(a)

0
4
0

Figure 5. In-situ observation of converting mechanical energy into electric energy by a piezoelectric ZnO wire, shown via
two characteristic snapshots and the corresponding topography and output voltage images. (a) The AFM tip pushes the wire
toward the right side but doesnt go above and across its width, which the topography image indicates. We didnt detect any
output voltage. (b) The AFM tip pushes the wire toward the right side and goes above and across its width, as the peak in the
topography image indicates. The output voltage image showed a sharp negative peak. There is a delay in the output voltage
peak in reference to the normal force image (the peak in the topography image). Y represents the relative position of the
scanning tip perpendicular to the wire.

to mechanically deform the NWs, so we

could generate power using an adaptable,
mobile, and cost-effective approach. Second, we needed all the NWs to generate
electricity simultaneously and continuously, so we could effectively collect and
output all of the electricity. Finally, the
energy to be converted into electricity
had to be provided in the form of waves
or vibrations from the environment, so
the nanogenerator could operate independently and wirelessly.
A wave- or vibration-driven
nanogenerator
Figure 6a schematically shows our
experimental setup,9 in which a zigzag
silicon electrode coated with platinum
covers an array of aligned ZnO NWs.
The platinum coating isnt only for
enhancing the electrodes conductivity
but also for creating a Schottky diode

52

P ER VA SI V E computing

at the interface with ZnO. Then, we

placed the electrode above the NW
arrays, manipulated it from a controlled
distance, and carefully packaged it to
separate the electrode from the NWs.
The design relies on a unique coupling between the aligned ZnO NWs
piezoelectric and semiconducting properties. The asymmetric piezoelectric
potential across the width of a ZnO
NW and the Schottky contact between
the metal electrode and the NW are the
two key processes for creating, separating, preserving and accumulating, and
outputting the charges.
We designed a top electrode to achieve
the coupling process and play the AFM
tips role, and its zigzag trenches act as
an array of aligned AFM tips. When
subjected to the excitation of an ultrasonic wave, the zigzag electrode can
move down and push the NW. This

leads to a lateral bending, which creates

a strain field across the NWs width,
so the NWs outer surface is in tensile
strain and its inner surface in compressive strain. When the electrode contacts
the NWs stretched surface, which has
a positive piezoelectric potential, the
platinum metal ZnO semiconductor
interface is a reversely biased Schottky
diode, resulting in little current flowing across the interface (see figure 6b).
This process creates, separates, and
preserves and accumulates charges.
If we further push the electrode, the
bent NW will reach the other side of
the zigzag electrodes adjacent tooth. In
such a case, the electrode is also in contact with the NWs compressed side,
where the metal-semiconductor interface is a forward-biased Schottky barrier, resulting in a sudden increase in the
output electric current flowing from the

www.computer.org/pervasive

Figure 6. (a) Schematic diagram showing

the direct current nanogenerator built
using aligned ZnO NW arrays with a
zigzag top electrode. An ultrasonic
wave or mechanical vibration drives
the nanogenerator, and the output
current is continuous. (b) A schematic
illustration of the zigzag electrode
and its contact with the various NWs
configurations and the resulting current.

Zigzag electrode
ZnO nanowires
Conductive
substrate

Experimenting with 3D integration

We tested three nanogenerators (NG
I, II, and III) under the same experimental conditions (see figure 7ac).
NG I exhibited an average short-circuit
current of approximately 0.7 nA, and
NG II showed a lower noisy signal of
1 nA. We then connected these two
nanogenerators in parallel (inset of figure 7d) and tested them under the same
condition again. The resultant output
current reached an average of approximately 1.8 nA. For NG III, which output approximately 4 nA, the parallel
connection of the three nanogenerators
gives 5.9 nA output (see figure 7e).
These experiments demonstrate the
possibility of raising the power output
using 3D integration. The peaks in the
output current correspond to turning

JANUARYMARCH 2008

V+

V+

I
Ultasonic wave

II

III

IV

Sonic or
mechanical waves

(a)

top electrode into the NW. This is the

discharge process. This design works as
long as theres a relative displacement
between the electrode and the NWs,
either vertically or laterally.
We expect the electricity produced by
the relative deflection and displacement
between the NWs and the electrode
resulting from either bending or vibrationto be output simultaneously and
continuously. We can package such
nanogenerators to prevent the invasion
of liquid, so we can directly place them
inside biofluid or any other liquid.10
For technological applications, increasing the output power requires increasing
the nanogenerators voltage and current
output. The most straightforward way
to increase the current and voltage is to
stack them in parallel/serial.

the ultrasonic wave on and off. We estimated that approximately 5001,000

NWs were active for producing and outputting electricity. The output current is
a sum of the current that all the active
NWs generated, while the output voltage
is what a single NW produced. If every
NW were involved in generating electricity, the output power could reach 10 W/
cm2, which 3D integration could further
improve. Most recently, by optimizing
the design and assembling technique, the
output has improved to approximately
0.6 A, corresponding to an output current density of approximately 20 A/cm2
of the substrate area.

Advantages
and potential applications
The piezoelectric nanogenerator
could potentially convert the following
into electric energy for self-powering
nanodevices and nanosystems:
mechanical-movement energy, such
as body or muscle movement or
blood pressure;
vibration energy, from acoustic or
ultrasonic waves; and
hydraulic energy, such as from the
flow of body fluids or blood, the contraction of blood vessels, or dynamic
fluid in nature.
The microelectromechanical systems
microgenerator, which is mostly built
on a piezoelectric thin-film cantilever,11
can also convert such energy into electric energy. However, the ZnO NW-

(b)

based nanogenerators offer the following advantages:

Because NWs can grow on any substrate at a low temperature, you can
integrate NW-based nanogenerators
with inorganic and organic materials
for flexible electronics.
NW-based nanogenerators work in
a wide frequency range, from a few
hertz to multiple megahertz. Also,
the NWs mechanical resonance isnt
required to generate electricity.
ZnO is biocompatible and environmentally friendly.
NWs have superelasticity and are
very resistive to fatigue, owing to
their small diameter, so we expect the
nanogenerators to be long-lasting.
With a large surface area, NW
functionality might provide additional advantages, such as surface
modification.
Consequently, the NW-based nanogenerator could support important applications in a variety of fields.
For example, it could help wireless self-powered nanodevices harvest
energy from the environment. It could
also provide a method for indirectly
charging a battery. For biomedical sciences, self-powered nanodevices could
offer real-time monitoring of blood pressure and blood-sugar levels. They might
also perform in-vivo detection of cancer
cells or wirelessly measure fluid pressure
in the brain. For environmental science,
the nanogenerator could remotely sense

P ER VA SI V E computing

53

IMPLANTABLE ELECTRONICS

NG II
I sc(nA)

1.0

0.7 nA

1 nA

0.5

0
5

10
15
Time (s)

NG I

(a)

20

(b)

10

15
Time (s)

NG II

0.5.

10

(c)

2.0

10

15
Time (s)

20

1.0

I sc(nA)

1.5
1.8 nA

0.5
0

4 nA

2.5

I sc(nA)

20

NG II

0.5

I sc(nA)

1.5

NG III

NG I

1.0
I sc(nA)

8
7 NG III
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
5

2.0

NG I

1.5

10

15
Time (s)

(d)

5.9 nA

20

(e)

10

15
Time (s)

20

Figure 7. A short-circuit current (ISC) measured from an integrated nanogenerators system. We measured the current signal
from three individual nanogenerators: (a) NG I, (b) NG II, and (c) NG III. (d) The current signal we measured from connecting NG
I and II in parallel. (e) The current signal we measured from connecting NG I, II, and III in parallel. (Insets show the connection
configuration.)

gas and chemical species and track animal-migration activities.

For personal electronics, it offers
the possibility of charging a battery
using energy harvested from a human
walking, swinging his or her arms,
or stretching his or her legs. It might
also harvest energy from sound and
ultrasound waves, wind and air flow,
mechanical vibration, or even thermal
noises. The nanogenerator could also
help harvest and recycle wasted energy,
such as energy created by a tires pressure change, a moving cars mechanical
vibration, or a tent surfaces vibration.

o meet these goals, however,

well need to overcome quite
a few challenges.
First, we need to raise the
nanogenerators output voltage. This

54

P ER VA SI V E computing

will require producing highly uniform

and patterned NW arrays, so most of
the NWs will be active for outputting
electricity. This will also require optimizing the electrodes design to reduce
system capacitance.
Second, we need to broaden the driving frequency span, particularly in the
low-frequency range, which covers
most vibrations ubiquitously existing
in ambient environments and biological systems. Considering the powergeneration principle, the electricity
output will more likely be separated
pulses under low-frequency excitation.
Therefore, we might need a capacitor to
store the electricity before applying it.
Third, we need 3D integration to
raise the nanogenerators voltage and
current, which could raise the entire
packages output power.
Fourth, we need to optimize the pack-

aging technology, studying its fatigue

behavior and energy-dissipation process
to prolong its life.
Fifth, we need to explore energy-storage technology. Under most conditions,
we cant expect to obtain much power.
When the harvested energy is insufficient to maintain continuous device
operation, applications can be limited
to small-duty cycles that allow for selfsustainable operations. For example,
they could transmit or collect data for
one second out of every minute while
harnessing energy the rest of the time.
Finally, we expect additional challenges will arise from the new field of
nanopiezotronics that has developed
out of using coupled piezoelectric-semiconducting properties as proposed for
the nanogenerator.12,13 Using nanopiezotronics, weve fabricated piezoelectricfield effect transistors;14 a piezoelectric

www.computer.org/pervasive

the AUTHORS

diode;15 and piezoelectric force, humidity, and chemical sensors.16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The National Science Foundation, US Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency, Department of Energy, National Institute of Health, and
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
sponsored this research.

REFERENCES
1. Y. Huang et al., Logic Gates and Computation from Assembled Nanowire Building Blocks, Science, vol. 294, no. 5545,
2001, pp. 13131317.
2. A. Bachtold et al., Logic Circuits with
Carbon Nanotube Transistors, Science,
vol. 294, no. 5545, 2001, pp. 13171320.
3. J. Chen et al., Bright Infrared Emission
from Electrically Induced Excitons in
Carbon Nanotubes, Science, vol. 310,
no. 5751, 2005, pp. 11711174.
4. B. Tian et al., Coaxial Silicon Nanowires
as Solar Cells and Nanoelectronic Power
Sources, Nature, vol. 449, 18 Oct. 2007,
pp. 885890.
5. Z.L. Wang and J.H. Song, Piezoelectric
Nanogenerators Based on Zinc Oxide
Nanowire Arrays, Science, vol. 312, no.
5771, 2006, pp. 242246.
6. P. X. Gao et al., Nanowire Piezoelectric
Nanogenerators on Plastic Substrates as
Flexible Power Sources for Nanodevices,
Advanced Materials, vol. 19, no. 1, 2007,
pp. 6772.
7. J.H. Song, J. Zhou, and Z.L. Wang,
Piezoelectric and Semiconducting
Coupled Power Generating Process of a
Single ZnO Belt/Wire. A Technology for
Harvesting Electricity from the Environment, Nano Letters, vol. 6, no. 8, 2006,
pp. 16561662.
8. Y.F. Gao and Z.L. Wang, Electrostatic
Potential in a Bent Piezoelectric Nanowire.
The Fundamental Theory of Nanogenerator and Nanopiezotronics, Nano Letters,
vol. 7, no. 8, 2007, pp. 24992505.
9. X.D. Wang et al., Direct-Current Nanogenerator Driven by Ultrasonic Waves,
Science, vol. 316, no. 5821, 2007, pp.
102105.
10. X.D. Wang et al., Integrated Nanogen-

JANUARYMARCH 2008

Zhong Lin Wang is a Regents Professor and College of Engineering Distinguished Professor at Georgia Institute of Technology. His research interests
include the science and application of nanoparticles, nanowires and nanobelts; functional oxide and smart materials for sensing and actuating; and
nanomaterials for biomedical applications and nanodevices. He received his
PhD in physics from Arizona State University. Hes a fellow of the American
Physical Society and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Contact him at the School of Materials Science and Eng., 771 Ferst Dr.
NW, Georgia Inst. of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0245; zhong.wang@mse.
gatech.edu; www.nanoscience.gatech.edu/zlwang.
Xudong Wang is a research scientist in the school of Materials Science
and Engineering at Georgia Institute of Technology. His research includes
designing, assembling, and testing piezoelectric-nanowire-based devices.
He received his PhD in materials science engineering from Georgia Institute
of Technology. Contact him at the School of Materials Science and Eng., 771
Ferst Dr. NW, Georgia Inst. of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332; xdwang@
gatech.edu; www.nanoscience.gatech.edu/zlwang/group/xw.htm.

Jinhui Song is a PhD candidate in the school of Material Science and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology. His research interests include synthesizing and characterizing large-scale 1D aligned nanowires, investigating
nanostructure properties using AFM, and fabricating nano devices based on
nanowires. He received his MS in physics from Georgia Institute of Technology.
Contact him at the School of Materials Science and Eng., 771 Ferst Dr. NW,
Georgia Inst. of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332; [email protected].

Jin Liu is a PhD candidate in the School of Electric and Computer Engineering
at Georgia Institute of Technology. His research mainly focuses on fabricating
piezoelectric nanowire-based devices and developing novel processes for the
integration of top-down and bottom-up approaches in nanoscale devices. He
received his MS in electric and computer engineering from Georgia Institute
of Technology. Contact him at the School of Materials Science and Eng., 771
Ferst Dr. NW, Georgia Inst. of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332; gt1687c@mail.
gatech.edu
Yifan Gao is a graduate research assistant at Georgia Institute of Technology.
His research interests include packaging of nanogenerators and theoretical
calculations of piezoelectric nanosystems. He received his BS in physics from
Peking University of China. Contact him at 771 Ferst Drive, J. Erskine Love
Bldg., Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245; [email protected].

erators in Biofluid, Nano Letters, vol. 7,

no. 8, 2007, pp. 24752479.
11. E.K. Reilly, E. Carleton, and P.K. Wright,
Thin Film Piezoelectric Energy Scavenging Systems for Long Term Medical Monitoring, Proc. Intl Workshop Wearable
and Implantable Body Sensor Networks,
IEEE CS Press, 2006, pp. 3841

14. X.D. Wang et al., Piezoelectric Field

Effect Transistor and Nanoforce Sensor Based on a Single ZnO Nanowire,
Nano Letters, vol. 6, no. 12, 2006, pp.
27682772.
15. J.H. He et al., Piezoelectric Gated Diode of
a Single ZnO Nanowire, Advanced Materials, vol. 19, no. 6, 2007, pp. 781784.

12. Z.L. Wang, The New Field of Nanopiezotronics, Materials Today, vol. 10, no. 5,
2007, pp. 2028.

16. C.S. Lao et al., Polymer Functionalized

Piezoelectric-FET as Humidity/Chemical
Nanosensors, Applied Physics Letters,
vol. 90, no. 26, 2007.

13. Z.L. Wang, Nanopiezotronics, Advanced

Materials, vol. 19, no. 6, 2007, pp. 889
992.

For more information on this or any other computing topic, please visit our Digital Library at
www.computer.org/csdl.

P ER VA SI V E computing

55