YW FLUOR PROCESS UTILITY MANUALS 1.0.0 1.1.0 1.2.0 ‘VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS DESIGN DISCUSSION 1.0 INTRODUCTION 2.0 INSTRUMENT AIR SYSTEM 2.1 GENERAL 2.2 CENTRAL VERSUS UNIT SYSTEMS 2.3 SYSTEM PRESSURE 2.4 AIR QUALITY 2.5 SYSTEM CAPACITY 3.0 PLANT AIR SYSTEM 3.1 GENERAL 3.2 CENTRAL VERSUS UNIT SYSTEMS 3.3 SYSTEM PRESSURE 3.4 AIR QUALITY 3.5 SYSTEM CAPACITY DESIGN PROCEDURES 1,0 COMPRESSORS INTRODUCTION PROCESS SPECIFICATION CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS, 2.0 COMPRESSOR CONTROLS 2.1 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS 2.2 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS 4.0 DRYERS 1 GENERAL 2 DRYER DESIGNS +3. DESTCCANTS 4 DESICCANT REGENERATION NUMBER PAGE DATE 1.0.0 1of2 12-79VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS FLUOR NUMBER PROCESS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE vont TABLE OF CONTENTS DATE MANUALS —e——v 1.0.0 2 12-79 1.2.0 DESIGN PROCEDURES (Continued) 5.0 ATR RECEIVERS 6.1 GENERAL 6.2 APPLICATIONS 6.3 OTL REMOVAL 1.3.0 TABLES, GRAPHS, AND FORMS 1.4.0 FLOW DIAGRAMSVOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS W FLUOR NUMBER 1.1.0 PROCESS. COMPRBESED ATE SISTERS PAGE lof S uriuity DESIGN DISCUSSION wanuats BESIGN DISCUSSION DATE = 12-79 2.0 INTRODUCTION 2.0 All chemical plants and refineries need a source of compressed air as motive power to operate instruments, controls and pneumatic tools. These needs are divided into the catagories of plant air and instrument air, each with its own special design requirements. This section of the manual gives guidelines for the design of plant air and instrument air systems. These guidelines represent Fluor practices and procedures which shall be used where no project specifications exist. However, early in a project the Process Utility Engineer should agree with the Client on a job philosophy and its application to the design of the air systems required. INSTRUMENT ATR SYSTEM 2.2 General Instrument air is used throughout process plants as a medium to transfer control signals and as a power source’ to move positioning control actuators. The typical instrument air system consists of one or more compressors, filters, dryer, receiver, and distribution piping. 2.2 Central Versus Unit Systems There are two methods of setting up instrument air systems within a plant. One is a centrally-located operating unit with distribution piping to supply air to all the users. The instrument air headers are sized by the Process Utility Engineer, and reviewed by the Control System Engineer, The design quantity and termination pressure is specified by the Control system Engineer. ‘The unit system consists of a small compressor and dryer for each process unit with an emergency make-up from the plant air system or other external source. This type of installation has higher installation expense and higher operating costs than a centralized system. The unit system can be appropriate in plants where processing units are later added to the original plant. 2.3 System Pressure If the air pressure level is not set by job or Client specifica~ tions, start with 110 psig at the compressor discharge. Then make sure that a minimum of 80 psig can be obtained, with reasonableFLUOR ‘VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS PROCESS NUMBER 1.1.0 COMPRESSED ATR SYSTEMS pace 2 ut ILITY DESIGN DISCUSSION pate 12-79 MANUALS 2.3 System Pressure (Continued) distribution piping sizes, in the most remote instrument circuit. Check all user pressure levels to determine whether the assumed pressure of 110 psig at the compressor discharge is high enough. For example, make certain that there are no process uses that may require even higher pressures. control cylinders are normally purchased to operate at a minimum pressure of 50-60 psig at the user. This minimum pressure Fequirement should be verified with the Control System Engineer. systems hydraulics should be periodically checked as the plot plan develops, to make sure that the assumed compressor discharge pressure and system line sizing are adequate. 2.4 Air Quality the moisture content of the instrument air is a function of the relative humidity of the ambient air and the discharge temperature and pressure of the compressed air. Engineering standard ST-1-4700 specifies that the dewpoint of the compressed air delivered to the istribution system shall be at least 5°F below the minimum ambient temperature. Dewpoint shall be determined at the dryer outlet pressure. Instrument air must also be free of corrosive and combustible gases, dirt and oil. 2.5 System Capacity the quantity of instrument air required is determined by referring ‘to the methods of ST-1-4700 in Control Systems Manual Vol. I. The computation of instrument air consumption is the responsibility of the Control System Engineer. The F y Bngineer may, on Seeasion, be required to estimate the instrument air requirements Gn order to expedite preparation of equipment specifications. PLANT ATR SYSTEM 3.1 General Plant air is normally used during maintenance operations in pneumatic tools, hoists, spray guns, etc., and sometimes for process applications. plant aix systems generally consist of compressor (s), receiver and distribution piping.yf FLUOR: PROCESS UTILITY MANUALS VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS NUMBER 1.1.0 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE 3 DESIGN DISCUSSION DATE 12-79 3.0 PLANT AIR SYSTEM (Continued) 3.2 Central Versus Unit systems There are two general types of plant air systens. ‘The central system has one or more large compressors located near the center of a plant. Air is distributed to the various users from this central location. Unit systems will have small compressors located at points where air is needed in individual process units. These unit systems normally operate independent of each other. Economics generally favor the central system, so the unit system is seldom used. Fluor's usual procedure in refineries and chemical plants is to use the plant air system as an emergency source of supply for the instrument air system. The emergency connection must be made ahead of the instrument air dryer as the plant air is usually not dried except when required because of freezing weather or Client standards. When the plant air compressor is of the lubricated type, it is very important that an oil trap furnished by the éryer vendor be installed in the emergency line to the instrument air system. ‘The plant air system often has a valved connection located so that a portable air compressor(s) can be used to provide additional air during maintenance shutdowns and turnarounds. When instrument air is taken from the plant air system, provisions should be made to limit the amount of plant air consumption in order to prevent the instrument air pressure dropping below that systen's minimum required level. System Pressure The recoumended pressure level for the plant air system is a minimum of 100 psig at the air receiver. When the pressure drop through the aftercooler and piping is considered, the compressor ischarge should be approximately 110 psig. The plant air distribution system must be sized to provide 85-90 psig air at the user most remote from the air receiver. A good rule of thumb is to allow no more than 108 of the receiver pressure for Line loss from receiver to point of use.W FLUOR PROCESS uTiLiTy MANUALS 3.4 VOLUME 41 ~ AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS es “ 7 st NUMBER PAGE 4 DATE 12-79 1.1.0 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS DESIGN DISCUSSION system Pressure (Continued) Process uses and operating devices often require a higher air pressure than 100 psig. The Process Utility Engineer must check the process and operating requirements to assure himself that he has sufficient air pressure to satisfy these conditions. Air Quality ven when no particular dewpoint is specified for the plant air, it is best to supply it as moisture-free as possible. This minimizes Corrosion and the danger of freezing of tools and other users. The plant air system should also be free of combustible and corrosive gases, dirt and excessive oil. system Capacity, plant air demands are very difficult to estimate for most refineries and chemical plants. When no specific information is available on plant air requirements, a general rule is that plant air capacity Enould be at least equal to the instrument air requirements. Tt is conceivable that some plants could require a high amount of plant Gir and very little instrument air, This is especially true in plants where regeneration air is a requirement. the amount of air consumed by various tools is shown in Table T, in Section 1.3.0 of this Manual. We must provide sufficient capacity to handle present needs, with some additional capacity for the future. If plant expansion is expected, allowance must be made in ‘he distribution system and plot space allocated for future installation of compressors and associated equipment. increased demand is taken care of by assuming a load rise factor and spoiving this to the calculated air requirements. This excess capacity factor may vary from 5 - 50%. To determine a reasonable factor, the utility engineer should check operating experiences from similar installations, review future production plans and schedules, and investigate any other sources of available information. . neaks in the air system and tool connections are often assumed by @plane designers. ‘Tere is no justification for increasing, the a aeerescor capacity by more than 10% to compensate for leaks- eeereer piping will hold air just as tightly as any other piping ioe ies fluid. ‘The excess capacity factor is determined byFLUOR PROCESS uriuity MANUALS VOLUME 41 ~ AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS. MUNBER 1.1.0 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE = 5 DESIGN DISCUSSION DATE 12-79 System Capacity (Continued) comparing CFM for continuous operation to CEM determined by load factor. ‘This is added to the calculated figure to determine the total system load. Table II serves as a record for the design of the air system, and is used as follows: ke Set up tabulation as shown on Table IZ. List names of tools and devices to be operated by compressed air. Enter tool location in correct column. List number of tools of each type. Enter each tool requirement in CFM, for continuous operation (see Table I). Calculate air requirement if tools are running continuously. Using load factor adjustment from Table IIT, calculate actual continuous load requirement. Add this requirement to the continuous load required by process or other continuous operating requirements. ‘This total gives the design load for the plant. Calculate allowance for leads, etc. Add this to design load to obtain air compressor capacity. Plant air systems less than 200 SCFM are uncommon, and if a design less than 200 SCFM is contemplated, this should be reviewed with the customer.FLUOR PROCESS UTILITY MANUALS ‘VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS NUMBER 2.2.0 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE 1 of 38 DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE 12-79 1.0 COMPRESSORS La Introduction Instrument and plant air compressors are generally of the reciprocating or centrifugal types, although rotary screw compressors have been used in these applications. The latter machines tend to be very noisy and require extensive acoustical treatment. For capacities in the range of 200-2000 SCFM, reciprocating compressors are suitable. Centrifugal compressors can be considered when system requirements range upwards of 1000 SCFM. ‘The capacity breakpoint for selection of one type of machine over the other is probably in the range of 1000-1500 CFM. For installations having combined plants and instrument air requirements in this range, centrifugal compressors should be considered. the requirements for compressed air in most plants can be satisfactorily met by a packaged compressor unit, complete with all accessories. On occasion, because of special circumstances, Fluor may develop design criteria and specifications for the compressors and related equipment separately. This is sometimes done to meet Project or Client requirements which require conformance to API, ASTM or other standards of construction which may be difficult to obtain in off-the-shelf packaged units. Process Specification ‘The Process Utility Engineer is responsible for initiating the air through the use of compressor specification. This is acct Form E-537, Compressor Requirements (Section 1.3.0). The Process Utility Engineer provides data for all itcms which sre marked with an X. In addition, the following information should be provided Guring the review of this specification with the responsible Mechanical Engineer. a. Suction pressure. whether this includes allowance for intake filter, valve piping, etc. b. Discharge pressure. Whether this refers to compressor discharge flange, aftercooler outlet, or other.VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS, W FLUOR NUMBER 1.2.0 PROCESS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PGE 2 UTILITY DATE 12-79 MANUALS DESIGN PROCEDURES 1.2 Process Specification (Continued) ©. Summer ambient conditions. Typically, summer maximum temperatures and coincident relative humidity set the compressor design head requirement. 4, Winter ambient conditions. ‘Typically, winter minimum temperatures and coincident relative humidity set driver horsepower requirements. e. Method of compressor control required. A Utility system Flow Diagram (if available) showing the air system is very useful in defining its functions and determining the appropriate control method. See Compressor Controls section of this Manual. ———— Mode of operation of any standby machines, especially when automatic startup is required. This may involve control of a complicated, sequential series of events, especially in the case of a steam turbine-driven standby compressor. g. Whether the compressor should be lubed or non-lubed. hh. Whether intercoolers should be machine-mounted (Flucr usually prefers this). i. Location. Indoors or outdoors. Besides electric motor and steam-turbine drivers, air compressors can also be supplied with natural gas, gasoline, and diesel engine drivers. The difficulty with the latter drivers is the automatic start feature required in standby service. These drivers tend to be used in applications where manual starting is satisfactory. When the driver is to be a steam turbine, it is the responsibility of the Process Utility Engineer to provide certain information to the responsible Mechanical Engineer. Form E-566, General Purpose Steam Turbine, (Section 1.3.0), is used for this purpose. The Following guidelines apply to the use of Form E-566. Steam Conditions a, Maximum inlet pressure psig should be specified at relief valve setting on inlet header, usually as set at the boiler plant.W FLUOR PROCESS uTILiTy MANUALS 1.3 TOE #1 AT, FUEL AND WATER SYSTENS oun sre NUMBER 1.2.0 cononssap Arn svsneNs mace DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE = 12-79 Steam Conditions (Continued) b. Maximum inlet temperature °F. Set same as inlet steam header. c. Maximum exhaust pressure set at maximum pressure of steam header. a. Normal pressure at inlet flange should be specified at least 15 psi less than supply header pressure. e. Normal temperature at inlet flange should be the least superheat temperature. £. Normal pressure at exhaust flange for non-condensing service should be 5 psi above exhaust header pressure. g- Normal pressure at exhaust flange for condensing service usually 2" Hg above the saturation pressure of the condensate. Note: I£ the air compressor is the reciprocating type, Fluor prefers not to use steam turbine drivers because of Compressor train torsional and gear reducer design problems. Centrifugal Compressors a. Equipment Selection In present-day design of plant and instrument air systems, the trend is towards providing package-type installations, consisting of a base plate-mounted, multi-stage, oil-free centrifugal compressor provided with intercoolers and built-in automatic control. A pre-piped integral lube system is also included. {ntake air filters are always required and these are normally furnished with the compressor. ‘This type of unit is available with motor or steam turbine driver, mounted on the same base plate. the centrifugal compressor-based package unit offers some attractive advantages over systems using reciprocating compressors: @ Delivers oil-free air. © ‘ower maintenance costs. ¢ Easier and less expensive installation. @ Requires a small floor space.¥ FLUOR PROCESS UTILITY MANUALS LUME 47 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEM vo AIR, FUEL s NUMBER = 1.2.0 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE 4g DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE 12-79 Equipment Selection (Continued) Most of the smaller units in the 1000 to 2100 CFM range are capable of design pressures between 95 to 125 psig, which makes them specially suited for plant and instrument air applications. Units in this capacity range are usually three-stage machines. Computations In the early stages of a job, before vendor information is available, the Process Utility Engineer may have to calculate preliminary values for driver horsepower and cooling water requirements. These can be determined in the following manner. Cooling Water Requirements The cooling water rates for intercoolers and aftercoolers can be estimated, based on a calculated temperature rise through each compression stage. A procedure for calculating the discharge temperature for centrifugal compressors is outlined in the Compressors section of Process Volume IT. In addition, the requirements of the lube oi} cooler have to be considered. As a general rule, 15% of the intercooler and aftercooler cooling water rates should be added in order to obtain a preliminary estimate. Driver Horsepower Approximate values for driver horsepower versus centrifugal compressor capacity are shown in Graph I. This plot reflects data for package units offered by: several vendors. Additional methods for estimating these and other compressor characteristics include those described in: © Compressor Performance Calculations and Selection, Elliott Co. Compressor Performance Calculations and Selection, Bulletin P-11A. © Quick Method for Centrifugal Compressor Estimates. Hydrocarbon Processing, October 1965, Vol. 44, N. 10.C) YW FLUOR PROCESS uTiLiTy MANUALS: VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS NUMBER 1.2.0 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM PAGE = 5 12-79 DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE 1.4 Reciprocating Compressors Equipment Selection gnall system capacities (less than 1000 Scr) or other project design criteria may dictate the use of a reciprocating compressor. In this case, a decision must be made between lubricated and non-lubricated designs. instrument air must be dry and oil-free. Desiccant dryers are normally used for drying the air. Oil-free air is almost {npossible to obtain from a lubricated reciprocating compressor - There are various patented oil removal devices, but these never ‘seem to do the complete job over a long period of operation. When these separators are new and maintained correctly, they will remove most of the oil, but after a few years of operation, oil tends to build up in the instrument air distribution system. the presence of oil in compressed air can also be hazardous. API Standard 618, Reciprocating Compressors for General Refinery Services, recommends a high discharge temperature Giarm or shutdown for air compressors which are lubricated by hydrocarbons. This is intended to prevent fire and possible explosion resulting from combustion of the lubricant. ‘he non-Lubricated reciprocating compressor is designed to provide oil-free air. This compressor is constructed so thas ee oil is present in the cylinder where the air is compressed. The distance piece between the compressor cylinder and the crankcase is made into two compartments. This prevents oil from the crankcase leaking along the piston rod into the compression cylinder. Many manufacturers use carbon piston rings with cast iron cylinders and some use teflon rings with stainless steel Gylinder liners. the big problen with carbon rings and cast {ron cylinders is that the piston must be moving continuously go that no rust can form in the cylinder. Even after a short Shutdown period, rust can be a problem. This means that the spare compressor can't vse carbon rings and cast iron cylinders. Fluor's experience shows that the economic advantage of using lubricated compressors is usually outweighed by the problems with the compressors and downstream equipment.VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS Virilor NUMER 1.2.0 Process COMPRESSED AIK s¥STEus PACE 6 uriuity SOWPRESSED AIR SYSTENS wana DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE aze79 1.4 Reciprocating Compressors (Continued) Computations Preliminary values for driver horsepower and cooling water requirements are frequently required before vendor data are available. ‘These can be determined in the following manner. Gooling Water Requirements Reciprocating air compressors in the smaller sizes, to about 100 Horsepower, can be air-cooled. However, most plants usually have compressors large enough to require cooling water. This is water from the plant cooling water circulation system. Cooling water to compressor jackets removes 15-40% of the total heat of compression depending upon cylinder size, rpm, compression ratio and other factors, Intercoolers on two-stage units will remove 30-35% of the total heat of compression plus the latent heat from moisture condensation. It is desirable that the water enter the cylinder jackets at a temperature at least 10° to 1S°F higher than the air intake temperature. This prevents initial condensation of moisture from the air on the heads and walls of the compressor cylinders. For single-stage units, the cooling water can pass first through the oil. cooler and then into the cylinder jackets. On two-stage units, the problem is solved by passing the cold water through the intercooler first then through the cylinder jackets. The water temperature rise across the compressor cylinder jacket should be a maximum of 15°r, The cooling water rates given in Table IV can be used for preparing the first draft of the utility system flow diagram and the initial plant cooling water balance. Cylinder jacket cooling water requirements can also be estimated by means of heat rejection calculations (See Graph II, Section 1.3.0). The design pressure for the cooling water system usually depends on the shut-off pressure of the cooling water pump. This is usually 100 to 115 psig. The water jackets of the compressor cylinders are frequently designed for 60-75 psig. The Process Utility Engineer must provide a relief valve on the outlet piping if the water returns to a closed system. The relief valve can be omitted if the water from the cylinderW FLUOR PROCESS UTILITY MANUALS: VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS NUMBER 1.2.0 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE = 7 DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE 12-79 Cooling Water Requirements (Continued) jacket goes to the sewer. The amount (and destination) of Zooling tower blowdown required will usually decide where the return line should go. Driver Horsepower Approximate brake horsepower requirenents can be obtained by reference to Table VI. Driver horsepower can also be ictimatea by use of charts found in the Compressors section of Process Manual Vol. II.FLUOR PROCESS uTiLity MANUALS VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS NUMBER 1.2.0 COMPRESSED ATR SYSTEMS PAGE 8 DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE = 12-79 2.0 COMPRESSOR CONTROLS 2a Centrifugal Compressors Most compressed air systems-that the Process Utility Engineer will encounter involve the use of package units, which are supplied complete with all the necessary controls. However, the Engineer should have an understanding of the principles involved so that he and the responsible Control System and Mechanical Engineers can work together to assure that the compressor vendor provides the proper controls for each particular application. A basic requirement of instrument and plant air systems is that they be able to continuously supply air at constant pressures, or over reasonably small pressure ranges, despite variations in demand. The compressor control system must be designed to meet these requirements, while at the same time protecting the compressor and its accessories from maloperation and damage. ‘Two typical control methods are illustrated in Figures 2.1.1 and 2.1.2. Each scheme has its place, depending upon the magnitude of fluctuations in the plant demand for compressed air. Both are based on the use of a constant speed driver, such as an electric motor. The following paragraphs describe the essential features of these two schemes. a. Constant Pressure Control (Pigure 2.1.1) General The compressor is supplied with a pneumatically-activated constant pressure and surge control system. The purpose of the control is to provide a constant discharge pressure and also provide automatic surge control to protect the equipment during periods of low demand. Constant Pressure Control The pressure control system is of the constant speed inlet throttle valve type. As the system demand falls off, the compressor will tend to establish a new operating point at the reduced flow but at a higher pressure on its constant speed characteristic curve. A remotely-located pressure transmitter will sense the increase in pressure and send a 3 to 15 psig signal to a panel mounted pressure controller. This controller will in turn transmit a signal to close the butterfly valve located in the compressor suction line. ‘TheVOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS FLUOR NUMBER 2.2.0 PROCESS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE 9 , OTILITy DESIGN PROCEDURE: MANUALS. DESIGN PROCEDURES. DATE 12-79 FIGURE 2.1.1 CONSTANT PRESSURE CONTROL SCHEMATIC ORIFICE DISCHARGE an TO PROCESS r ary 1 \ \ 1 i \ oO INDICATING DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE PRESSURE DRIVER TRANSMITTER | [TRANSMITTER 7 T \ SUCTION | 1 1 1 \ ' 1 1 1 FLOW ) ' CONTROLLER \ \ ——— \ ' 1 1 1 \ 1 \ \ 1 1 ' 1 ' FILTERED pypAss i suppiy VALVE ' 20 PSIG 1 1 ' TO ATMOSPHERE PRESSURE CONTROLLER F 1 ' BUTTERFLY \ MANUAL CONTROL 77] OVERRIDE VALVE 1 1 FILTERED ) AIR SUPPLY 20 PSIGVOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS FLUOR NUMBER 1.2.0 PROCESS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE 20 uTiuiry DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE 12-79 MANUALS Constant Pressure Control (Continued) valve will close to a position where the compressor flow has decreased to a point that satisfies the system demand and equilibrium is again established. Surge Control ‘The compressor surge control is the blow-off type with the controls arranged in a closed loop. The actual compressor flow is measured by an orifice plate in the compressor discharge and compared with a minimum stable flow in the flow controller. A differential pressure transmitter takes the orifice differential reading and transmits a 3 to 15 psig signal to the flow controller. This controller in turn transmits a signal to a blow-off valve to maintain the flow of the compressor above the surge limit. As long as the system requirement is above the surge limit, the blow-off valve is closed. The sum of the flow to process and the flow through the blow-off valve will always be equal to or greater than the minimum stable compressor flow. The differential pressure transmitter is located at the orifice while the flow receiver controller is panel mounted. Since the discharge temperature will. experience minor variations, no expensive density compensation equipment is required. Start-up A manual over-ride is included on the system for start-up operation. In order to relieve the duty of the motor during the starting period, it is desirable to have the butterfly valve closed. The loss of instrument air will cause the butterfly valve on the compressor suction to close and the bypass valve to open. This is the desired position of the valve for unloading the motor during start-up. After start-up, instrument air is required to open the inlet butterfly valve and close the blow-off valve in order to load the compressor. Total Closure Control (Figure 2.1.2) General ‘The Total Closure Control System allows efficient operation of the compressor for applications where the air demand is a normal base load but does have intermittent fluctuations much below the base load.(UME a1 ~ AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS ~~ ‘ TER NUMBER =1.2.0 PAGE aL DATE 12-79 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS DESIGN PROCEDURES Base Load with air demand between 75¢ capacity and 100% capacity, the compressor operates on its normal performance curve delivering air continuously at the required rate and at the system pressure. The compressor suction throttle valve is open and the bypass valve is closed during this operation. During operation at air inlet ‘temperatures less than the rated air temperature, the compressor operating as base load can deliver over 100% capacity. This adds capability to the total air system and can be a major advantage. Motor overloading is prevented during this excess capacity operation by the motor overload control. This control senses the motor amperes and translates the amperes to a pneumatic signal. ‘his signal in turn regulates the position of the suction throttle valve limiting the compressor capacity to a desired motor load. Load Fluctuations ‘The compressor is allowed to operate between two pre-determined pressures on its operating curve. The compressor air system and/or the receiver provide the storage capacity for the compressed air. ‘The system is pumped up to a pre-set maximum pressure. This unloading pressure is so determined that it will fall just inside the stable operating range of the compressor. when the system reaches this pressure, the air to the compressor is shut off by closing the inlet or total closure valve. At the same time, the discharge side of the compressor, before the check valve, is completely unloaded to atmosphere by a bypass valve. The compressed air system then supplies the air to fulfill the system demands until ‘the pre-set minimum pressure on the compressor operating curve is reached. When the system falls to this pressure, the inlet butterfly valve is opened and the bypass valve is closed, automatically loading the compressor. Start: A manval override is included in the above system for start-up operation. In order to relieve the duty of the motor during the starting period, it is desirable to have the butterfly valve closed. Th loss of instrument air will cause the butterfly valve fon the compcessor suction to close and the bypass valve to open. ‘ais is the desired position of the valve for unloading the motor during start-up. After start-up, instrument air is required to open the inlet butterfly valve and close the blow-off vaive in order to load the compressor.VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS W FLUOR NUMBER 1.2.0 PROCESS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE 12 utiuity yesrGN PROCEDURES TE Nas DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE 12-79 PIGURE 2.1.2 TOTAL CLOSURE CONTROL SCHEMATIC DISCHARGE, \} *_TREceiver! —_ | AND/OR CHECK | PIPING VALVE |system |__> TO O = T—~ DEMAND DRIVER 5) 1 1 SUCTION | BUTTERFLY TYPE THROTTLE VALVE TO ATMOSPHERE VA a ISWITCHES 1 1 H 1 1 ' BYPASS ' ' 1 ' 1 1 .LVE. 1 FLOW ICONTROL VALVE MANUAL OVERRIDE --TL- Il FILTERED AIR SUPPLY 20 PSIGWV FLUOR PROCESS UTILITY MANUALS VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS NUMBER 1.2.0 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE = 13, DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE 12-79 2.0 COMPRESSOR CONTROLS (Continued) 2.2 Reciprocating Compressors In reciprocating machines, air flow and pressure may be controlled in four ways: a. Manually b. Automatic start-stop ¢. Constant running control (unloaders), or @. Automatic stert-stop with constant running control Manual control is seldom used in refineries or chemical plants. Automatic start-stop control is used when the demand for air is infrequent. When using start-stop control, the compressor should be designed to operate less than 50 percent of the time. This control works best with an electric motor driven compressor because of the ease with which the machine can be started and stopped. The control signal normally comes from a pressure switch located on the / air receiver. For a 100 psig air, system, the pressure switch should / be set to start the compressor at™{10 psig and stop it at 125 psig depending upon the upper range of the compressor discharge. One should never design a start-stop control system in which the motor cycles more than 4 times per hour. In these instances, the receiver size should be increased or a different method of control installed. ‘The constant running control is recommended where compressed air requirements are steady or where the receiver is so small that the ‘compressor has to operate more than SO percent of the time. The motor driver runs continuously, but the compressor actually compresses air only between pre-determined limits. Some type of pilot unloader is used and upper and lower limits of pressure are set at a 10 to 15 pei differential. This pilot type unloader will operate in one of three ways, ie., (1) by throttling the compressor intake line, (2) by Lifting the suction valves, or (3) by opening clearance pockets in the cylinders. Inlet valve unloading is the preferred method on the smaller and medium sized units. This type of control is used for most plant and instrument air systems. yor larger units, clearance control and a combination of inlet valve unloading and clearance is used. Inlet valve unloading involves holding the inlet valve plate or plates off their seats, preventing the compression of air in the unloaded cylinder. Clearance control involves the opening of volume chambers into the cylinder in a preset order. The air is compressed into the chamber or chanbersVOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS W FLUOR NUMBER 1.2.0 PROCESS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE 14 uritity 32-7 waNUALS DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE 9 2.2 Reciprocating Compressors (Continued) y. \ instead of being discharged. On the suction stroke, the air in the chamber expands behind the piston, returning the power previously required for compression. ‘A dual control system is used when the spare compressor for the instrument air system is the plant air compressor. For the instrument air system, this spare would be on constant running control, but when operating only as a plant air compressor it would be on start-stop control. Various steps of capacity output may be obtained with these controls. The usual type is the three-step control. This means the compressor has a capacity of 0, 50, or 100 percent. When the compressors are quite large, say over 500 SCFM, the five-step control may be more favorable. This gives capacities of 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 percent. Regulator and control operating air should be taken directly from a point near the top of the receiver. This is done in order to obtain clean, dry air at a more constant pressure. For initial start-up, the Process Utility Engineer has to make sure the unloading controls can be by-passed for start-up without requiring instrument air. Compressors bought for 110 psig discharge usually have the relief valve set at 125 psig to give adequate range for unloading control. The Process Utility Engineer should always check the Successful vendor's quotation to make sure that there is indeed adequate range for control.FLUOR PROCESS UTILITY MANUALS: ‘VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS HUMBER 1.2.0 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE 15, DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE = 12-79 3.0 EXCHANGERS 3. Intercoolers a. General ‘he exchanger between stages of a compressor is called an intercooler. Intercoolers are normally furnished with the compressor and are an integral part of the compressor assembly. Special circumstances may require that Fluor obtain the intercoolers from another source. In this case, the Process Utility Engineer must prepare Exchanger Specification Sheets, Form E-S63A/B (Section 1.3.0) to define the intercooler duties; design temperatures and pressures must be obtained from the compressor vendor for each such service. b. Design Cooling Water Requirements. Table IV can be used to estimate Zooling water requirements for reciprocating aiz compressors, for use in plant water balances prior to the time that vendor information is available. Water requirements may also be determined by the use of Graph III, which gives air discharge temperatures for each stage of compression as a function of that stage's compression ratio. The compression ratio may be calculated from the following formula: n= Number of stages Compressor Discharge Pressure (psia) = Compressor Suction Pressure (psia) Discharge Pressure of the first stage R = Compression Ratio (assume equal for all stages)VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS FLUOR NUMBER 1.2.0 PROCESS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE 1s UTILITY NANUALS DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE 12-79 Cooling Water Requirements. (Continued) Assuming a 15 to 20 approach between the cooled air and the inlet water, and using the allowable cooling water temperature rise specified for each particular project, the duty and cooling water requirements for the intercooler can be calculated. Other Criteria. The following criteria should generally apply to the design of these exchangers, whether supplied by the compressor vendor or others. © Intercoolers are usually designed with air flow in the shell side and cooling water in the tubes. © Water condensed in the intercooler is trapped and drained from the exchanger to prevent damage to the following cylinder or stage. © Water velocity through the intercooler generally ranges from 5 to 10 feet per second. © Airside pressure drop usually runs 3 to 5 psi. © Waterside pressure drop usually runs 5 to 15 psi. © Each 10°F reduction in air temperature between stages reduces power input by approximately 1%. * When the vendor supplies the intercooler, he usually furnishes the required instrumentation, including temperature and pressure indicators, pressure safety valves, traps, and high water level alarms. when the exchanger’ is supplied from another source, the Process Utility Engineer must make certain that adequate instrumentation is provided to protect the equipment and measure its performance. © Even when the compressor vendor supplies the intercoolers, the Process Utility Engineer is responsible for specifying any special conditions that apply to the intercooler design. For example, vendors cormonly use Admiralty tubes. Because of water quality or other reasons, project standards sometimes call for use of steel tubes. This requirement must be made known to the responsible Mechanical Engineer, along with any other factors that will influence the exchanger design. Cooling water fouling factor is a good example of the latter‘VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS FLUOR NUMBER 1.2.0 PROCESS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE = 17 UTILITY gn EES TE - aANUALS DESIGN PROCEDURES Da 12-79 3.2. Aftercoolers General, ‘an aftercooler is an exchanger installed on the discharge of an air Conpressor to reduce the air temperature prior to drying or other use of this stream. the aftercooler may be furnished by the compressor vendor or others. Fluor's usual practice is to have the compressor vendor quote the aftercooler ag a separate item. This should be noted in the senarke column of the Compressor Requirements Specification Sheet, Form E-537. ime Process Utility Engineer should also prepare @ separate exchanger specification sheet which can be submitted to exchanger vendors for quotation. b>. Design cooling Water Requirements. For use in preliminary plant EStances, cooling water requirements can be estimated by the methods described in Paragraph 3.1. Piping. Typical piping arrangements are shown on the flow Zingrans presented in the back of this Manual. It is preferable to have an aftercooler on each compressor, with 2 Block valve placed downstream of the aftercooler so that it fan be inspected each time the compressor is down for repairs. This is especially true in the case of aftercoolers operating {n the discharge of reciprocating compressors, which have & history of leakage due to loosening of the tubes from the pulsating flow. Other Criteria. e the air leaving the aftercooler should be approximately 10°F. e water velocity through the aftercooler should range from 5 to 10 feet per second. @ Airside pressure Grop usually runs 2 to 3 psi. Waterside pressure dzop usually runs 5 to 10 psi-‘VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS NUMBER 1.2.0 PAGE = ag COMPRESSED ATR SYSTEMS DATE = 12-79 DESIGN PROCEDURES Other Criteria, (Continued) © The design pressure and temperature for the shell side of the aftercooler are the same as for the compressor. For example, for a two-stage, reciprocating compressor discharging at a maximum of 125 psig, the design pressure is usually set at 150 psig while the design temperature is 350°F. Check with the compressor vendor to obtain the design figures for his particular machine. © If the aftercooler is to operate on the discharge of a reciprocating compressor, and it is supplied by other than the compressor vendor, the Process Utility Engineer should point out in the remarks section of the exchanger specification sheet that it will be subjected to pulsating flows and pressures. © The aftercooler is usually furnished with a boot and trap if it is supplied by the compressor vendor. If the aftercooler is purchased from the exchanger vendor, it is usually without the added expense of the boot and trap. The aftercooler should be elevated above the air receiver inlet when not provided with a boot and trap. The air receiver serves as a boot in this instance. © The aftercooler should be located inside a building whenever the plant location has a design ambient temperature below 32°F. In the event that it becomes necessary to locate the air system outside in a freezing climate, steam tracing with insulation should be provided on the outlet piping, boot and lower portion of the air receiver.“VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS WFLUOR MuMBeR 1.2.0 PROCESS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE 1s. UTILITY DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE 12-79 MANUALS: za—— 4.0 DRYERS 4.1 General compressed air used in instrumentation, for automatic controls, and in many process applications must be free of excess moisture. A variety of air drying systems are available, ranging from simple Yn-line, desiccant-£illed cartridges to elaborate, automatically- controlled package units. ithe selection of appropriate drying equipment for a given application should be based upon the dewpoint required, the quantity of air to be dried, and the temperature and pressure at Ghich the air is available to the dryer from the compressor unit. ‘To compare the relative economics of alternative systens, the costs of electricity, steam, and water must also be known. he Process Utility Engineer is responsible for issuing the dryer process requirements to the responsible Mechanical Engineex, This is accomplished by means of the Dryers Specification Sheet, Form E-550 (Section 1.3.0). While the Mechanical Engineer is responsible for completing mechanical details of the specification and securing quotations for appropriate equipment, the Utility Process Engineer should have an understanding of what systems are available, how they work, and how they should be applied. 4.2 Dryer Design Figure 4.1.1 presents a comparison of the major characteristics of Several different drying systems. In addition, there is the ical or absorbent system which is based on the use of @ Geliquescent desiccant. The following paragraphs describe these systems in more detail. . Deliguescent_ Dryer this type of dryer is filled with absorbents composed of chemical gaits which have an affinity for moisture. The absorbent (deliquescent) desiccant is slowly dissolved by the moisture it removes and is periodically drained away. Tne required desiccant jevel is maintained by manual additions of fresh, solid deliquescent.\ FLUOR PROCESS UTILITY MANUALS VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS NUMBER 1.2.0 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE — 20 DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE 12-79 FIGURE 4.1.1 Drying Systens PRESSURE SWE ON WOT REGEN WaT ACGENERATED TPE coo me TPE PL TRA nae TA | nce | ay Slate | micunessune | cow racssune | PER amtaShathe | rolwcuum | YOatwosevene | "Kin'funee’ | wethie posce | Werk Nee DRYING SYSTEM » CONDITIONS ne r Te | Oly Usk fi {ay inagy rlow mance) | _soru (00*F'@ Too PSIG (0=5.000 | 200-20,000 | 0-1,000 | 300-5,000 | 300—30,000 | 100—10.000 | 01.000 ily EFTEIP] —go—ia9 | eomi20 | eo-is0 | 60-130 | eomig0 | eoniso | somis0 | | TRREPBSURE|“eos,000 | 60-8000 | so-s.o00 | 20-soo0 | so-i,coo | sso | 50-300 | DUTT ee POTN S 5 = = . LP SRE | <0 oetov|—sonsetow| “cou vr | ~eoa ur | coeur | ~eoaur | saseur wuectaic| “Rate at"| “Ructirawe’ | YES YES Yes ves ORE ee ott, | Pongo utd cream] none | oma’ | ves | ves | ves | ves [none FREES AR OF S| YES YES Yes oo ves ves TONE [EXTERNAL AIR OR GAS] __NO NO NO YES, NO NO. aa RECATTVECOHTRRISON Low Low MEDIUM MEDIUM ‘MEDIUM MEDIUM Low (OF MAINTENANCE | uses ee é a | Sie ae a oe | / Ges £7 # a. Deliguescent Dryer (Continued) 1B deliquescent dryer has only one tower and does not require regeneration or power. Tt has no moving parts. This simplicity makes it far less costly than either the regenerative or refrigerant dryer. Its operating cost is also much less, in some cases one-half to one-third the operating cost of the other types. A deliquescent dryer also benefits from a prefilter to remove the dirt and oil. This provision keeps the entire desiccant bed clean and permits it to effectively remove moisture. An afterfilter prevents desiccant carryover.‘VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS v NUMBER 1.2.0 PROCESS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS pace | 2 uTiuity : NANUALS DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE 12-79 a. Deliquescent Dryer (Continued) Hygroscopic ingredients are usually blended with other ingredients to control the pH of the effluent; other material additions prevent corrosion, caking and channeling. Desiccants may be formed into tablets at high pressure. ‘This type of dryer can be applied to compressed air systems with flows ranging from 0-5000 acfm (100°F and 100 psig), temperatures from 50 - 100°F, and pressures from 0 - 150 psig. These dryers fare useful when product air dewpoints of 30°F or more are satisfactory. It is the least expensive of the dryer types discussed here. Fluor has used deliquescent dryers to achieve 15 - 20°F freeze point depressions in plant air systems. b. Regenerative Dryer ‘This type of dryer is filled with regenerative desiccant which absorbs water vapor from the air. Adsorption involves a physical adhesion between the surface of the desiccant and the water vapor which condenses as a very thin film on the desiccant's surface; there are no chemical interactions. Adsorption is a reversible and selective phenomenon. As long as contact between the adsorbent and the water vapor is maintained, adsorption proceeds until the water vapor pressure on the desiccants is equal to the vapor pressure of the water vapor in the air being éried. Then, equilibrium has been reached. Nearly ail régenerative dryers consist of two or more adsorbent chambers. One chamber is on operation while the other is being regenerated. tn some designs, the wet influent air flows in the upwazd direction, in others, downwardly. When the upward direction is chosen, care must be taken to prevent the force exerted by the fluid from moving or fluidizing the desiccant because this material is hard ana abrasive. If agitated, the beads, granules or pellets break, creating smaller particles that cause further attrition. Since these fines pass through bed supports and exit screens, loss of capacity occurs. ‘the dryer is normally preceded by a prefilter if the compressor is of the lubricated type. Even if the air compressor is of the non-lubricated type, prefilter/separators should be provided to Tenove any liguid water present in the feed air stream.WV FLUOR PROCESS UTILITY MANUALS VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS NUMBER 1.2.0 PAGE = 22 DATE 12-79 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS DESIGN PROCEDURES c. Refrigerated Dryer This type of dryer removes moisture by chilling the compressed air below its dewpoint, causing water to condense out. Chiller air outlet temperatures commonly range between 35 and 50°F, depending on the needs of the user system. The cooled air is frequently reheated in exchange with the incoming air, to reduce its relative humidity and eliminate sweating of downstream air piping. The refrigerated dryer has the following advantages, when compared to other drying systems: No consumable chemicals required. Less piping than the regenerative types. No heat input required. Moisture removal is continuous, by means of automatic @rainer on condensate separator. Disadvantages include: © ‘The dewpoint, at pressure, cannot be reduced below the freezing point of water. © ‘Tis system has more moving parts than the others, i-e., in the refrigeration unit. There are two basic designs for refrigerated drying systems. Pigures 4.1.2 and 4.1.3 show their general flowschemes. The principle difference between them is the cooling medium used to chill the air. In one case (Figure 4.1.2), the refrigerant is circulated through the air chiller, producing air with dewpoints as low as 35°F, at pressure. “his is equivalent to an atmospheric -dewpoint of -12°F. ‘The other design (Figure 4.1.3) uses the refrigerant to chill water which is then circulated through the air chiller. The later system is normally used to produce air with dewpoints of 50°F and up, at pressure, corresponding to atmospheric dewpoints of 4°F and up. Control Mode In the past, Fluor has recommended installation of semi-automatic units, feeling that this would force plant operators to visit the @ryer at least once a shift and cause them to be aware of any system maloperation. However, the modern trend is towards package dryer units supplied with automatic controls. Properly designed, these dryers are quite reliable and capable of unattended operation.OO PIGURE 4.1.3 Refrigerated/Chiller Dryer W FLUOR PROCESS UTILITY MANUALS: ‘VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS MUNBER 2.2.0 PAGE = 23 DATE = 12-79 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS DESIGN PROCEDURES emotuant CONDDEEYW FLUOR PROCESS UTILITY MANUALS ‘VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS NUMBER 1.2.0 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE 24 DESIGN PROCEDURES, DATE 12-79 e. Design Conditions The dryer design pressure is set by the air receiver design pressure. The design temperature is established by the dryer vendor and is based on temperature limitations for his particular desiccant. Desiccants A nunber of types of regenerative desiccants are commercially available, with special grades formulated and manufactured to meet specific adsorption tasks. All have extremely high surface-to-mass ratios, in the range of 3 million ft?/1b desiccant. Of the following desiccants, silica gels are mst commonly supplied. Fluor sometimes insists on other materials, notably alumina. Silica gels are less expensive than alumina, but they tend to be degraded by liquid water whereas alumina is not. a. Granular Silica Gel (99% + SiO,). This material is of irregular shape, amorphous, and extfemely porous. It is highly compatible and inert with most fluids that need drying, but is not reconmended for strong alkalies or hydrofluoric acid. Manufacturers normally recommend regeneration temperatures of 350°F. Various grades exist for specific purposes, such as for static dehumidification, selective adsorption, chromatography. b, Bead~Type Modified Silica Gels. These are spherical in shape and also extremely porous. They have a high degree of compati- bility but should not be used with strong alkalies or HF. The recommended regeneration temperature range is 300 to 500°F, the latter being a maximum value. c. Activated Alumina. These porous aluminum oxides are very inert. Several grades and shapes are available (granular, spherical). Regeneration temperature range is 350 to 600°F. the spheroid shape is most often used for dynamic adsorption purposes. 4. Molecular Sieves. These substances are synthesized and are available in rodlike pellets or spherical beads. Regeneration temperatures of from 400 to 600°F are recommended for all types‘VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS Vr FLUOR NUMBER 1.2.0 PROCESS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE = 25 UTILITY DESIGN PROCEDURES TE 12-79 MANUALS ———— pa 4.4 Desiccant Regeneration a. General Heat is liberated as the adsorbate attaches itself to the surface of the desiccant. If this heat -- equal to the heat of wetting Gné the heat of condensation -- is not carried away by either the carrier fluid or by means of heat sinks or cooling coils, the temperature of the desiccant bed will rise. As the temperature rises, the relative humidity in the fluid decreases, and the removal effectiveness of the desiccant decreases. As already stated, the adsorptive process is reversible, the driving force being the concentration differential (vapor pressure) between the adsorbate on the desiccant surface and in the carrier fluid. Therefore, to regenerate the adsorbent and to remove the adsorbate, the desiccant should be purged with hot and/or dry gas. Most often, the regeneration mode starts when the bed drying the fluid reaches an equilibriun condition equal to the maximum adsorbate concentration acceptable. In dual-chamber systems, a @iversion valve -- or a series of valves -~ switches the wet inlet to the already reactivated bed. Hot and/or dry gas then passes countercurrent over the just-used wetted bed, until the water is stripped and purged off. If heat is used, each Qdsorbent has a maximum regeneration temperature specified by the manufacturer. However, within this limit, the hotter or dryer the regeneration fluid, the more thorough the regeneration and the lower the effluent dewpoint. One desiccant man onship between regeneration temperature and effluent's dewpoint (assumed to be at atmospheric pressure! Temperature, °F Effluent Dewpoint, °F 280 -2 350 ~65 450 -108 Although solid adsorbents can withstand many cycles (alternate ‘adsorption and regeneration periods), there is an irreversible (though moderate) reduction in capacity that should be taken into consideration when systems are designed. This decay in dynamic Sapacity is sometimes referred to as aging. The lower the regeneration temperature, the less extensive the degree of aging. When regeneration occurs without external heating sources, aging is negligible.[UME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS Vf FLUOR VOLUME 41 ~ AIR, NUMBER 1.2.0 PROCESS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE 26 uTiuity DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE 12-79 MANUALS oo a. General (Continued) Aging should not be confused with contamination due to chemical impurities -- e.g., oily tars that cover portions of the active surface of the adsorbent. In some instances, contaminants can be heated off, but it is always better to prevent these impurities from reaching the desiccant. This can be accomplished by scrubbing the gas inlet to the compressor or by using adequate coalescing prefiltration to remove oil mists. b. Regeneration Methods Drying techniques are quite similar in all designs. It is really the regeneration that varies, of which there are basically two Kinds: heated and heatless. The various methods of regeneration are described in the following paragraphs. Internal Heat Regeneration. The heated method is the older one, with the internal-heated type being the most common for smaller units, up to 1,000 standard cfm (scfm) at 100 psig. ‘Two chambers are usually involved, each containing a heater within the desiccant. While one chamber is in operation, the desiccant in the other one is being regenerated. This usually takes 4, 6 or 12 hours. For small and medium-size units, up to about 15,000 scfm, the two-chamber system is commonly recommended. For larger flows, three or -- on occasion -- four chambers or towers are preferable. When more than two chambers are needed, one chanber dries the process fluid, one is being heated (regenerated), while the third is being cooled. There are also occasions when single-chamber systems are used. In such instances, however, drying is not required on a continuous basis, and there is time to reactivate the desiccant. However, since continuous flow of dry fluid is generally needed, the dual-chamber design is preferred. Desiccant dryers are equipped with switching or diversion valves that alternate the flow between the two chambers. Although some dryers have the heater-element sheath in direct contact with the desiccant, this is not desirable because overheating the desiccant reduces its usable life. Internal heat-regenerated dryers rely upon condition and radiation to transfer the heat to the desiccant. Because of this, the size of the dryer is somewhat limited. There is also a small flow of air or gas that passes over the heated desiccant to purgeW FLUOR PROCESS UTILITY MANUALS VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS NUMBER 1.2.0 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE 27 DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE 12-79 Internal Heat Regeneration. (Continued) moisture from the chamber. Figure 4.4.1 shows the flow circuit of one such dryer, where wet gas enters through four-way Switching Valve A to Desiccant Bed B ~~ through the stainless-steel, cleanable Outlet Filter C and Outlet Check-Valve D -- to the ary-gas outlet. FIGURE 4.4.1 Dual Chamber, Internally-Heated, Regenerative Desiccant Bed “Let cinmber drying —— Wet ine 38353 A small portion of dried gas passes through Purge-Throttling-Valve , Purge-Indicator F and Purge-Flow Orifice G, which controls the s ges passes through Flow-Check Valve H. up through Heater-Tube I and over Electric Heater J, after which it enters the plenum area of Chamber K, flowing downvard tlrcugh the wet-desiccant bed, countercurrent to the drying flow. Now carrying previously adsorbed moisture, the gas exits to the atmosphere through Exhaust Valve L. Shortly before the end of the cooling period, the exhaust valve closes to repressurize the reactivated chamber. Switchover takes place with both chambers at line pressure, which eliminates desiccant-bed attrition, displacement of switching-valve lubricant, and line surges. As the left chamber is exhausted to the atmosphere and its regeneration cycle started, the fully regenerated right chanber dries gas at line pressure. Figure 4.4.2 shows chamber internals for an internally-heated dryer.W FLUOR PROCESS UTILITY MANUALS 7 SYSTEMS VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER NUMBER 2.2.0 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE = 28 DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE = 12-79 FIGURE 4.4.2 Blectrically-Heated Desiccant Bed External Heat Regeneration. Another regeneration method -- which has an atmospheric purge blower and a heater external to the desiccant chambers -- does not draw upon the process stream for purging needs. Atmospheric air is pulled into the regeneration loop by means of a blower, which compresses the purge gas to compensate for the pressure drop through the dryer piping and desiccant bed. This technique should not be used if the environment from which the purge air is drawn is heavily contaminated with corrosive or desiccan* soisoning vapors. Figure 4.4.3 shows a flow diagram for this dryer, where wet gas enters four-way Switching Valve A and then passes down through Desiccant Bed B and Outlet Check-Valve C to the dry-gas outlet. To vegenerate simultaneously, ambient air is drawn through Blower~ Suction Filter-Silencer D, by means of Purge-Blower E. It then =VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS WW FLUOR PROCESS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS Pace UTILITY DESIGN PROCEDURES MANUALS: pate external Heat Regeneration. (Continued) NUMBER 1.2.0 29 12-79 goes through Heater F and Purge-Check Valve G, up through Desiccant Sos teaching Valve A, and then through the open Exhaust Valve I we ne atmosphere. The heated purge air then desorbs the water seed h. During the drying cycle, a small portion of dry ai* fron Pthrough Repressurization Valve J. Shortly before switchover, Epmet valve 1 is closed, to allow the right chamber to be pressurized through this line. Repressurization prevents a sudden jolt to the desiccant when the Stmosphere downwardly through Depressurization Valve Protects the desiccant from fluidization during sis period. rreee first cones onstrean. ‘The left chamber vents to Se once Brotecrenber is fully depressurized, Exhaust Valve T opens, and Eegeneration begins. Switching back to the original chamber occurs in the same manner. Closed: ircuit Regeneration. Closed-cireuit regeneration methods cae reed for large flows of gases, when the atmospheric are ortetpe ig undesirable, or when the venting of purge gas is eam ceptable because of its value or toxicity. Closed-toop Geyers are divided into three types: splitestream, ne convection cetings split-stream, with convection cooling: and captive Bose soch a pressurized blower. Good operation of the first Fo of wets @ Wicems depends on the proportioning, differential-flow control valve.‘VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS V FLUOR NUMBER 1.2.0 PROCESS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE 30 UTILITY MANUALS. DESL FROCEDES. DATE 12-79 Closed-Circuit Regeneration. (Continued) To operate continuously and to have enough purge flow to carry sensible heat for regeneration, these systems require about 208 of rated flow. Regeneration flow is countercurrent to the direction of process flow. Split-Stream, No-Convection Cooling. Shown in Figure 4.4.4, this system has wet gas piped directly to the intake of the Digferential-Flow Control Valve A. It then passes to four-way Switching Valve B, where it is directed downward through either Chamber C or Chamber G. Dried gas exits at the chamber's bottom to Switching Valve D, which directs it to point of use. FIGURE 4.4.4 Split-stream, No Convection-Cooli! Regeneration of one chamber is cocurrent with tlie ‘onstream time of the other. A portion of the wet, incoming gas is tapped off -~ just ahead of the difgerential-flow control valve -~ as purge gas, for removal of moisture from the chamber is being regenerated. ‘Thais purge stream first passes through Purge Metering Orifice E to Heater F, and is then diverted through Valve D to the bottom of the regenerating chamber. Passing upward through the bed, the hot gas exits to Valve B, which directs it through Cooler H, where moisture condenses. Coalescing Separator I then removes the moisture, and the purge gas is returned to the system-input line via Valve A.‘VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS NUMBER 1.2.0 W FLUOR PROCESS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS uTiLity MANUALS DESIGN PROCEDURES. PAGE = 31 DATE = 12-79 split-Stream, With Convection Cooling. Sometimes, convection secling is used to eliminate temperature bumps during chamber seceches. ‘The difference between this system (Figure 4.4.5) and the previous one is that after the purge stream passes throvsh orifice E to Heater F, the heated gas is diverted through Purge Switching Valve K to Switching Valve D, and then to the Segenerating chanber's bottom. Also, the regeneration cycle has a gesiceant convection-cooling phase. When moisture removal is Gomplete (determined by timing or temperature devices), Heater F fares off, and Purge Valve K is cycled to divert cool, purge gas fhrough Valve B. This gas exits through Valves D and K -> passitg through Cooler # and Separator I -- to rejoin the system input vis valve A for further drying. PIGURE 4.4.5 split-Stream Dryer With Convection Coolins captive Purge with Pressurized Blower. This third type of closed Toop system has a pressure blower and a captive volume of qegtneration fluid. The technique uses cocurrent flow, i.e. the regeneration gas flows in the same direction as the process stream, This method of regeneration is not generally recommended by Gosiceent manufacturers because it is an inefficient means of Gecomplishing thorough renoval of moisture from the desiccant. Heatiess Regeneration. A small portion of the dry effluent air at working pressure is expanded to atmospheric pressure oF below ‘eacuun source), and passed countercurrently over the desiccant £0 A@fegenerated. The drying period for heaterless dryers is much Shorter, § of 10 minutes, as opposed to 4 or 6 hours for the‘VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS WV FLUOR NUMBER 1.2.0 process COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE 32 UTILITY DESIGN PROCEDURES 2-79 MANUALS pate , Heatless Regeneration. (Continued) heat-regenerated types. Yet, the general configuration and chamber size are nearly comparable (Figure 4.4.6). ‘Therefore, the moisture load per pound of desiccant is far less with the heaterless dryer, where only 2 to 38 of the total bed-dynamic-capacity is utilized. The remainder of the bed extracts the last traces of water vapor. Similarly, much less energy is needed to regenerate the desiccant. Since the cycle time is very short, the residual heat of adsorption -- coupled with the super-dry, low-pressure purge -~ is sufficient to yield very low effluent dewpoints: -40°F and lower for the 5 minute period, and -100°F and lower for the 10 minute period. The heaterless dryer has been widely accepted for drying aix and for selective separation of gases. FIGURE 4.4.6 Heaterless Dryer TL TE A‘VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS v NUMBER 1.2.0 any COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE 33 i uTiuity MANUALS DESIGN PROCEDURES paTE 12-79 5.0 AIR RECEIVERS 5.1 General Air receivers perform four functions in utility and instrument air systems: a. Dampen pulsating effects, if used with reciprocating compressors. b. Provide a reservoir for the system. c. Remove moisture droplets from the air leaving the aftercooler. d. Limit the frequency of compressor loading and unloading. Air receivers are classed as unfired pressure vessels by the ASME and should be built to its standards. Most compressor vendors will quote the receiver along with the Aetercooler and the compressor. The difference in first cost ) betreen the receiver quoted by the compressor vendor and the one Quoted by a vessel vendor is normally not significant enough to Justify the difficulty experienced in obtaining dzawings from the compressor vendor. The Process Utility Engineer usually Sizes the air receiver and prepares a process vessel sketch. This enables the responsible Vessel Engineer to design the receiver and prepare quotation drawings. In this manner, Piotplan layout can also proceed without waiting for vendor information. 5.2 Design a. Receiver Sizing. Minimum reconmended receiver sizes for @ifferent system capacities are listed in Table V. Receiver Volumes can also be calculated, to provide air over a specified pressure range and time period. the following formula can be used for this purpose: y= 14.7) (e)_ (CPN) PL PpW FLUOR PROCESS uTILiTy MANUALS - JEL AND WATE Ms, VOLUME 41 — AIR, FU WATER SYSTEI NUMBER 2.2.0 PAGE DATE 34 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS DESIGN PROCEDURES 22-79 (Continued) Receiver Sizing. V = Receiver volume cubic feet. & = Time in minutes. P, = Upper set pressure of the pressure controller, psia. [(()# sor P. Lowest pressure at which system will operate, psia (pressure at which the emergency air cuts in). SCFM = Normal air consumption in standard cubic feet per minute. ‘ Design Conditions. The design pressure and temperature are ‘the same as the ones used for the compressor and aftercooler. For 110 psig compressor discharge, the design receiver pressure is 150 psig and the design temperature 350°F. Mechanical Details. The following guidelines should be observed in the design of the air receiver. © te air receiver can be either horizontal or vertical. A vertical vessel is usually preferable as it requires less plot area. The receiver inlet nozzle should be located at least 30" above the bottom tangent line. The outlet nozzle is located on the top head. ‘The drain nozzle is located on the bottom head. the corrosion allowance is norsially 1/8". The vessel support is usually a skirt. Pulsations from reciprocating compressor tend to weaken any other type. Instrumentation. ‘The following instruments are the minimum required for the proper operation of the air receiver: Pressure indicator and pressure switch located in the top portion of the vessel. ‘Trap located at the bottom. A level gage located in the lower portion of the vessel. Safety valve located at the top or on the outlet pipe. (This valve is a minimum size based on fire conditions since the full compressor output is relieved at the compressor discharge by a pressure safety valve at that location).FLUOR PROCESS uTiiTy MANUALS: VOLUME 41 AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS foun " NUMBER 1.2.0 COMPRESSED ATR SYSTEMS PAGE 35 DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE 12-79 6.0 FILTERS 6. General Filters are used in compressed air systems to protect the compressors, dryers and air users from damage and maloperation. Applications a. Compressor Intake Filters ‘An intake filter is essential. ‘The usual filters are oil-wetted, dry cloth, or oil-bath types. The lubricated air compressor may use any one of the three types. If intake air is unusually dirty, an oil bath filter should be used on lubricated machines. The dry-cloth filter is more efficient than the oil-wetted, but will load up faster and must be cleaned more often. A filter which contains oil should not be used with the non-lubricated compressor. If the compressor vendor doesn't furnish the filter, then the circular dry type may be used. Usually, the vendor locates the intake filter directly on the compressor intake nozzle. Where practical, we should locate the filter outside where cool air is available. The Filter should be located at least 10' above grade. For every 10" higher, the suction line should be increased one size larger than the compressor intake nozzle. The final arrangement must be reviewed with the compressor vendor to make sure that the performance of his machine is not adversely affected and the pressure drop allowed for the inlet piping and filter is not exceeded. b. Dryer Prefilter A prefilter is not required when non-lubricated compressors are used. However, when lubricated instrument air compressors are used, or when lubricated plant air compressors provide an emergency source of instrument air, a prefilter is required. Oil contamination in compressed air may catise such problems as erratic operation of pneumatic controllers, valves and other instrumentation; contamination of intermediate or end products when the air is used for agitating a liquid or conveying solids; softening of hoses,W FLUOR PROCESS UTILITY MANUALS VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS vauer Tao COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE = 36 DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE 12-79 Dryer Prefilter (Continued) causing leaks and decreasing service life and contamination of paint spraying equipment. Oil removal also protects air drying equipment, keeping adsorbents at a high level of activity, and prevents oil fouling of heat exchangers in refrigerated dryers. When the prefilter is required for dryer protection, it should always be supplied by the dryer vendor and should be part of the equipment covered by his guarantee. The Process Utility Engineer is responsible for providing the dryer vendor with a description of the quality and source of the air to be dried. The Engineer should be familiar with the criteria applying to the design of oil elimination devices; these are discussed in Paragraph 6.3. Dryer Afterfilter This filter is a mechanical device designed to trap particles of desiccant which may be carried over by air flow through the dryer. This helps prevent maloperation of controls and instruments serviced by the dried air system. ‘The afterfilter should always be provided by the dryer vendor and should be a part of the equipment covered by his guarantee. 6-3 O11 Removal, General During the compression cycle of the typical compressor, the air temperature climbs to between 400°F and 700°F. Some of ‘the lubricating oil is vaporized and a portion may react with the compressed air to form partially oxygenated carbon and nitrogen compounds. Upon cooling, part of the vaporized oil and these newly formed compounds condense to various size droplets, which can be classified in two distinct phases: one a vapor and the other a liquid. ‘The liquid phase can be considered in two particle size ranges: 0.01 to 5 microns as a mist, and above 5 microns as a spray. Particles larger than 0.01 micron can be removed by filtration; smaller particles can be removed by adsorption on a suitable medium.© W FLUOR PROCESS UTILITY MANUALS ‘VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS. NUMBER 1.2.0 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE = 37 DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE 12-79 General (Continued) vany process air applications and certain instrument uses require an oil vapor content lower than 10 ppm. in choosing the most efficient oil vapor removal equipment, it is first necessary to determine the actual or, if not available, the theoretical content of oil vapor in the air. This requires knowledge of the temperature of the air after lit leaves the aftercooler, vapor pressure of the oil at the air temperature, molecular weight of the oil and pressure of the system. All this pertinent data is readily available from locally mounted instruments, handbooks and lubricant vendors. he relationship between these factors can be expressed by the following equation: Weight of oil vapor in air = vapor pressure) (oil molecular (air pressure) (air molecular weight) Water vapor partial pressure has been neglected since it is very small compared to the total system pressure. Oil Removal by Filtration over 99 percent of the liguid oil in compressed air consists of droplets in the size range of 0.05 microns to 0.1 micron. Therefore, many types of mechanical filters or separators can te omittea since gravitational, inertial impingement and other such type separators do not effectively remove dropieis smaller than 3 microns. But certain coalescing filters designed for Submicronie aerosols will also remove larger sized droplets Guthout clogging or even causing appreciable pressure drop. These filters will also remove the sub-micron and larger suspended solid contaminants, such as pipe scale and piping compounds - one example of the filters with fine pores are those made from epoxy impregnated cellulose combined with inorganic bese materials, Others are on the market as well. This type of liquid of] removal equipment must precede vapor adsorbers §é low oil effluents and long service is to be achieved.YW FLUOR PROCESS UTILITY MANUALS ‘VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS: NUMBER 1.2.0 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE = 3 DESIGN PROCEDURES DATE 12-79 Oil Removal by Adsorption 041 droplets smaller than 0.01 micron can be considered as “oil vapor", and as such can not be removed by using a mechanical filter. However, oil vapor can be effectively removed by adsorption. Efficiency for oil vapor adsorption can be as high as 99.9 percent with proper selection of contact time, vapor velocity, bed depth and type of adsorbent -- assuming prior liquid-droplet removal. Adsorbents. Normally, 8 x 12 or 6 x 16 mesh charcoal is used for a carbon bed adsorber. Alumina, with its much greater inherent strength, can be used in coarser meshes, 1/4 x 8 usually. The finer size particles are more efficient, require shorter contact times, but produce higher pressure drops. Because of the different strengths, carbon has a much greater tendency to dust than does alumina. For compressed air systems containing hydrogen sulfide, carbon is not recommended since it will oxidize the sulfide to free sulfur which will foul the adsorbent. In general, carbon is more efficient for oil vapor than alumina, especially when the air contains water vapor. Carbon is more expensive than alumina but its greater oil capacity or effective on-stream life often offsets the cost differential. Adsorbent Bed Sizing. Generally, a deep narrow bed is preferred within the range of maximum allowable velocity and allowable pressure drop. The oil capacity of the adsorbents vary but for activated carbon the deeper the bed, the greater the oil vapor capacity (on a weight basis) before the effluent oil content rises above the desired level. For example, a 12-inch bed depth yields an approximated 15 percent capacity, whereas a 36-inch bed will allow for a 20 percent capacity. Por a required removal efficiency, a specific contact time can be selected on a basis of influent oil vapor content. Increasing contact time means higher efficiencies (at constant flow), but this in turn means larger vessels and larger amounts of adsorbent and higher first cost. Longer contact time may also mean greater pressure drop unless even larger diameter vessels are used for reduced linear velocities. As a case in point, using alumina, a contact time of 12 seconds will result in an efficiency of 99 percent. Accessory Equipment. It is advisable to install an afterfilter following the adsorber, to protect the air dryer or other equipment and control systems.(s W FLUOR PROCESS UTILITY MANUALS. TableI... Table IT. . Table IIT. . Table IV. . Table Vv. . Table VI. Graph... Graph It. . Graph TIT. . Graph IV. Graph Vo. Form 6-537. Form E-550 Form E-563A/B Form 5-566 ‘VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS MUNBER 1.3.0 PAGE 1 of 22 DATE = 12-79 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS TABLES, GRAPHS, AND FORMS TABLES, GRAPHS, AND FORMS Aix Requirements of Various Tools, U1-A02-1168 Compressed Air Consumption Computation, U1-A03-1168 Typical Tool Load Factor, Ul-A04-1168 Cooling Water Requirements for Reciprocating Compressors, Ul-A05-1168 Data for Selection of Air Receiver, Ul-A06-1168 Reciprocating Compressor, Approximate Brake Horsepower Requirements, U1-A07-1168 centrifugal Compressors, Motor Hoksepower Vs. Capacity Heat Rejection from Compressor Cylinder Jacket, U1-a09~1168 Gas Compression Temperatures for Various Values "K" or “R," UL-A10-1168 Dew Point Conversion, U1-R08-1168 Moisture Content of Dry Air, UL-A12-1168 Compressor Requirements Specification sheet Dryers Specification sheet Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger Specification Sheets (Two Cases) General Purpose Steam Turbine Specification SheetVOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS W FLUOR NUMBER 1.3.0 PROCESS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE 2 utiuiry ABLES, GRAPHS, AND FORE Tues TABLES, GRAPHS, AND FORMS DATE 12-79 TABLE 1 AIR REQUIREMENTS OF VARIOUS TOOLS Free Air, cfm at © psig, Tool 100% Load Factor Grinders 6" and 8" Wheels... 0. ee ee eee ee OD ; Grinders, 2" and 23" Wheels 2... ee eee ee ee ee HHO File and Burr Mechines . 2s ett t ees 28 Rotary Sanders, 9" Pads). ee ee 8B Rotary Sanders, 7" Pads... wiv antes 30 Sand Rammers and Tampers "xh" cylinder se ee Ag" x 5" Cylinder 6. ee ee ee ee ee OB ab" x 6" cylinder ve Chipping Hammers, Weighing 10-13 lbs 2.21) 1.0. 28-30 HOY vee ee eee ee eee eee Weighing 2-4 lbs. 1... eee ee eee ee ee ee Mut Setters to 5/16" Weighing 8 its... ........ 20 Mut Setters 2" to 3/k" Weighing 18 tbs 111222221 30 Sump Pumps, 145 Gals. (a 50 foot head) ......... 70 Paint Spray, Average we ee ee eee 7 Varies from os ee ee ee ee ee ee ee 220 Bushing foots (woninental)’ .) 1... ho 2" Diameter Weighing 26 Lbs 2.1... .22242+ 80 Steel Drills, Rotary Motors Capacity up to i” Weighing 1-4 Ibs ......... 18-20 Capacity +" to 3/8" Weighing 6-8 Ibs | 1). 1.1) 20-k0 Capacity 4" to 3/4" Weighing 9-14 Ibs... LL. 70 Capacity 7/8" to 1" Weighing 25 Ibs... 2.2... 80 Capacity 14" Weighing 30 Lbs... 2.6 eee ee ee 95 Stee) Drills, Piston Type capacity 4" to 3/k” Weighing 13-15 Lbs... . 2... M5 Capacity 7/8" to 12" Weighing 25-30 Ibs 1.2... 75-80 Capacity 1" to 2" Weighing 40-50 Ibs . 1) 1222) 80-90 Capacity 2" to 3" Weighing 55-75 Ibs... 22... 2 200-110FLUOR PROCESS UTILITY MANUALS. VOLUME 41 —AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS TABLES, GRAPHS, AND FORMS NUMBER 1.3.0 PAGE «3 DATE 12-79 TABLE I (Continued) CUBIC FEET OF AIR PER MINUTE REQUIRED BY SAND BLAST Compressed Air Gege Pressure Wozzle Diameter 60 tes. | To Les. | 60 tbs. | 100 Lbs. aie" 4 5 5.5 6.5 | 3/32" 9 a ue 15 1/8" aud 19 an 2 3/16" #8 43 4uT 5 aun 67 % 8 103 5/16" 105 ng 333 161 3/8" as. in ash 232 a/2" 268 30h 3h0 ue |VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS TABLES, GRAPHS, AND FORMS +xeuuew owes 213 uy poanduco 9ae spest xe} “ATUO soURUDRUTeU pue ‘aTedex ‘uoTZonpoad 103 SesN ZTE SMOUS eTqeI STUL :930N ugg = uesoup Aazoedep woasis . = z0q9eg esTy-AayoedeD 39, x9 Teron 820308, sxoputa9 sxoputa9 sejeary pueH aseta pues Aeads urea asete pues sxoj0aTy pueH STUTaa Areacy szeputz5 sx0a395 30N sxeayaa nez0s 3STOH Uor-aubra sxaddyyo 1) wo @ a) ty Te @ w tsa wz ‘speeN -3030%4_— STOOL, JO Joo, «= STOO, ~—MOTaEOOT Toon, papeon aTe 20ra peor —uor3ezedo ea yo eanssora =9 “100 snonuFauog =u zOqUMN XS “TOO Os uso NOTIVENEHOD NOTLANNSNOD BIW GaSSaWaNOD TT atau‘VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS FLUOR NUNBER 1.3.0 PROCESS COMPRESSED ATR SYSTEMS PAGE 5 uTILity cope eats ‘TABLES, GRAPHS, AND FORMS DATE 12-79 TABLE III TYPICAL TOOL LOAD FACTOR ood Factor” Grinders. eee 0.5-0.8 Chipper. nee ee eee ene O05 Hoist cc ee eee eee ee Ord O03 Serew Drivers see ee ee ee ee 018505 Mat Setters oe ee ee ee O4B5O5 Wood Borer se cee ee ees 0485 Rotary Drills see ee ee eee 0422005 Riveters oss e eee ee eee eee ees O20 a Paint Spray ee ee ee ee eee OBL Motors sees ween 021.0 *xote: Factors vary appreciably from one refinery to another, depending on age, tool condition, number of maintenance and production jobs, etc.WW FLUOR VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS NUMBER 1.3.0 Process COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS. PAOEL & UTILITY TABLES, GRAPHS, AND FORMS - oa TABLES, GRAPHS, AND FORMS. DATE 12-79 IRBLE_IV COOLING WATER REQUIREMENTS RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS, (in Gallons Per 100 Cubic Feet Intake Air) COOLING WATER INLET TEMPERATURE, °F 60 70 80 90 Intercooler and Cylinder Jackets in Series, ‘Two-Stage Compression 2.9 34 4.0 4.5 Aftercoolers or Intercoolers: ‘Two-Stage Compression 28 3 3500 4 Single-stage Compression 4.0 45 5.2 6 Two-Stage Jackets (L. P. and H. P. in Series) 0.85 1.0 1.2 1.4 Single Stage Jackets: 40 psig 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.9 60 psig 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 80 psig 0.7 0.8 0.9 1a 100 psig 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 Notes: a. The above cooling water quantities are based on the air leaving the aftercooler or intercooler within 20°F of the temperature of the water entering the cooler. b. ‘The cooling water temperature rise at these flowrates for the cylinder jackets is about 15°F. If not more than 10°F rise is contemplated in the design, the values given should be increased by at least 50 percent.FLUOR PROCESS uTiLiry MANUALS VOLUME 41 ~ AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS TABLES, GRAPHS, AND FORMS TABLE ¥ DATA FOR SELECTION OF AIR RECEIVER NUMBER PAGE DATE Minimum Based on One Minute at Actual Compressor Capacity And 100 psig System 1.3.0 7 12-79 ASME Sta. ASME Sté. Calculated Compressor Dia. (I.D.) Length Capacity chet Inches Feet 1) (2) us 4 35 18 4s 16 6 85 43 n ak 6 250 B 1g 7 260 130 3h 8) 450 < 22> 57 be 10 750 373 6 48 12 1,200 600 as 5h uy 1,750 75 223 60 16 2,500 1,250 pe 66 18 3,400 1,700 428 * CFM of Free Air at Compressor Inlet (2) For Constant-Speed Regulation (2) For Automatic Start and Stop ServiceYFLUOR VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS NUMBER 1.3.0 process COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE 8 MANUALS TABLES, GRAPHS, AND FORMS DATE = 12-79 TABLE VI. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR APPROXIMATE BRAKE HORSEPOWER REQUIREMENTS (In BHP Per 100 Cubic Feet of Intake Air Per Minute Actually Delivered) Single Stage ‘Two-Stage _—~ ——Bi_ en | Altitude 60 8 100 60 8 100 125 ° 16.3 19.5 22.2 U7 17-1 19.2 21.3 1,000 16.1 19.2 21.7 W.5 16.8 18.7 20.9 2,000 15.9 16.9 21.3 W.3 16.5 18.4 20.5 3,000 15.7 18.6 20.9 14.0 16.1 18,0 20.0 4,000 15.4 18.2 20.6 13.8 15.8 17.7 19.6 5,000 15.2 17.9 20.3 13.5 15.5 17.3 19.2 6,000 15.0 17.6 20.0 13.3. 15.3 17.0 18.8 7,000 b.7 17.3 19.6 13.0 1k.g 16.6 18.4 8,000 W572 19.3 12.7 W.6 16.2 16.0 9,000 14.3 16.8 18.9 12.5 1.3 15.9 17.6 20,000 U1 16.5 16.6 12.3 Wl 15.6 17.2 Reference: Compressed Air and Ges Institute‘VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS YW FLUOR WUMBER 1.3.0 PROCESS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS PAGE 9 UTILITY MANUALS TABLES, GRAPHS, AND FORMS DATE 12-79 GRAPH I. CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS MOTOR HORSEPOWER VS. CAPACITY 2400 2200 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 MOTOR HORSEPOWER (CONNECTED) 800 600 400 200 1000 3000 5000 7000 ‘9000 11000 COMPRESSOR CAPACITY - INLET CFM NOTES: 1, USE THIS GRAPH FOR PRELIMINARY ESTIMATES ONLY; ‘COMPRESSOR VENDOR TO CONFIRM. 2, GRAPH IS COMPOSITE OF DATA FROM SEVERAL PACKAGE COMPRESSOR VENDORS, FOR SEA LEVEL OPERATION AT 80-125 psig.VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS ovus A . sr NUMBER 1.3.0 FLUOR PROCESS COMPRESSED ATR SYSTEMS PAGE 10 uTIuity eo DATE - as, TABLES, GRAPHS, AND FORKS 32-79 gear or HEAT REJECTION CALCULATIONS _ Cooling water quantities for cylinder jackets may be calculated using Graph II to determine cylinder heat dissipation. This graph is used for cylinders having a gas discharge temperature of 250°F or greater, or for gas temperature rise greater than 170°F. The water inlet temperature should not be below 90°F, " and should not exceed the inlet gas suction temperature by more than 10°F except when the gas suction temperature is below 80°F. ; A sample calculation to find the amount of cooling water required is as follows: rt, = 90°F Inlet Water Temp, t, , Outlet Water Temp, t,,= 100°F Inlet Gas Temp, t, 80°F Outlet Gas Temp, t, 250°F (Minimum) taverage=t,+ t, = 0+ 250 = 165 “asa + z j ty 165 - 90= 75 eb YO From Graph II, the heat rejection is equal to 490 BTU/BHP/tour. ‘The approximate BHP per 100 cubic feet of intake air can be obtained from Table VI at the desired working pressure. For a 100 psig pressure using a 2-stage compressor, the required BHP per 100 cubic feet intake air is 19.1 at sea level. 490 x 19.1 300 x 1.88 GPM/CEM Free Air Cooling Water Rate With the above calculated cooling water, it may be expected that the water outlet temperature should not be 10°F higher than the water inlet temperature.3 * 008 eg | ACP IvaTy = M0 van ono “e400 vavess38 34009 38 , of S| 4 ‘13NOVP OL W3LVA 40 aUmvuaaraL = "5 a « DSTO > HOTT, * gue 4 “HUMLNIBAVGL YD 3BNURAY | a4 AND FORMS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS GRAPHS , TABLES, VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL ANO WATER SYSTEMS 002 Joon 008 8 ar3 srove wn Yssane va af Bez “,AUVHO NOLLOIPIY LVaH > iia A Haveo = ~ ~ AH wad Wa u34 Me “WOLLOSNRH L¥3H1.3.0 -79 12 NUMBER PAGE DATE | 2 a ae 5 Gla 2 ae Ss 43 = fa ge 3 | UTILITY MANUALS W FLUOR PROCESS No1ss3¥noo 40 O1L¥Y “woLive3iswoo ¥30KN G36¥9 40 UMM 31K ONLLAL LISHED SNOILOVH 3HL_40 110134 BTOIION 39VLAGOURE HO ALIAYO ‘21419345 G31VHILS3 YO ‘ORLY INOW ‘HKONN 3IL NOUI O3NIVIGO 38 MVD SVD FHL JO BMWA .X, 3HL “ZL WONs OOH LOVMLANS Jo ‘7 ONIA OL “3NIsnr 338030 ‘SZHnUVABeL sLmiosoy sv anssa¥oxd so Lowy % sua ** wth = 2 vino) 3 WOWS S35V0 40 SSUMLMYAUNEL HOISSIVANGD OLLVEVIOY Yo WOLLOHIL 3H JO NOLWNMEIL3O SLURS L4¥H0 3AoaY KL S¥9 JO 3NWA WX, e z 008 008 009 005 oh 0E ‘02 01 ° 4g ‘L !3UMLV¥3aNsL J0¥vIOSIO Yn YO wu SINTWA SNOIVA HOS SIYNLVUIdHAL NOISSTYdHOD s¥O sv49 z‘VOLUME 41 ~ AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS ¥ mor MUNBER 1.3.0, PROCESS COMPRESSED ATR SYSTEMS PAGE le UTILITY TABLES, GRAPHS, AND FORMS DATE ~ MANUALS 22-79 SPeeLsVEATION SHEET DRYERS seer vo. ro, ome ore, roeno, _— sence 9, *. a eos TS am surouine Ea] ne “paw wroarie Cel 1 TPE oF tema STON =e aE oF aT teint) x 27 GLECTRICITY CONTMOLE seco . ¢ Te] ars —__rvase oat A yeu panarornein weiner poor arr So ne tui nim fe] mamem eS] amet : x 7 TUIEMOAS trace wou agate fon tctioe Sa wee whewVOLUME 41 ~ AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS W FLUOR PROCESS UTILITY MANUALS COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS TABLES, GRAPHS, AND FORMS GRAPH IV DEW POINT CONVERSION 10 120 100 20 = 60 2 x zo 2 z= 5 nn “80 -80 “80 100 sioo a0 8002S DEW POINT AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. °F 60 pate a0 NUMBER 1.3.0 PAGE 13 12-79 100PROCESS uTiuity MANUALS W FLUOR COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS TABLES, GRAPHS, AND FORMS VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS NUMBER PAGE DaTE saTueaTion TowreearuRe, 0 0 60 i ore = MOISTURE CONTEXT 320 OF DRY AIR AT VARIOUS SATURATION ‘TEMPERATURES 00 wo 0 20 00 0 00 0 x 00 20 260 no 20 0 a TOTAL WORKING PRESSURE, PSIA 1.3.0 14 12-79VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS ¥ ° . NUMBER =1.3.0 PROCESS COMPRESSED AIR sySTEMS PAGE «15. utitity COMPRESSED ATR SYSTEMS MANUALS TABLES, GRAPHS, AND FORMS DATE 12-79 ‘FLUOR a mockss seciFicaTion one.ey x exon care x a ‘COMPRESSOR REQUIREMENTS. x [are CPR ERY ORLY CEG ESTE RET OAR * x oe x si" ence Xn rece x [ree Gleentmrvoat Dntornocarine Closer conecrzo Clatanso Loman » Guoron nos ievnes oven x [oniven: Clereas rnveine cance pmtss) (con GASANALYSIE—MOLX | MW [RATED NORM. [ OTHER CONDITIONS [START ‘eNERAL Soe oe te or fimomn x ‘aN STEAM SONETON ona Tne re = ATER VAPOR Clexrnacrion rs unin a Tan Dwain onive, waxy a ty reLosune on a (Clsanoweren (Dloesion renrenas ‘Dann vent x Y x ores vauvesroucvanae—o [YT a9 ae enteren Be eouPnesniniTy ar sverion 27 pe non coueness at onewanoe ti x Te neLaTive suwarTy Sat See a ae mass rcon neni canons [XTX east reow werr=cenn cay Ty = aaa aaa [orcnating conoiTions = =u ucron nessun ria aL isouance rnestune. reins [xT X ) capacrrv or excnmacnmers Cas ex 0 om 0.VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS W FLUOR NUMBER = 1.3.0 process COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS pace 17 unity TTRBLES, GRAPHS, AND FORMS pate 12-79 MANUALS waqnet es ea rior en SPECIFICATION SHEET ee moe ae SHELL AND TUBE oun ts HEAT EXCHANGER a 2 Silas yy Sar ar $n Se Sota ne : FERGRIRRET OF OTETRT 1 eet crn Sa TS Dyswem i Cee 3 [astern 3 [tet wean 3 [Fetennemmae Teer iorrewW FLUOR PROCESS uTiLity MANUALS SQRSESEDSEEG RESELL ERE REELED VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS. NUMBER 1.3.0 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS. PAGE = 18 TABLES, GRAPHS, AND FORMS DATE «12-79 ¥FWWoR tciricanion SHEET SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER (Continued) ‘Sai se Fert =a Te et (OV? Wer BE OO (roensn eine ‘Wesel OV? Bune sarc ro [eeoeston Tet [tot Tar TATERIALS (Manx STRESS REL EVED ~ SR RADIOGRAPREDRRT SoCo oo Ban oe “Waee se ROT SHE [nating a PAGNS RATING FANEYW FLUOR PROCESS UTILITY MANUALS 1.4.0 ‘VOLUME 41 — AIR, FUEL AND WATER SYSTEMS NUMBER 1.4.0 PAGE =. of 3 DATE COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS FLOW DIAGRAMS 12-79 FLOW DIAGRAMS ‘The Standard System Plow Diagrams (1) included in this section were drawn to be used as guides in setting up instrument and plant air systens. The Process Utility Engineer should obtain copies and add or delete information to fit these diagrams to his project's particular process requirements or Client preferences. these standard flow diagrams reflect the basic arrangement used on the majority of Fluor jobs. ‘The instrument and plant air systems operate lat the same pressure level. The compressors are usually the non-lubri- cated type and are identical in size and mechanical design. One air receiver is used for both systems, with the plant air take-off ahead of the dryer. the main advantage of the standard flow diagrams is that detailed system flow diagrams can be completed early in the job. This expedites the selection of the equipment and promotes early layout of the air systems. (1) USPDO2 Instrument and Utility Air, Centrifugal Compressors USFDO4 Instrument and Utility Air, Reciprocating CompressorsPIP Tse Calenlating pressure drop First, refer to Table L, "Fucturs for Caleulsting Pressure Loss Caused by Five Crictton," Aypendia A ef this sectiva, For all finear rons of iu difterert sections of the system, select a ballpark pipe si the appropriate icfm for that seetion, ALL cables are based on tefm at PL fsoe Section 1, “Systems Standards"). The calculation will determine sresatrs drop in psi for specific conditions, If the pressure deop is tow great, you shuld recalculate, using the next size of pipe. Here's the formula co use wich the table: ros Faclor intersecting on table with selected ictm and pipe diumecer. Prl ~ atmospheric pressure, peti Pr2 = Desired pressure after compression, psig & Pri (psia). [= Length of pipe in fee, as determined for the specific o. culation, prrection factor .vr valves, fittings, ete. (LE yew were to calculate cach valve, elbow, fiteing, etc., the job would never end, A correction factor of 1.2 will generally adjust the formula for these ailded losses.) easure Luss, psi. Formilat ‘Too Example: 1000 icfm, 14.6 psia atmospheric pressuce, 385’ pipe, 100 paix. Example A--3" pipe: 2094 14.6, oan 7 1.2 = 4.296 pst pressure loss elsExample B--4" pipe: Te Wat 16 1.3 pst presse In the examples above, 4" would likely be the appropriate size, especially Lf this calculation were for a header. Rating for maximum capacity would storage capacity in the header, st pare load, to reduce + in che system, s of the branches, and drops, The only purpose of these pa piping system is to transport air from P4 to PS (again, see "Systems Stundards"). There is no practical reason for storage unless you have a ader with a single large user of air or user with a yh instantanecus Examples would be a bag house, sandilaut operation, paint spray application, very Large cylinder, o¢ ether arpiicutyan that blo a large euaitity oF air to atmosphere, Lf you have such an appiica Lion, storage is necessary to prevent a considerable pressure fluctuation in the system. Example 400-gal. ae Cheek va storage vesse: Cheek valve toray a Baghouse Header 20 cfm for a S-sec. cycle, 1 cycle. per min. Control valve Subheader or dump valve Subheas Figu tit feeds baghouse. Iu this example, keep in mind that the bag house uses 20 cuble feet in 3 Expanding this to cubic feet + you would have a flow eouivalent to 12 x 20 cubic feet, because 5 sceonds is 1/12 of a minute andall ratings are in cubic fect per minute. With the check valve upstream of the storage vessel to prevent stored air from going to other demand in the system, the pipe upstream of the recedver should be sized to transport 20 cfm to rer'ace what is taken out of the storage vessel in that S-s.cond demand. The Line size downstream of the storage vessel must be sized to handle 29 cfm in 5 seconds, or the equivalent of 249 cfm. Tf contamiaant- renoval equipment is used for this application, tt should be placed down- stream of the check valve and upstream of the storage vess 1. No other users, branches, or drops should be planned on this sublhe: With normal selection of pipe size fur subheadors, branches, an! drops, you should determine the high average demand on any subheader, branch line, or drop at the lower average pressure fur the longest rv all sections of that type in the system. Do not include bigh single demint users in this calculation, Calculations for such high demand users should be evaluated on an individual basis. Exampli ‘Branch Line 3 cfm }————a——— 4 Figure 2, Subheaders, tranches, and drops. Now let's Look at the subheader. Total dvinand is U3 tefm at 95 psig, length ts 60", atnoepher nsuve is 14.6 psta, Calculation for Us" pipe (95 + 14.6) 6.8 Se a8 = 16 psi pressure lossThis confirms that the selection of subucader piping is 1". Heaviest usage for brauch lines 1s 40 icfm at 95 psig, Length is 40’ long, atmospherle pre a. Calculation for 1" pipe: x 40 x 1.2 22 psi pressure loss Although 1" Is the indicated selection, 3/4" would also be acceptable with only .8 pst pressure loss. But because the difference in installed cost between 3/4" and 1" 1s so insignificant, the selection of 1" is really in your best interest in terms of flexibil{ty, storage, and growth. Drop legs. The same calculations used for subheaders and branches are also used when determining drop leg size. It is advisable to select the same size for all subheaders, for all branches, and for all drops. In the example Just calculated, all eubhcaders would be I's", all branch lines 1", etc. This will cut down the cost of installation and allow for navenent of equipment and expansion of the total system. Having used the high average derand, sections with lower demand will have lower pressure drops and help provide stoi e for other sections of the system. (This, of course, does not apply to the high single deniand users, as previously tention: izing the header. The header section has two essential funct ons: transport and storage. (Without storege, you can't have a system free of pressure fluctuatson.) Selection of size is only one consideration in header design. It's also important to consider geometry, balance, entry, flevibiliey, valvin location of the header relative to the distribution of P5 locarfons, and grouth of the system. You should size the header for no more than 1 psi of pressure loss at anticipated maxinum demand at least two years from initial startup of =45the system. Rven better, plan header size and design for your auticipated Hemant five years from tottial startup. Oversizing the header is the best investment you can make fn the tetal system. In order to calculate higher demand, try to estimate not only increases in equipment, but also inereases in production as a percentage of what your inftial demand will be. fach perceat of increase in production with the same equipment will net a proportionate percentage in increased demand Tor te volume. Examples Current demand at 23 1080.0 etm 20% increase over initial planned rate of production (.20 x 1080) 216.0 ew equipment added over two years 4 = 20 hp printers, 70 cfm @ 502 use factor’ per min, 140.0 8 - blowguns, 18 cfm @ 10% use factor 40.0 s, 20 efm a 40% use Factor 40.0 1 ~ hag house, 52 cfm, @ 100% se factor 52.0 Total new equipment 246.4 Total air desand two years from startup 1542.4 cha in calculating actual air usage, take the rated cfm of an air-operated device and multiply by the percentage of time in any minute it may operate. fw not average. Tines in the week or day are unimportant. Note that the two: eat actual cfm.method applies only to the healer and riser sizing. The next step is to determine what type of header vou Lave and the m thad of determining length for sizing calculations. Types ace Loop, unic loop, erid, and unit grid, as shown below. A Compressor Dees Glo, OD ¢ g 1 ¢ oto Figure 3. Loop. L = a2 + B2, gore Unie loop. Also L = a2 + 8°, Compressor Figure cone) t Figure 5. Grid system. Use the entire length of the header. Step sizing ad air is taken off will not provide for storage or expansion. oO O+—0 Compressor Compressor 1 é . | Compressor _4 L__- . Eiyure 6. Unit grid. Two or mre conpressors at various lucations or calculation is one-half the distance between comFigures 1 aud 3 are better designs, but 2 and 4 may be necessary because of existing piping or in special applications for new systems to balance potential pressure fluctuations. (sample: a mine or very long system.) And whore an already existing header is too small, ur where there Is no Foon to ald a compressor at the original location, 2 and 4 may also apply. But be aware that those systems are really not desirable from an energy cost point uf view, because when pressure fur the compressors is sensed at multiple locations there Is always more connected blip on Line than necessary when the system is at part load. Gnee the length te be used in your calculation is determined, proceed with the formula as previously indicated. Riser izing. The riser is the ripe between the Last piece o: cquipneat (including veers, fileers, ete.) and the entry point in che overhead piping where header distribution begins. (The riser Saciudes horizontal as well as vertical runs between these points.) The riser has to transpert air to the header and furnish the pressure signal from the header through accessories to the coupressor. tc also must reduce the veluetty of compressed air to minimize contanfaants being carried to the header. That's why a drip leg should be used in the riser. It's adviseable to pitch the overhead horizontal runs of the riser away from the header towards the drip leg and enter the header from the side or bottam. The riser should de the next aominal pipe size larger than the hea er the intercos ect piping va the cengr: eal air-eauipment, whichever i$ larger, to facilitate contaminant drop out in the drip leg. ExampleSonpressor Entry. a" Dryer Use larger pipe size for riser The place at which the riser connects to the header is the entry, a ver design point in the systen. The best intentions are frequent ly destroyed by a poorly selected entry, as in Figure 8 below. 4" to 3" bell reducer 1” tee Entry Figure 8 Poorly designed entry uses 3" tee. In the example above the entry is 3". Use of a 4” tee, with reducers ter the tee as In Figure 9 below, vi 1 increase the entrv--and sys capacity by 25%. Example 8: toa" tee to 3" Use of 4" tee increas es capacity ty 25%. rowth in the system, we'll suvest" Tt W" riser 4" co 3" 4 Planning fur geowth, loubling the growth of this system is a sinple muteer of sizing the riser and eatry for 6" and the crossover for 5", with a 4" mating te at the far end of the crossover, The system also requires 4" tees centered en the north and south side of the header. As the distribution grows, the system would eventually lock Like this: 4" @ 600 How to plan for twice as much capacity. This layout makes it possible to install the system at the lowest initial cost for 1200 cfm and gradually add twice as much air with a minimum investment at each point of growth, while maintaining balance and storage during growth. The only other altornatie is to install a 6" t arler system co start with, witch would double the initial expense. Tf you have an about piping, please contact your lecal Sullair office.APPENDIX A Table 1. Factors for calculating loss of air caused by pipe friction. for any initial pressure. 2 ¥ee98 83982 asezs SEES 885)APPENDIX A. (Continued) Table 1. An?COMPRESSED AIR RECEIVER CAPACITY Capacity | Capacity in cu, ft, of free air at gauge pressure shown Tank in - oe Dimensions | Gallons 0 50 100 125 150 175 200 re] 20 2.7 12.0 20.8 25,3 30.0 34.4 38.9) le" x 36" 30 4.0 18.0 31.2 38,0 45.0 51.6 58.4 aoe" 60 8.0 36.0 62.4 76,0 90.0 103.2 20 x 63" 80 10,7 48.0 83.2, 101.3 120.0 137.6 2" x 68" | 120 16.0 72,0 124.8 152.0 180.0 206.4 | 30" « 84" 240 L 32.0 144.0 249.6 304.0 360.0 412.8 467.2VARIUUS ORIFICES xpressed in cubic feet per minute, and is assuned to take place from a receiver 1, in which atr 4e contained under pressure, into the atmosphere at sea level. ‘Temperature of air in receiver is assumed at 60 degrees Fahrenheit. This table is ony correct for orifices wich narrow edges; flow through even a short length of pipe would be less than that given below. Flow of Free Alr (Ca.Fe. Per Min.) Through Orifices of Various Diameters 1/64" v3" yea" Vie" 027 107 242 +430 038 153 “3a +607 “ove 1188 van 750 “059 1242 “505 ' 1965 ‘086 342 ” | 136 5 103 “38 T 167 2» hus 107 193 25 | 1333 uz 216 30 156 140 2.52 8 13 156 2.80 %0 at) La 3.07 “5 1208 19 3.36 0 "25 2.05 3.66 60 126 2.35 az | 70 | 2295 es 476 0 3 2.97 | 52 90 368 3.28 | 587 100 40 3.66 66s ne | rf) 3.98 7:00 120 a a27 | 758 130 457 3 140 als 8.68 150 3:20 9.20 175 5.96 10-6 200 6:90 122 | | 3716 ve | la 172 3.86 6.85 , 3 | 263 5.42 9.74 3 2.98 en ww 5 3.86 a7 15.4 20 5.45 23 28 | 15 6.65 15.0 eT 20 ; nn | ya 30-8 25 495 8.6 19-4 34.5 30 56 10.0 22:5 woo | 6 62 m2 25.0 4a.7 “0 6.8 23 25 wi 45 76 | 134 30°3 33.8 | 50 8.2 1435 22.8 38.2 | 6 | 3.4 : 37.5 | 7 \_70 | 10.7 43.0 | 16 i ie n3 ws ye i 90 Bi 525 %4 | | 100 165 | 58.3 1 wins 110 \ 13.7 | , “ae 120 {ro | a 130 2 140 5 | 150 7 us 8 | 200 23 |CHART IT - FOR TOOLS HAVING A CONTINUOUS CONSUMPTION OF COMPRESSED ATR | Tools Size Number CFM Each Total | io y 12.90 | tet Nozzle 1/16" Dia. 2 6.45 Exarple 190 psigTate ‘Avg. Free Normal | press. Air Cons. Load | Range Equipment CPM Factor*** L = = | | i 30-100 | ##Bench Rammer 5.0 sox | 90 - 100 **Ploor Rammer 7.0 40% (90 = 100 | **Back£111 Tamp [15.0 402 350 ~ 100 | **Compression | gaBtveter 1.0 Fon - 100 | ##automatte Drills 6.0 y= 100) #AALE Motor, LBP | 10.0 ' ~ Lot tate Motor, 2 j 13.0 - 190 **Air Motor, 3 HP 20.0 | 1 3) - 100) *#A‘r Motor Hoist, i | | | 10008 1 s.0 10% 90-100 | **A‘e Motor Hotst, i | ' 20008 5. 10% | 190-100 | Cylinder Type | | \ joist [1. 16% | | Hamers ! | 90 - 100 | **Scaling Hanmer | 4.0 39% | 99 = 190 | *&Chipping Harmer 7.0 35% 95 = 100 | #*Riveting Harmer | 15.0 | 35% i 1 Spray 5 (90 - 100 | *xPaint Spray Gun | | | (Production) | 85 | sox | 40-100) *APaine Spray (Touch-Up) 35 25% * Always check with tocl manufacturers for actual consumpticn of tools being used, The above are based on averages and should net be considered accurate for any particular make of tools. The free air consuuptions Listed herein are based on the use of the normal load factors shown in the adjacent column. Load factor is a percentage that exoresses the normal actual usage of air as compared to the maximum usage that will occur if the tool's throttle valve is turned fully open and the tool is operated continuously at maximum capacity. (Load factors should be adjusted based on your own individual operating conditions.) 4*# These devices are to be considered as continuously operating devices when operating normally. All other devices listed are to be considered as inter- mittently operated when operating normally. When the devices consist of a large number of the continuously eperating type, and if only a few are to be used at one tine, the compressor should have a Capacity at least equal to the total consumption of all those tocls used simultaneously, in addition to the consumption of al! Ly of tools, if any. 7 sae Sormal load fact ci thus the throteze valve ds open dur normal usageie ‘Ava. Free Normal becss Air Cons. Load Range aipnent crue Factor##* | kane [ Equip | - 190 = t99 | Bench Raumer 5.0 | sox [90 = 100 | *#FLoor Rane 70 soz a9 = 100 | A*packetit Tan 15.0 40% 50 = 100 | **Conpression | |. Riveter 1.0 10% V0 - ssqutomatic Drills 6.0 25% ne stair Motor, 1 HP 19.0 25% 7 s*Air Motor, 2 UP 15.0 25% - Hair Motor, 3} HP 20.0 i 35x \ = 100) #Raie Motor Hotst, | 10008 5.0 ton 99-100, | ARAL Motor aise, | 20008 5.0 10% | | 90 - 100 Cylinder Type | Hoist Ls 10% f Hamers 99 - 100 | *#Scaiing Hanmer 4.0 35% 90 = 100 | *Achipping Hammer To 352 | FARIvet ing Hanmer 150 35% | { Spray Gane ~ 1 0 | seraine Spray Gun | | | @reduet ion) 8.5 son ) | M#Paine Spray Gun | (Touch-Up) 3.5 2st ae Always eck with tool manufacturers for actual consumption of tools being used. The above are based on averages and should not be considered accurate for any particular make of tools. The free air consumptions listed herein ate based on the use of the normal load factors shown in the adjacent column. Load fac a percentage that expresses the normal actual usage of air 4 compared to the maximum usage that will occur if the tool's throttle valve is turned fully open and the tool is operated continuously at maximum capacity. (Load factors should be adjusted based on your own individual operating conditions.) These devices are to be considered as continuously operating devices when operating normally. All other devices Listed are to be considered as inter- mittently operated when operating normally. When the devices consist of a large number of the continuously operating type, and if only a few are to be nsed at one tine, the compressor should have a capacity at least ecual to the total consumption of all those tools used simultaneously, in addition to the consumption of all tie {ntermitrently operated tools, {F aay. ° 1 load fact normal usage. the percentage of time the throttle valve Ls open duringFRICTION OF ATA IN Hose no 12 430 100 + as 2INDUSTRIAL TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT \ ate Ave. Free Normal | | Press. Ar Cons. | Load | ange Equipment cFM* Factock™® | E ~ 1 | oo - 100 | *Abuseing Gun | | (Blow Gun) 3.0 10% | 90 - 100 | *aDrtii, 1/16" co 3/8" 40 25% uw **Drd11, 3/18" to 5/8" 7.0 25%, WScrendriver, 02 : to #6 Screw - 109 | *AScrendriver, #6 | to 5/16" Screw 3.0 1st | oo - 190 | **Tapper, to 3/8" 3.0 1st [90 - 100 | *Autsetters, to 3/8 3.0 15% | 90 - 100 *kNutsetters, to 3/4" 5.0 15% , 90 - 100 **Impact Wrench, 1 3/8" sq. dr. 2.0 20% 00 - 100 | **Impact Wrench, 1 1 | 4" sq. dr. {3.5 20% 90 - 100 | *AImpact Wrench, | | 5/8" sq. dr. 5.0 20% a9 - 100 | tt Wreach, ag. dr. 15 j 208 96 - 100 *#Impact wrench, L''sq. dr. 10.0 20% **Die Grinder, Small 4.0 (30% ‘**Die Grinder, Medium 5.0 30% 90 ~ 100 | *#Horlzontal Grinder, 2" ‘10.0 | 30% | 90 - 100 ‘*eHorizontal | 1 Grinder, 4" 14.0 30% 90 - 100 **Horizontal Grinder, 6" 16.0 30% 90 - 100 | *#Horizontal | Grinder, 8" 20.0 30% 90-100 | *AVereical Grinders & Sanders, 5" Pad 10.0 30% 90-100 | *4Vertical Grinders | & Sanders, 7" Pad | 14.0 30% 90 - 100 | *4Vereical Grinders | * Sanders, 9" Pad | 90-100 | *A*Filing & Sawing Machine, Sitall 90-100 | **PLLing & Sawing | Machine, Large j 90-199 | **Eurring Tool, | | small | 90 - 100 | **Burring Tool, I [largeINDUSTRIAL TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT Avg. Free Normal Air Cons. | Load Equipment crm | Factors#* xrDusting Gun | (Blow Gun) 3.0 10% | **Drill, 1/16" to 3/ 4.0 25% waprill, 3/18" to 5/ 7.3 | ‘Screwdriver, #2 | i to #6 Screw | 1.0 jist ‘AScreudriver, #6 j to 5/16" Screw 3.0 1st [ **Tapper, to 3/8" 3.0 15% *aNutsetters, to 3/8 3.0 | *sNutsetters, to 3/4" 5.0 | iss xeImpact Wrench, 3/8" sq. dr. 2.0 20% **Impact Wrench, | | Wr" sq. dr. 3.5 20% *AImpact Wrench, | i 5/8" sq. dr. 5.0 20% ! *sImpact Wrench, i 3/4" sq. dr. j 75 20% jo - tno | #eImpact Reench, | L"'sa. dr. 16.0 20% 90 - 100 | *ADie Grinder, Small 4.0 30% 9G - 100 | *D1e Grinder, Medium ~ 5.0 30% | 59-100 | *AHortzontat | Grinder, 2" 10.0 30% 96 = 10 stHortzontal | | Grinder, 4" | e.0 30% i | *Hlorizontal | | | Grinder, 6” 16.0 30% | *#Horizontal Grinder, 8" 20.0 30% j | 90 - 100 | ‘Vertical Grinders | | | @ Sanders, 5" Pad 10.0 30% | 40 - 1c) *AVertical Grinders | | | sanders, 7" Pad 14.0 | 30x | 90 - 100 | *#Vertical Grinders [90 - 100 | *AFiling & Sawing | | Machine, Small 3.0 15% | | 90-100 | AMFLLing & Sawing Machinz, Large 5.0 | asx -1 saBurring Tool, | | Small | 40 | 30% | | 90 - 109 | **Burring Tool, | | I Large 5.0 30% JSAND BLASTING NOZZLES CAGE PRESSURE DIAMETER 60 70 80 100 | | 1/16 4 5 1 5.5 | 6.5 | | 3/32 9 i | 2 i wy | 1/8 VW 19 21 26 | 3/16 38 43 47 58 4 67 76 85 103 5/16 105 119 133 161 3/8 151 vi 191 232 ue 268 304 340 412 | | |YOUR OWN PLANT ATR ESTIMATE CHART 1 ~ FOR TOOLS HAVING AN INTERMITTENT CONSUMPTION OF COMPRESSED AIR Your Teale ory Number Use Estimated Air Type Size Each Total Factor Req. CFM 15-3/4 Impact s 3 ws 105 30% Example Wrench Capacity TOTAL