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/ 394
Klaus-Peter Brand
Volker Lohmann
Wolfgang Wimmer
Substation
Automation
Handbook
Comprehensive descriotion of Substation
Automation and the coordination with
Network Operation to obtain both
performance and cost benefits by enabling
enhanced Power System Management Copyright © 2003 by
Klaus-Peter Brand - Kaus-peterbrand@ ieee org
\Voker Lohmann - volkerlohmann @bluewin ch
Wolfgang Wimmer - toptools bluewinch
Neither this book, nor any part may be reproduced
or transmitted in any form ox by any means, elec-
tronic or mechanical, including photocopying, migro-
filming, and recording or by any information storage
and retrieval system, without the permisson in
‘writing ofthe publisher
Publisher:
Utiity Automation Consulting Lohmann,
Im Meyerhot 18, CH-5620 Bremgarten, Switzeriand
hetp:/Aenwwuacch
This book is printed on acifree paper
Text and ilustrations: Klaus-Peter Brand,
Volker Lohmann, Wolfgang Wimmer
CCover lustration: Werner Lehmann
Concept Designer: Kurth Winiger, CH-8050 Zorich
Pre-Press: Romy Schatz, CH-8050 Zurich
Print: Jatte-Miessedruck Leipzig Grol
E-04329 Leiprig
Printed in Germany
ISBN 3-85758.951-5 1 Table of content
1 Table of content
2 About this Book
3. Introduction and Scope
4 Challenges with introducing Substation Automation
5 Primary Equipment in Substations
6 The Functions of Substation Automation
7 Substation Automation Structure
8 Substation Automation Architectures
9 Asset Management Support
10 New Roles of Substation Automation
11 Wide Area Protection
12 Standards and Quality Definition for Substation Automation
13 The System Standard IEC 61850 for Substation Automation
14 Phase Models of Substation Automation Systems
15. Benefits of Substation Automation
16 Guide to SA System Specification
17 Strategy to Cope with the fast Changing Technology
18 Trends and Gutlook
19 References
20 Glossary
21 Annex
5
15
31
43
93
141
151
183
197
2u
279
301
313
325
339
345
349
353
361
367
Table of
content 4
2 About this Book
2.1 Preface
‘The purpose of this book is to bridge the gap in
‘mutual understanding between those readers, who
are well experienced with the technical requirements,
design, construction, testing and operation of primary
equipment in substations €9, circuit breakers, isola-
tots current and voltage transformers or power trans-
formers etc, and information technology (7) orented
readers, who are involved in the development,
design, production, and application of modern inteli-
gent electronic devices (IED) intended to be used for
Substation Automation (SA) Systems,
When the fst microprocessor based substation con-
tral systems (SCS) were built the prime objective was
to provide the same functionalty and make then
‘work as reliable and fast as conventional control
systems. The system inherent problem to be soWed
was the fact that the serial bus communication caus-
ed a bottleneck for the system response times in
comparison with conventional parale-wired control
systems. This SA system behavior made the commu-
nication within the substation a key issue for the per
formance of SCS and numerous propriety communi-
‘ation bus systems and protocols were implemented
due to the lack of intemational Standards. The con-
sequence was that all the SCS were vendor spectic
‘and IEDs from other vendors could not be used in
such systems due to the lack of compatibity
The users were not hapoy about this situation as they
felt to be restricted to a specific vendor f they inten-
ded to extend their control systems. On the other
hand, many SCS were implemented by small compa-
nies and based on general purpose programmable
logical control (PLC) systems that could net provide
the required functionality or meet the lang term ori-
ented system compatiblity requirements, which are
typical for the electric utility business, On the other
hand, many ofthese small companies did not last for
a long time because of commercial problems and
many of those SCS can neither be extended nor be
maintaned due to the lack of spares and specific
system knowledge.
The awareness of these problems leads to an ob-
stade for the acceptance of the new technology and
for the large-scale implementation of SCS. This caus-
€ed pressure on the reputable vendors of SCS to stand-
ardize the communication within substations a5 well
2 the engineering approach and the formal descrip-
tion ofthe functionality in terms of a substa-tion con-
figuration language (SCL) The main objective was to
achieve interoperability between IEDs that originate
from different vendors
The authors have been personaly involved in the
process, which was triggered by IEC and EPRI to
standardize the communication and all its system
related aspects t has resulted in the new IEC 61850
standard for communication within substations,
‘which is availabe in the year 2003, The authors are
proud to highlight in this book some achievements
made with this standard, The objective of the descrip-
tion is to rake all those decision makers in utitis,
‘who are sceptical and fear the problems involved
with proprietary communication, confident that the
new standard provides a comprehensive solution for
the interoperability of IEDs from various vendors, who
commit themselves to support this new standard in
their IEDs
When the design of IEDs to be appied tor SCS
_systems was based on common main stream hard-
‘wate components as well as on modular functional
libraries for control that were quite similar to functio-
ral brates for protection, it was possible to integra
te control and protection systems in comprehensive
systems for substation automation (SA). The authors
‘were personally involved with the development and
implementation of a comprehensive platform for
multipurpose control and protection 1E0s. Therefore,
the focus of this book is on SA rather on SCS with 22
separated protection. The objective of the authors is
to make those readers wth a background in substa-
tion control or protection confident that the integra
tion of both functionalities leads to cost effective sys
tem solutions that have the same safety and availabi-
lity as systems with seperate IEDs for control and for
protection.
The integration of the control and protection functio-
ralty to SA makes effecive substation monitoring
primary equipment condition and support of modem
systems for maintenance and asset menagerent
possible as an additional beneft that can be derived
from SA, This book descibes the realization of such
concepts, which lead to an enhancement of the over-
all power system management. The objective is that
the readers, who wish to evaluate the commercial
benefits that can be derived from SA, become aware
that such an cost/benefit analysis has to take those
additional benefit into account.
In view of the fact that SA systems can be used for
the condition monitoring of primary equipment lke
Corcuit breakers, instrument transformers and power
transformers, the descrocon of this equipment in this,
'book includes the crtical comoonents, which are sub-
Ject to wear and aging, The objective is to make users
(of SA systems aware of this new possibility and to
provide developers of SA application with back-
‘ground knowledge of the critcalty of the primary
equipment,
‘Apart from substation related issues, the implemen-
tation of SA enables new strategies related to power
system protection that counteracts wide area distur
bances and avoids power system collapse. With the
aid of new digital sensors for the detection of volta-
‘ge and frequency instabilities, wide area protection
systems can be implemented that provide the sys-
tem operator with eariy indication of incipient pro-
blems in the grid in order to put him into the posi-
tion to initiate counter measures early enough that
the power system integrity is maintained, SA enab
automated corrective actions that reduce the respon
se time to problems significantly
If sudden loss of generation or increase of load caus-
£5 instabilities so fast that the operator has no chan-
ce to react fast enough, SA can be used by the wide
atea protection scheme for rapid automatic load
shedding to compensate for the loss of generation
and to reduce the load
Because of this new role of SA, the scope of this
book as outlined in Chapter 3 has been extended
beyond the traditional functions to describe wide
area protecion schemes ard ther interaction with
SA The objective is to make system planners and
‘operators aware of the new possi that are offer-
‘ed by SA in conjunction with wide area protection
systems and power system optimization concepts
2.2 About the Authors
2.2.1 How SA has started
The idea to substitute conventional relay logics for
substation control and analogue protection relays by
digital technologies based on microprocessors and
serial communication commenced in BBC in the late
1970ties. Study groups were established in BBC
Baden/Switzerland and BBC Mannheim/Germany.
The key people of that time in BBC Baden were
Jorgen Kopainsky and Klaus-Peter Brand, who deve-
loped very systematicaly the basic specications and
concepts of SA, Woligang Wirnmer became involved
in these early activites when engineering issues have
been touched, and Volker Lohmann was represen-
ting the gas insulated substation (GIS) diision in this
team
Many customers were approached during this time
with these new ideas, but the users were not very enthusiastic and receptive, and no utility wanted to
take the risk to run a pilot project. One of the main
obstacles for the acceptance were the uliity’s orgar
nization. The reason was that substation contro, pro-
tection and communication were considered to be
separate discipines and, consequently, each was
organized in separate departments. As the SA
approach integrated the whole lt in one system, the
idea of separate departments became obsolete,
which was perceived by the corresponding depart-
ment managers as a threat
This situation changed crasticaly, when BBC was
awarded by ESKOM South Africa with the world frst
800 kV GIS “ALPHA on 1th of December 1982
This spectacular order has created a huge innovative
‘momentum not only in BBC for the development of
a complete new size of GIS but also on ESKOM's
side with regard to the readiness to accept new ideas
and technologies. [1]
The key issue for the ESKOM acceptance of a
microprocessor based substation control system
(SCS) was the complex and large 800 kV GIS substa:
tion layout comprising 12 switchgear bays that would
have required a very extensive interlocking scheme, i
it had been designed by relay logics In view of the
fact that more than 100 contacts of auxilary switches
and relay contacts would have had to be connected
in series for one single interlocking expression in
Boolean algebra, ESCOM considered such a solution
a impracticable und unreliable The much better
solution was the B8C proposal to substitute hard-
‘wired interlocking by a rricroprocessor based expert
system, called "Topology based interlocking scheme’
which was based on general rues rather than on
Boolean Algebra expressions. This new idea was
developed by Jurgen Kopainsty, Klaus-Peter Brand
and Wolfgang Wimmer. [3]
The development and implementation of this fist
SCS in ALPHA was first headed by Jurgen Kopainsky
and later by Hermann Schachermayr, the customer
requirement specication and engineering was made
by Becnhard Sander, [2] and the function plan pro
gramming for the bay controls by Fritz Wittwer,
while Voiker Lohmann was the project manager of
the total contract comprising the 800 KV GIS deve-
lopment and delivery as well as the SCS part
Five years after the order, ALPHA was successfully
commissioned on 31st March 1987 within the sche
duled delvery time.
‘After the merger of BBC and ASEA to become ABB
(on 10th of August 1988, the progressive activities on
SCS in Switzerland were allocated to the protection
division of ABB Switzerland, which was headed by
Jean Gantner. A new group for the SCS business
development was established with Volker Lohmann
as manager and Klaus-Peter Brand, Wolfgang
Wimmer, Helmut Hager and Otto Preiss as members
Of the first core tear. Two years later, this division
became the new company ABB Relays AG, which
‘was managed by Otto Lanz
In ABB Relays AG, the world-first commercial com:
mon hardware and software platform decicated for
the protection and control of HV substations was
ceveloped under Fred Engler, who was head of the
development department. This innovative and revo-
lutionary approach enabled to merge protection and
control functions into one integrated system and to
allow modem SA functions.
‘The commercial break-through of this new platform,
‘was enabled in conjunction with the first PC based
MicoSCADA from ABB Finland, which was used as
station level HMI and with the complementary new
range of microprocessor based protection relays and
bay control units from ABB Finland for cistiaution
applications. The market acceptance was achieved in
the course of the fist SA projects in Switzerland and
in the UK. The key people for the successful comple-
tion of these demanding projects were Otto Press,
‘Andeé Kreuzer and Kurt Frei.
22 222
10
2.22 Curriculum Vitae
Klaus-Peter Brand was bom 1948 in Neustadt ad,
Asch, Germany, From 1967, he studied physics and
mathematics in Germany at the Universities Ware
burg, Kiel and Bonn. In Bonn, be got his Master
Degree in Physics in 1972 (Dipl Phys) and his PhD (Or
rer nat) in 1976 by a work about Interstar Plasma
Physic.
From 1976 to 1982 he worked in the BBC Research
Center, Baden, Switzerland in the area of SF6 plasma
physics (SF6 arc in high voltage breakers) He intro
duced the onvine literature search facies in the
Research Cente
From 1982 to 1988 he acted as Senior En
the department for “Power System Analysis” of BBC,
Baden, Switzerland making load flow and EMTP cal
lations. He participated in the team for the intro-
duction of "Substation Automation’ jointly writing the
Function and Engineering Specification, and design-
ing the System architecture. He joint the project team
for the pilot project in Substation Automation of an
800 KV GIS substation and was involved in the deve
lopment and application of the topology based
Interlocking method. He further acted as co-editor of
the company owned Handbook for Electromagnetic
Compatibility
‘Alter the merger of ASEA and 88C to ABB, from
1988 to 1995 he was involved in the substation
‘automation (SA) business development in ABB
Relays/Baden, Switzerland to set up the engineering
actvties, sales support and to contibute to the
design and realization of pilot projects. In the local
ABB organization he was product menager (PM) for
SA and he acted globally as chaiman of the market
requirement group to define the next ABB genera-
tion of SA systems.
From 1995 to 1999 he was PM of the ABB Panorama
concept for Network Control and SA and coordinated
Klaus Peter Brand
‘the PM adivities in ABB. Network Pariner/Baden
Switzeriand. He participated in the successful imple
mentation of the ISO Cerifcation process and was
responsible for the definition of the PM process. He
further provided sales suopot for complex projects,
and established the fist ABB Internet based market-
ing too for Panorama,
in 2000 he moved to the ABB University Switzerland
to manage, conduct and develop taining courses
mainly on the subjects of Power systems, Elecro-
magnetic compatibity, Substation automation and
Communication. He has further set up
lum for Project managers
Since 1990 he is working for CIGRE SC B5 (former
C34) as working group (WG) and task force (TF)
Convener, Since 1995 he is member of the editor
team in ‘G10 of the IEC technical committee TC57
for the Standard IEC 61850 "Communication Net-
works and Systems in Substations’. He is further
member of TKS7, the Swiss National Mirror Comrnit
tee of TCS7, and he is Senior Member of IEEE
Volker Lohmann was bom 1940 in Milheim-Rubr,
Germany and studied Flectical Engineering at the
Rheinisches Poltechnikum Disseldort, Germany. He
gained his professional experience from more than
30 years of working with Brown Boveri Cie (BBC) and
‘ABB Switzerland in various ranagement positions
‘and field related to high voltage (HV) substations, HV Volker Lohmann
Grcuit breakers (CB), gas insulated switchgear (GIS)
and substation automation (SA). He started his ca-
reer 1965 with research in the application of HV
power electronics for High Votage Direct Current
(HVDC and variable speed chives. After several years
in research he moved into the sales and marketing
‘organization for HV circuit breaker and gas insulated
sat (GIS) as sales and. project manager, In
1982 the world’s fst 800 KV GIS project offered him
the opportunity to initiate the development and im:
plementation of the fist BBC microprocessor based
substation control system (SCS) as the project mana-
Ger. His coauthors were member of the project team
In the course of the merger between BBC,
Switzeriand and ASEA, Sweden, in 1987 he was re5-
pponsible for the product management for SCS and
protection and was involved in the development of a
rmuttfunctional and software library based platform
for inteligent electronic devices (IED) for contro, pro-
tection and monitoring of HV substations. In 1995 he
became member of the ABB Business Area Mana
‘gement Team for SA and protection and was worid-
‘wide responsible for the product management and
strategic marketing of SA systems. He retired in 2002
and stared his own company for Utlity Automation
Consuiting, where he is presently working
Wolfgang Wimmer was bom 1947 in Bad
Schwartau, Northen Germany. He studied Mathe:
matics and Computer Science at the University of
Wolfgang Wimmer
Hamburg, where he also graduated in Computer
‘dence about Deadlocks in Communication net:
works. After five years working for the Deutsches
Blektronensynchroton in Hamburg, where he wrote
compilers and implemented the base software for a
packet switching network, he moved to Brown Boveri
& Cie (B80) in Baden/Switzerland
‘There he started with the design and implementat-
on ofa train contro system and became member of
the technical committee TC7 “Safety and Reliabilty”
Of the European Workshop on Industrial Computer
Systems (EWICS) He was further involved in the
design of engineering systems for remote terminal
Units (RTU) and Network Control Systems. During this,
time, he was also member of the IEC technical cor:
mittee TC65 to develop the standard IEC 61508
"Safety in Industrial Electronic Systems”
His involvement in substation autornation started in
1983 with partipation in the development of a
‘topology based interocking program, and continued
with the introduction of mictoprocessor based con
trol systems for the substation automation business.
Aiter the merger of BBC with Asea in 1987, he conti-
‘nued with these activites in the new company. ABB
with focus on engineering processes and tools. He is
currently occupied with the development of substar
tion automation and monitoring systems at ABB/
Switzerland, and he is member of the IEC TCS7 work-
ing group WG11 as editor of the upcoming standard
IEC 61850 for Communication in Substations, part 6.
222
"1 25
12
2.3 Acknowledgements
‘There are quite a number of colleagues to be men-
tioned, who have contributed directly or indirectly to
this book by cooperating with us over more than 20
years for a longer or shorter time. They have helped
to collect the basic information, to elaborate market
requirement spectications, to establish the SA busi-
ness, to develop advanced ideas and to maintain the
high level ofthe state-of the-art. Most of them came
from our internal business environment in BBC and
‘ABB respectively, but there have been other impor-
tant contributors from customers and even from chal
lenging competitors, There have ahways lvely discus-
sions taken place, not only in our every day's working
fe but also in intemal and extemal meetings, in
Intemational Conferences, as well 2s in International
Organizations lke CIGRE and IEC and the associated
working groups. In order to avoid that some contri
bbutors are not mentioned below, we first would like
to express our coral gratitude and apprecation very
generally to all those colleaques, we were privileged
to work with on the subjects of SA and communica-
tion within substations
Some of these colleagues we ike to mention are
listed below in alphabetic order as they have been
intensively involved in our activites in substation auto-
‘mation ann our invoWement in the IEC 6185 stand-
ardization, each of them in a very particular way:
Lars Andersson (ABB Switzerland)
‘Carl Byman (ABB Sweden)
Christoph Brunner (ABB Switzerland)
Rudolph Dinges (ABB Germany)
Fred Engler (ABB Switzerland)
Kurt Frei (ABB Switzerland)
‘Soren Forsman (ABB Sweden)
Helmut Hager (former ABB Switzerland)
Antti Hakala-Rarta (ABB Finland)
Jurgen Kopainsky (former BBC Switzeriand)
‘André Kreuzer (former ABB Switzerland)
Lars-Gunnar Malmqyist (ABB Sweden)
Carl-Gustav Oesterbaka (ABB Finland)
Martin Ostertag (ABB Switzerland)
Otto Preiss (ABB Switzerland)
Bemhard Sander (former BBC Switzerland)
Hermann Schachermayr (ABB Switzerland)
Leif Wiliamsson (ABB Finland)
\We futher thank our company, ABB Switzerland, that
gave us the great opportunity and support to build
Up allthis know-how in an inspiring international
environment, which has finally been converted into
numerous SA produc, systems, and projects
We futher express our appreciation to Goran Lind,
Head of the Division Utity Automation System jn
ABB Switzerland for his continuous, encouraging and
supporting interest in our book, a5 well as his Sub-
divsion Manager, Yves Baumgartner, for selecting our
book as offical reference for ABB intemal and exter-
‘nal triing in Substation Automaton,
2.4 We would like to hear from you
‘This isthe fist edition of the Substation Automation
Handbook In view of the fact that the technology is
developing very fast and that it will enable further
enhancements in functionality and application it may
be desirable to produce futher editions. This occa-
sion would be an excellent opportunity to introduce
‘comments and modifications, which may be raised
and proposed by some of our readers, Therefore, we
encourage you fo contact us via E-mail and to help
that the next ection can be improved accordingly.
2.5 Readers Guide
In the area of substation automation there are work-
ing people with different professional background.
Very often, this leads to a lack of mutual understand: ing between people with power system back-
ground, who eg started their professional career
before PCs became a common working tool, and
computer scentists, who are familiar with the
modern way of thinking in the computer age. They,
however, usualy lack of the understanding of the pri-
‘mary equipment and the particular requirements for
making electronic equipment workin the harsh envi-
ronment of HV substations, Apart from this, they are
not aware of the sensitivity of the power system pro-
cess and the impact of the control actions that are
initiated by the IEDs on the power system behavior.
The authors are well aware of this conflict and the
lack of mutual understanding from their personal
background in switchgear and substation automation.
as well as from their extensive experience in
+ Gas insulated switchgear (GIS) research, design
and application,
« The development of substation automation
‘concepts, software functions and components
‘The marketing and introduction of SA business
5 well as negotiatng SA contracts, managing
projects, trouble shooting and
«last but not least ftom more than 20 years of
teaching and conducting SA workshops in many
parts of the word
Many SA projects became a disappointment for users
as well as for the suppliers as they failed to meet the
expectations with regard to cost effective-ness. The
reasons were always very similar: the users were not
in the postion to specify their requirements and the
suppiers were not aware of the genuine needs of
their customers. The main motivation to write this
book was the awareness of the need for such a SA,
Handbook as a contribution to improve the mutual
Understanding between the two conficting partes.
Allreaders are invited to read Chapter 3 “Introduction
and Scope” to get familar with the general way of
thinking and the related vocabulary. In addition to
chapter 3 the readers may chose those chapters that
cover their missing knowledge.
‘The objectives of the authors are
‘To transfer their extensive know-how of all the
‘aspects related to the technical, functional and
commercial issues around SA to all decision
makers in utity management, system operation,
system planning, engineering and maintenance
who wish to imprave their personal knowledge
in this field (Chapters 4 9, 10,15 refer
‘To make the power system oriented readers,
aware of the new possibilties and benefits that
can be exploited with the implementation of
substation automation systems (Chapters 4,9,
10,11, 15 refer.
To make the readers with a background in
corwentional control and protection systems
(secondary systems) familar with the specific
performance and safety aspects of SA systems
that comps integrated numerical protection
‘and control functionality (Chapters 6, 7 8 refer,
‘+ To make the -eaders involved in the development,
sign and application of IT in terms of inteligent
electronic devices (IED) and for SA aware of the
specific needs of the power system and the safety
and availabilty related aspects of substation con-
trol and protection (Chapters 6,7 8, 12,13 refer,
#70 provide the readers, who are involved with
engineering, zesting and commissioning of SA
systems with background knowledge with regard
to SA systems architectures, availabilty and safety
aspects as well as to the allocation of functions in
2a SA system (Chapters 6,7, 8 refer)
‘To convey decision makers in utites the message
that the implementation of SA throughout their
substations offers new chances for the ullities to
improve the’ internal processes to the exert that
the overall cost in power system operation and
maintenance are drastically reduced, the return on
investment is accelerated and the productivity as
well as the profitability of the enterprise is sigif-
cantly improved (Chapters 4, 11,15 refer)
25
13 26
14
Table 2-1 provides a more detailed guidance for the
readers with various background and experience to
select the chapters that may be of particular interest
to them to complement their specific knowledge
with information around SA,
Chapters |
Readers 3| 4/5 {6 |7 [8 | 9 |r0| 11/12] 13 |14 |15 |16 |17 |18 |21
Students x x|x[x/ x x x
Beginners in
‘Computer science,
Power systems,
Financal planning,
System operation x] x} x] x |x] x x |x| x] x] x
Deason makers:
System planning,
System operation
Designiengineering.
Maintenance x] x xfxfxf fxf fx pp xpx
Developers x| | x{x{x[x x|x|x x|x|x
Engineering spec. x{_| x[x]x[x x | x] x ba mall
Protection spec. x|_ | x[x]x]x x[x[ x} | x|x]x x
SCADA spec. x [x] x Px [x [x fx [x [x x} [x[x x
Testing/comissioning x[_[x[x]x[x x[x]x
Maintenance xx] x x[ xt [x [x
System planning x{x | x[x x[x[x x
Table 2-1. Readers Guide
2.6 References
[1] Volker Lohmann (B8C/Switzerland), Andrew C. Bolton (ESGOM/South Africa)
Gas insulated switchgear developed for 765 kV, Modem Power Systems,
February 1985, published by Unted Trade Press Ltd. London/UK
[2] Bric Engelbrecht (ESCOM/South/Aftical, Bernhard Sander, Hermann Schachermayr (BBC/Switzerland)
Integrated control for ECOM's 800 kV ALPHA Substation, Transmission and Distribution,
‘Modern Power Systems, October 1987, published by United Trade Press Ltd. Londor/UK
[B] Klaus-Reter Brand, J0rgen Kopainsky, Wolfgang Wimmer - Topology based interlocking
of electrical substations, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery PWRD-1, 3, 118-126 (1986) 3
34
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
Introduction and Scope
Scope
Electric power as sensitive basics of our today's society
The electric power system
3311 The long and complex path from power generation to power consumpiion
332. The power production
333. Three-phase system and aurrent, voltage and frequency
3.34. The transportation of electric eneray by the network and the related voltage levels
3.35 Some comments to voltage levels in electric power systems
3.36 The consumption of electric energy
3.36.1 The defrition of root mean square values
Specific Aspects of the Electric Power System
3.41 The power flow
3.4.1.1. Production equals consumption
3.41.2 Base load demand and load peaks, variation of demand per day, week
3.413. Power flow controlled by physics of the power network
3.4.14. Many votage levels for transmission and distrbution
3.42. Power generation, network stability and energy quality
3421 Dispersed power generation (PG)
3422. Complex network with stabilty problems
3423 Power quality
343. Safety aspects
343.1. High currents, voltages and surges
3432 Electromagnetic interference and hig
3.433 Protection
The Role of the Substation for the grid
35.1. Node functionality
352. Access to the power and power network
The Role of Substation Automation for the Network Management
3.6.1 The Power Network Management System
36.1.1 The structure
36.12 The overall tasks
3.62. Local Functions in Substations
3.63 The local support functions for Network Level Systems
3.64 The cudal role of communication
‘Substation Automation Systems
371 Short definition of Substation Autornation Systems
3.72 The History wth Remote Terminal Units
373. From RTU to SA
‘Substation Automation Soiutions
381 Commercial questions behind substation automation solutions
382 Benefits of Substation Automation
383 The realzation of SA automation
References
16
16
16
16
16
17
18
19
19
20
20
20
20
2
21
21
21
21
21
22
2
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2B
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24
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25
25
26
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a
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3
Table of
content
15 34
16
3 Introduction and Scope
3.1 Scope
‘The topic of this book is Substation Automation.
Before we can go into this fascinating and powerful
automation area, we have to get some idea about
the role ofthe substation and its automation in the
electric power system. Behind all we can see the
importance of electric power for our socety today.
3.2 Electric power as sensitive basics
of our today’s society
We all use the benefit of electric power in our every
days life. Already for a long time, the dean electric
light has extended the day up to 24 hours both for
work services, and pleasure. A lot of heavy work has
taken over by electric powered machines. Medical
instruments and the complete infrastructure of hospi
tals rely on electic power. In every home, we find
many devices from vacuum cleaner to TV set all
depending on electric power. Our complete telecom
‘environment and all our information technology wath
all its computers rely on the unlimited availabilty of
electric power. The strong impact of power on sode-
Te ee
‘Transmission and distribution
ty i seen by any shortage of electrcty or blackouts
happening from time to time. How does the system
look that provides al this power?
33 The electric power system
33.1 The long and complex path from
power generation to power
consumption
Despite of some efforts in decentralized power pro-
duction, power generation and power consumption
are separated from each other at least for bulk
power. Few production centers feed milions of con-
sumers. Therefore, large transmission and distibution
networks are needed to link both parties (Figure 3-1)
‘An introduction to power systems is found in [1]
332 The power production
Most electric power is produced by fossil (oi coal) or
rnudear power plants. These types of power plants
produce steam, which drives turbines and the con
nected generators providing electric energy (Fig
3-2) A\lot of power is produced also by hydropower
Manes!
pana
Figure 3-1 This schematic picture indicates the countrywide interconnection af power production
‘and consumption by the network vetve
Controle
333
Figure 3-2 Turbine and
(generator (cluding
PF and QV contro)
plants where the water flow is the driving force. Wind
farms (driving force wind) or photovokaic cels (direct
production of electric power) produce a small but
increasing fraction of electic energy. The electic
power production is subject to some dedicated sys:
tem features, which have to be considered from the
beginning,
333 Three-phase system and current,
voltage and frequency
Photovottac cells ke batteries produce electric ener:
gy with constant votage and current cated direct cur-
rent (00,
The production of electic power with the above
mentioned rotating machines, where cols are mov-
ing in changing magnetic fields, provides a sinuosoi-
dal, aerating current (AQ). Since these machines
(Figure 3-3) have usualy three poles displaced by 1/3
of a complete tum we get a three-phase system, ie
three-phase belts (windings) with induced sinuosoi-
dal altemating voltages feeding three conductors
with sinusoidal altemating current (AC) each dsplac
ed by 1/3 of 360° resulting in a displacernent of 120°
igure 34)
saatorwinaing!
Phase belt a
Phase
winding,
B \'Pnase set's
Phase b
— rinses ~ = phase? — > Phase
Figure 3-4 Three-phase Power System (Phase Currents
with Amplitude normalized to 1) 7 334
18
This rotation frequency gives the frequency both of
the voltage and the current. Common values for the
power frequency are ie. SO Hz (eq. in Europe) or
60 He (ea. in US), For some few railway systems, also
167 He (formerly 16 2/3 Hz) isin use. Curent refers
to conducting parties (electrons) moving through a
conductor. ts driving force is the voltage with the
same frequency built up by the magnetic feld in the
generators. Basicaly, power is calculated out of the
Product of current and voltage. Considering the
phase shift (angle difference) described by sinp or
cos between current and voltage or not, we get
three types of power ie the apparent power (5) the
reactive power (Q) or the active power (R). The last
value is what provides the electic energy to work for
Us (See section 3361)
The three-phase system is advantageous as the three
displaced phases fit well to rotating machines whit-
out dead point, and no return conductor is needed
Under faut-free conditions
‘The advantage of AC systems is that its votage can
be transformed to higher and lower levels by tans-
formers being based again on changing magnetic
fields in the transformer cols. These magnetic fields
result in inductance and the related electric fields in
capactance of each wire, Both effects have to be
added to the Ohmic resistance of the conductor. The
result is the impedance meaning losses and phase
shits of the sinusoidal currents and voltages. The
advantage of DC is that only the Ohrric resistance
has to be considered. These advantages of OC are
used also for power transtrssion by High Voltage
Direct Current (HVDQ lines. With these features, we
have started already to touch the transmission and
distribution of electric energy.
3.34 The transportation of electric energy
by the network and the related
voltage levels
Since production and consumption of energy are nor-
mally separated, a sophisticated network or atid of
conductors tke transmission lines and cistribution
‘ables has to connect both the producers and con-
sumers of electric energy (Figure 3-5)
The conductors have some resistivity against this cur-
rent descibed by the above-mentioned impedance
consisting of inductvity, capacity, and resistivity.
Overhead ines and cables form the network and, to
some very small extent, gas isolated lines (GIL). In
plans of such networks, the conductors for all three
phases are shown as single lines.
The nodes in this network are substations providing
‘aities for switching on and off the connections. in
Such a product approval procedure should be * L@k or failure of transmission
appled only once to assure thatthe right and feasi. Lack o failure of cistibution
ble produc is received on ste, * Lack or failure of accounting To evaluate all these parameters is a very complex
task and itis suggested to define a single non-per-
formance factor called “Non Distributed Energy”
(NDE) to analyze the shortcorrings in service
This NDE is a new unit, in the local currency by kWh,
which represents the difference of money between
the two states of power systern:
1. The utity is able to deliver the energy
to the end customer and
2. The utility is not able to deliver
The valuation of the NDE is a very sensive action
because the NDE is not only the benefit by kWh but
includes all the activities of the uty. For national or
state utlities, the NDE will include the lack of quality
of energy, that this factory cannot produce and then
cannot grow and cannot pay its people and they can-
not use electricity because they cannot pay or buy
electric equipment
‘The NDE does not indicate where to invest but indi-
‘ates when and how much to invest. This is the first
step. The NDE is also used to sort the projects and
{ve prioty between two projec. (The NDE is also
{2 very good parameter to contol the level invest-
iment in a uty. It can be used with great benefit by
‘the managernent board for financial regulation)
But non ual of service translated in NDE alone is @
poor approach, if we do not consider other paramne-
ters as well Level of voltage, frequency, reactive
ower transfer, number of long and short time inter-
rupts are important parameters. One part of these
parameters i involved in network stability,
‘Therefore utilities use as a more complete approach
‘qualty parameters, which are often the time of inter-
tupts coming from the electrical network and stations
failures (FTime) and time of interrupts coming from
works on the network and the substation (W/-Time).
Historical and detailed information of these two para
meters is very important so as to be able to deter-
‘mine where to invest to increase the quality of ser-
vice
The Fime parameter has to be- cut in short time
+200 ms and long ime >= 200 ms (FS-Time and FL
Time) because these two kinds of failure do not have
the same impact forthe final customer. Generally, FS-
Time are not vety sensitive for the end customer
‘except if this one uses programmable logic compu-
ters withcut using UPS.
FSTime is coming from faut on the lines (trees,
storms, ightning..) and Fl-Time is commonly coming
from stations oF equipment.
Repeatability of non-qualty is @ very important aspect
100. The situation involved by twenty energy prob-
lems @ year is more than twice as worst than the
situation involved by ten energy problems a year. It
‘seams that the customer disappointment is propor:
‘ional to the square of the default number. To eva-
late this fact, we propose to use a formula hike:
Cost=A*E*N'+B*E* NDE
where A is a utility coefficient in currency
E Is the power aut in kWh
N: is the number of faults
8: is an uty coeffent
NDE: isin curencyfkWh
with this approach, every ult is able to determine
what to invest and when to invest and if we consider
the substations, the utity wil realize rapidly that the
costs that are caused by conventional hardwired sub-
station control systems and old protection relays are
very significant
4.1.4 Condusion
Moving to substation automation system is an ine-
luctable way but is not done without consequences.
Generally, we can find advantages for the end custo-
mer, but the way to provide these can be diffcut for
uilties. Examples from European or North American
utlies can not easily be transferred directly to the
rest of the world
World-wide knowledge is a good guarantee for suc-
«ess in such an approach. This knowshow may be
learned assisted by world-wide active companies but
the major part of the thoughts must be done inter-
naly. This approach is necessary to avoid great
deception and disilusion in the years to come.
414
37 43
38
4.2 Management and Utilization
of Substation Data
Dedicated hardware devices for process data record
ing that were previously provided for data retrieval
from the control center now become functional
modules that are integrated into the IEDs. The RTU
merely acts 25 a gateway to provide access to these
data, which are transmitted to the relevant historical
data base for storage and processing. These data
comprise:
«Sequence of event recordings
«Disturbance recordings
«Quality of supply measurands
«Statistical metering for power system
planring purposes
‘© Accounting information
With these new features an SA system can be provid
ed by the most cost effective functions like:
‘System-wide under-frequency load shed-
ing: Dedicated IEDs monitor the system volta
ges, currents, frequency and power and are corn-
municating peer-to-peer on a realtime basis over
the corporate wide area network (WAN), in case
of power generation deficit detected they deter-
rine the most suitable location for performing
load shedding on the basis of real time voltage
instabilty studies, power swing predictions and
actually measured loads.
«Redundant protection and control functions:
The introduction of serial communication at
process level allows IEDs to share analogue and
Gigital data on 2 real time basis and to perform
mutual back-up functions, An IED acting primariy
as protection device may incorporate also back-up
contol functions that are used, if the associated
IED for control is fault. The associated IED for
control may have a back-up protection functiona
lity that can be activated automaticaly if the pra-
tection IED has failed to operate.
«Intelligent power system voltage control:
The active and reactive power flow in the network
can be tracked system wide by means of a
dedicated voltage control function, As it knows
the positon of al transformer tap-changers it can
automatically ajust them from remote, and it also
can switch capacitor banks, or inate of load
shedding etc
There may stil be some obstades like processing
power and speed of a typical WAN/LAN, to apply
such new functions but they may become realty in a
‘ot too distant future.
43 System Performance Aspects
In order to assure that the SA system performs ade-
quately to conventional systems, the folowing per-
‘formance related aspects have to be addressed
+ Security, retabilty, dependabiliy and speed in
‘order to ensure that the protection functionality
is not degraded and has highest prot ata
times
+ Flexibiliy, expandability and forward compatibility
with newer systems to ensure that future expan-
sion can be accommodated at minimum costs
43.1 Backward compatibility to allow
integration with existing systems
A secure control hierarchy and corresponding
interlocking has to ensure that remote contol from
the SCADA as well as local control from the substa-
tion HMI is safe by verifying the validity of control
actions hefore execution
Redundancy of equipment and/or functionality has to
‘ensure that a single hardware faire does not expo-
se neither the power system nor primary equipment
10 unsafe and undesirable operating conditions. 44 Justification for Substation
Automation
44,1 Typical Justification Scenarios
Most utites today have identified potential benefits
avaiable from the implementation of automation to
their operations, These benefits general fall into two
distinct categories: strategic and tangible. The strate-
Gic benefits result from programs designed to impro-
\ve the customeris perception of quaity, reiabiity and
added value, Tangible benefits are derived from pro-
Grams to increase the abilty of the organization to
‘work better, faster, and cheaper. Table 4-1 includes
‘examples of benefits faling under these categories.
Many utes befeve that automation oftheir power
delivery systems can improve system reliability and
lower-operation and maintenance costs if applied
correct, The folowing important justification scena-
Tios are recognized by many utiles as necessary
consideration before capital resources can be com-
mitted to a specific substation project.
Strategic - Autornation project must improve power
Quality, reibilty of service and information avaiable
to large commercial or industrial (C&A) customers, The 4a
future success of many utilities depends on main-
taining their large customers who may be subject to
strong market competition. C&il customers typically
subsidize reduced residential rates and are therefore
a most valued corporate asset
Tangible - The benefiv/cos ratio of the application is
‘greater than 1 under the assumption of chosen eco-
omettic model. Tangible benefits of automation
tmayindude deferral of planned capacity addition pro
jects, reduced operation and maintenance costs,
improved functionality and reduced costs as compar-
ed with conventional non-automated atternative sce-
ratios.
442 Perception of Substation Automation
Until recently, automation in the substation has meant
the presence of a SCADA remote terminal unit (RTU)
to many utility engineers. A recent Newton-Evans Sur-
Strategic Benefits
Tangible Benefits
Improved quality of senice
Reduced manpower requirements
Improved reliability
Reduced system implementation costs
Maintenance/expansion of customer base
Reduced operating costs
High value service provider
Reduced maintenance costs
Added value service
Abilty to defer capacity addition projects
Improved customer access to information
Improved information for engineering decisions
Enterprise information accessibiity
Improved information for planning decisions
Flexible Biling Options
Reduced customer outage time
Table 4-1 Examples of strategic and tangible benefit
39 444
40
vey indicated that RTU would be primary information
processing task handler for the majority of those
polled (54 9). 35% percent indicated the require-
iment for a separate processor - other than an RTU,
15% preferred a PLC-based approach and another
15% indicated a combined approach using both
technologies. Approximately 30 % of thase surveyed
indicated that they had not yet formed an opinion on
‘the type of substation platform that would be imple-
mented. All of these answers are, of course right. For
the purposes of this book, substation automation is
defined as a microprocessor based systern that inte-
grates and processes substation status, analog and
control information and. communicates with local
and/or remote devices.
Actual the capabilities of equipment that qualify
Under this defrtion are quite varied. SA systems
range from simple RTUs to fully networked PC/PLC
systems that manage WAN/LAN input/outputs (V0)
and provide advanced services for the substation
environment and mainstream dstibution automation
functions.
4.43 Substation legacy systems and
practices
Transmission substations have received the lion's
share of automation device in the past because of
the importance of their relabilty to system operar
tions. Automation devices at these sites incude RTUs,
fault recorders, sequence of events recorders (SERS),
~annunciater panels, and a few microprocessor based
relays. Iput/output (V/0) to these devices is typically
Via hardwired connections to instrument transformers
(ia transducers), field and local status contacts, inter-
posing relays, and mimic style control panels. The
dominant protective devices are electromechanical
relays. The local operator interface is generaly a con-
‘tol panel analog meters, nnunciater window boxes,
and recording devices of various types.
Communication links, other than voice grade tele-
hone connections, are typically between transmis-
sion subs and master stations via microwave, fiber
optic or decicated telephone lines using relatively
slow data transfer rates from 1200 to 9600 baud.
Most distribution substations today have a fimited
number of IEDs. Many have RTUs, but few have been
provided with automated SER fault recording and
microprocessor based relay systems. Connectivity is
similar to that mentioned above for transmission sub-
stations.
Maintenance practices at legacy substations involve
labor intensive routine on-site manual inspection.
Field devices such as circuit breakers, switchgear,
transformers and load tap changers are maintained
routinely without detailed information on operation
of these devices.
4.4.4 Opportunities and justifications
Many opportunities exist today to design, operate
and maintain substations using better faster and:
cheaper devices and service methodologies. These
eiciencies are accomplished by eliminating unneces-
sary redundant systems and using microprocessor
based controllers to manage information supplied by
IEDs
‘ypialy, substation automation passes justification
tests under the folowing conditions
New construction - the substitution of RTUs, mimic
style control panels, annundiaters, sequence of events
recorders (SER5), fault recorders, cable/condult
systems, and significant control room space with SA
reduces the cost of new construction while vastly
improving functionality. SA is a “no brainier’ for new
substations. ignificant retrofit or expansion of existing
substation - capital projects that add new bays,
transformers or switchgear can easly incorporate SA
retrofit projects cost effectively. Legacy systems can
be replaced or integrated into the new SA infrastuc-
tue.
Upgrading the WAN to high speed capabilities
such as Ethernet speeds - RTU architectures nor-
mally communicating with SCADA master stations at
1200 baud will not be compatible with the high
speed data transfer and synchronizing required by
modern WANS,
New or replacement RTU, annunciaters,
sequence of events recorder, fault recorder, or
electromechanical relays - the integrated SA plat-
form will indude the functions ofall these dedicated
vices plus an order of magnitude of additional func-
‘ions and all at a significantly reduced price
445 Benefits of substation automation
integration
Integrated substation automation systems provide
improved benefits in the functionality, design, opera-
tion, maintenance and reliabilty of the substation
operating environment. The architectures of most
substation automation solutions vary significantly and
include smart systems, black box proprietay solu-
tions, and open WAN/LAN solutions using off-tne-
shelf commodities from the PC and PLC marketplace.
The following lists categorize and summarize the
potential benefits available from a well integrated
substation automation architecture using PC HMl
SUBLAN, IED relays, and remote modem access.
445.1 Design Benefits
‘Standardization ofthe user interface and improved
User access.
«System architecture standardization for uniformity
Cf operation and buikding SA/DA upgrade paths.
‘= Blmination of unnecessary redundant equipment.
‘* Reduced substation infrastructure induding wiring,
conduit, wire channels, controVelay panel space
and control house size
445
‘© Easy upgracebilty using mainstream hardware
and software
+ Protocol independence
« Distrbuted computing and communication
hub for simplified integration of distribution
automation (DA),
4.452 Operation Benefits
# Uniform HMI for data acess.
« Interoperability of EDs
« Integrated alarm log and sequence of events
reporting,
« Custom display and reporting capabiliy from
integrated database.
+ Automatic logging of HMI accesses and
operating activities.
+ Programmed logic for automatic reconfiguration
of busses and/or feeders.
+s Network (peer to peet) messaging between
substation server nodes and other WAN nodes
4453 Maintenance Benefits
«Data for relaying, metering and communication
service is availabe localy or remotely
‘= Each IED can be directly accessed (locally fromm
the PC HMI or remotely via modem) from
easy to use HMI for configuration, setting and,
diagnostic reporting
«Predictive maintenance is possible from automatic
analysis of equipment operating history
‘* Supervision and management of transformer, load
tap changer, and circuit breaker intemal operations
‘optimizes just in-time maintenance 4 4s 445.4 Reliability Benefits
* Uniformity and consistency in HMI operation
procedures reduces the chances for operating
errors,
‘Integrated and sequenced databases provide
accurate information for problem analysis and
maintenance
+ Monitoring of al staion equipment ensures that
failed equipment is detected and repaired before
called upon for sence during system distubances.
+ Reduced customer outage minutes resulting in
improved relabilty indices
‘© Reduced chances for operator switching errors.
‘Quick isolation of faults and restoration of service
‘0 unfauled feeder sections.
45 Reference
4455 Reduced cost benefits
1 Reduced costs for new construction,
« Reduction of unnecessary tips to read alarms,
relay targets, and station logs.
«Readily accessible relay operation information,
fault location data and alarm log for operators
will help reduce line patroling and problern
investigation time, and thus outage time.
‘© Reduced traning costs because of uniform
database, HMI, customized screen format talored
for ease of use.
« Integrated database information, comprehensive
problem reporting and a future expert system
‘an greatly factate of maintenance and repair
activities, thus reducing costs.
‘Maintenance scheduling can be streamlined
and optimized for a cost effective and efficient
program, by using the ad documentation
‘Distributed computing hub to manage the
substation and connected feeder environment.
‘Shared access to the enterprise WAN by SA,
and DA devices.
Ryan Bird «Justifying Substation Automation, Black & Veatch, http/-tasnet.comjusta shtml
42 5 Primary Equipment in Substations
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Condition Monitoring
5.2 Switchgear installations
5.21 Classification of switchgear installations
5.3 Single line diagram and busbar configuration
53.1 Defrtion of Switchgear
53.2 Common circuit configurations
5.33 Special configurations, mainly outside Europe
5.34. Configurations for load-center substations
5.4 Substation Structure
54.1 Grauit Breaker Bays/Feeders
5.42. Bus coupler bays
5.43. Connections of instrument Transformers
5.5. Switching Equipment
55.1 Circuit Breakers
55.1.1 Grau Breaker tripping operation
55.12 Requirements for control of circuit breakers
55.121 Phase-screpancy monitoring
55.122. Anti-pumping control
55.123 Non-stop motor operation
55.124. SF, gas monitoring
551.25. Localremote control
55.1.26 Energy monitoring
551.27 Autoreclosure
55..28 Synchrorized switching
55.13 Definitions
55.131 Auxiliary switches
55.132 Opening time
551.33 Total break time
551.34 Arcing time
551.35 Closing tme
55.136 Operating cyce of circuit breakers
55.137 Monitoring of circuit breakers
55.138 Rapid or auto-redosure
55.1.4 Ciitical CB parts to monitor
552. Disconnectors and Earthing Switches
553 Switch cisconnectors
554 _ Instrument transformers
5541 Definitions and electrical quantities
5542 Curent transformers
$542.1. Definitions for current transformers
55422. Selection of current transformers
5543 Voltage transformers
55.4311 Definitions for voltage transformers
45
45,
47
a7
49
51
52
53
53
54.
54
55
55
s7
37
7
7
7
57
37
57
58
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
60
oI
61
61
62
62
62
6
6
Table of
content
43 55432. Inductive voltage transformers
55433 Capactive voltage transformers
5544 Non-conventional transformers
5544.1 Active non-conventional transforers
55.442 Passive non-conventional transforrers
55443 Cable connection to protection devices
5 55,444 Serial connection to protection devices
Table of 555. Innovative HV switchgear technology
content 555.1 Modem design concepts
5555.11 Process electronics (sensor technology, PISA)
5552 Innovative solutions
5552.1 Compact outdoor switchgear installations
55522 Hybrid switchgear installations
556 SF, gas-insulated switchgear (GIS)
5561 General
5562 Sf_ gas as insulating and are-quenching medium
5563 Gas Density Monitoring
5564 — Components
5565 SMARTGIS
557 Surge anestors
5571 Design, operating principle
55.72 Application and selection of MO surge aresters
558 Transformers
558.1 Transformer connections
5.6 Voltage and Power Factor Control
5.6.1 Transformer control and votage regulation
561.1 Change over switches
561.2 Onoad tap changer (OLTC)
5613 OUIC control
56131. Local control
56.132 Station and remote control
56.133 Automatic control
562 Power capacitors
562.1 Compensation of reactive power
5.63. High voltage reactors
563.1 Current lriting reactors
563.1.1 Voltage drop and voltage variation
563.12. Reactor circuits
5632 Shunt reactors
564 FACIS
5.7 Static Var (reactive power) compensation (SVC)
571 Applications
5.72_Types of compensation
5721 Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR)
5722 Thytistor switched capactors (TSG)
5723 Thytstor switched capacitors/thyistor controlled reactor (ISC/TCR)
44 5.8 References
SyseVHWNUAHIIVSSISSSSse
SLSSSSSSVRARSREEKSSLSLBS 5 Primary Equipment in Substations
5.1, Introduction
‘The idea to induce this chapter inthis book is to pro-
Vide background knowledge about the primary pro-
ess in terms of switchgear insalations, various single
line diagrams, switching equipment, and modem fle-
ible AC transmission systems (FACTS) to readers
who have their professional expertise mainly in IT
applications or in secondary equipment for control
plotection and monitoring, The descriptions of the
main primary equipment that is located in distribution
and transmission substation, ie
'* Gruit breakers
‘= Disconnectors and earthing switches
* Switch disconnectors
«Instrument transformers,
+ Innovative switchgear technologies
‘SF. gas insulated switchgear (GIS)
*# Surge arestors
‘Transformers
ate detaled enough that the interaction between
substation contro, protection and monitoring can be
explained. In addition to this, the attention is drawn to
those citcal parts of the primary equipment, which
are subject to aging and wear.
‘The descriptions of FACTS applications is induded
because they are mentioned in Chapter 11 “Wide area
protection” as counter measures to maintain power
system integity in case of the occurrence of muti-
contingencies.
5.1.1 Condition Monitoring
ilies can save themselves time and money by
employing a step-by-step condition-based, rather a
purely time-based, maintenance strategy for the pr
‘mary and secondary equipment.
Generally time-based or usage-based maintenance is
2 suitable strategy if degradation is gradual and pre
dictable. However, curative maintenance is also requir-
ed as numerous defects cannot otherwise be pre-
vented or detected. In the case of some parts, the
possiblity of fare is constant, even if there are very
few signs of aging, However, in the longer term there
will always be some kind of degradation process
involved. For example, in the case of static parts, such
‘process may take 50 years or more. However, if
maintenance is only performed when necessary,
based on the condition of the component (condition
based maintenance, or CBM), overall savings on
maintenance tasks can be achieved. Indeed, field
experience has shown that savings of 20-30 9 are
possible
The condition of a component is estimated through
inspections, dagnostc tests, monitexing systems and
(patty) cismanting one or more samples. When app-
iying CBM, there must be at least one condition ind
cator and proven expertise in the assessment of de~
gradation. The key issue is to detect degradation
before failure occurs and apply an ‘expertule’ to
define what will happen next and when.
Condition monitoring indudes acquisition, recording,
processing and visualizing measured quantities to
allow early detection of fauts in important equipment
such as Gircuit-breakers, power transformers orinsttu-
iment transformers. According to international surveys
conducted by CIGRE, the operating mechanisms and
the electrical control circuits in crcuit-breakers are the
primary source of serious faults, ie. faiutes causing
‘operational disruptions. The most common sources
sa
45 52
46
of failure are the mechanically actuated parts such as
electro-mechanical relays and signaling contacts in
the electrical control Grats and in operating mecha-
risms forthe primary equipment.
In order to increase the intemal system reliability the
electronic hardwere and software is sel- monitored
Condition monitoring requires careful evaluation of
the large quantities of measured data because only
the combination of status acquisition with inteligent
assessment procedures results in a knowedgeable
ciagnosis and initiation of the necessary maintenance
steps. Special algorithms for reducing the data and
«akauating trends are basic for a monitoring sys-
tern. The P-F curve forthe condition degradation over
time (Figure 5-1) represents ie. qualitative connection
between the condition of a component and the time
‘AS a result of wear, the fauit mechanism starts at a
specific time t,, ie the condition deteriorates until
time t, when the degradation is detected at point P
which is designated a “potential faut’ In general, t
can be assumed that from this time the state of the
system continues to deteriorate, usually with increas
ing speed until the fault (point F) actually occurs at
time t,. A typical exemple for such a response is the
aging mechanism of oi/paper or plastic insulation or
leakage in gas-insulated switchgear instalation.
‘The objective of condition monitoring isto detect the
degradation at point P with sufficent assuracy, so
there willbe sufficient time, to take appropriate action
to prevent the fault within the time interval between
point P and point F.
CBM Indicator
‘artng point of degradation
Detection point of degradation
—<—+
Figure 5-1 Condition degradation over time
5.2 Switchgear installations
‘A switchgear instalation contains all the apparatus
and aunlary equipment necessary to ensure reiable
operation of the installation and a secure supply of
electricity, Three-phase AC high-voltage switchgear
installations with operating voltages of up to 800 KV
ate usec for distributing electricity in towns and cites,
regions and industrial centers, and also for power
‘transmission. The votage level employed is determin-
ed by the transmission capacity and the short-circuit
capacity of the power systern
Distribution networks are operated predominantly up
to 123 KV. Power transmission systems and ring
mains round urban areas operate with 123, 245 of
420 kv, depending on local conditions. Over very
large disances, extra high powers are also transmit
ed at 755 kV or by high-voltage cirect-current sys-
tems.
Switchgear installations can be placed indoors or out
doors. S, gas-insulated switching stations have the
importe-t advantage of taking up litle space and
beng uaffected by pollution and environmental fac-
tors.
Indoor istallations are built both with SF gas-insulat-
ed equiament for al vtage ratings above 36 KV and
also wth conventional, open equipment up to 123
KV. SF, echnology, requiring very litle floor area and
building volume, is particularly suitable for supplying
load centers for dies and industial complexes. Ths
Kind of equipment is also appied in underground
instalatons.
Outdoor switching stations are used for all voltage
levels from 52 to 765 KV (Figure 5-2). They are butt
outside cities, usually at points along the cross-coun-
tty ines of bulk transmission systems. Switchgear for
HVDC applications is also predominantly of the out-
door type.
Transformer stations comprise not only the HV equip-
ment and power transformers but also medium- and low-voltage switchgear and a variety of auiiary ser
vices. These must aditionally be accounted for in the
station layout
Depending on the intended plant site, the construc
tion of a switchgear installation must conform to IEC
requirements, ANS! Standards or particular national
codes.
The starting point for planning a switchgear installa
tion ists singe-ine ciagram. This indicates the extent
of the instalation, such as the number of busbars and
branches, as well as their assodated apparatus. The
most common circuit configurations of high and
medium-voltage switchgear instalations are shown
in the form of singlesine diagrams in chapter 53.
5.2.1 Classification of switchgear installations
‘Switchgear installations in terms of substations are
‘commonly classified by function, which is related to
the voltage level. While there are no utity wide stand.
ards, typical dassifcations are as follows:
«Distribution (36 - 36 kV): Substations trans-
rritting power to the final retal outlet.
‘* Subtransmission (175 - 145 kV): Substations
transmitting power to cistibution substations
and to bulk retail outlets.
«© Transmission (725 - 765 KV): Substations trans-
rmitting power between major substations of
interconnecting systems, and to wholesale out-
lets. The voltage levels are further divided into
«High voltage (HV): 115 - 245 kV
Figure 5-2 53
220 kV outdoor substation
« Extra high voltage (EHV): 300 - 765 kV
‘© Utra high voltage (UHV: greater than 765 kV
« Direct current systems can be dassitiod
follows:
‘Low voltage (24 - 250 V): Auxiiary power
in power plants and substations, contol
+60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 ‘Temperature
[T/C]
55.63
Ea
pi Nominal are quenching
92s pressure in CB
75 55.64
%6
Figure 5-16 SF Gas Schematic Diagram
The insulating capabiliy of SF, gas is dependent on
the gas density in kg/m’. For monitoring the gas den-
sity the relation between gas pressure, density and
temperature has to be taken into account as shown
in Figure 5-15. Ths interdependence makes it difcut
to measure the gas density dieay, There are twa
measuring principles available:
«A temperature compensated pressure switch with
‘wo contacts, one forthe indication of a non-
Urgent low density alam to alert the maintenance
‘crew for refling the gas compartment concerned
and an urgent alarm for isolating the gas compart-
‘ment from high voltage, as the insulating capability
is no longer assured. For Graut-breakers there is a
third contact necessary to alert the operator that
the circuit breaker is no longer capable to interrupt
short circuit currents. This contact operates before
the other two respond to deaeasing gas density
Based on the same principle, there also monitors
available on the market thet delver continuously
measured gas density values,
‘+n electronic gas monitoring sensor that can
directly indicate the gas density in kg/m? by
means of an feasible measuring principle that is
independent of temperature variation. Such moni
tors are today stil expensive but they may be
leconornical in the future,
5.5.6.4 Components
Reference is made to the typical layout of a GIS sta-
tion in Figure 5-14 and gas schematic diagram Figure
546
‘The busbars are separated by barier insulators at
each bay and form a unit with the busbar disconnec-
tors and the maintenance earthing switches.
The circut-breaker operates on the sel-blast rnc
ple. Conventional puffer-type breakers use the
mechanical energy of the actuator to generate the
breaker gas stream wile the self-bast breaker uses
1 Gas barter ns ator
Busbar gas compartment
Feeder gas compartment
Circuit breaker gas cornpa
SI
Station and remote contro!
Higher/Lower mechanical 5613
LocalRemote switch
Drive motor
Contact resisters inactive
Voltmeter
Remote indication: "Motor is running
Tap position indicator mechanical
Higher/Lower electrical
Contact resistors active
‘Tap position indicator, electrical
Stat indicator
Transducer for electrical tap changer
postion indication > 83 562
84
5.6.1.3.3 Automatic control
Voltage regulation by means of tap changers can also
be done automatically. The principal components of
such a system are a voltage regulator, 2 set-point
‘adjuster, a measuring device for load-dependent set-
Point correction, and for long lines, a means for com-
pensating the voltage drop. This latter device can be
contained in the voltage regulation or be installed
separately. Measuring unts are avaiable forthe follow
ing operating conditions:
‘* Parallel busbar operation,
« Parallel network operation,
# Networks with widely varying acive and
reactive power components.
The choice of measuring units thus depends on the
operating conditions. The control system is connect-
ed to voltage and instrument transformers at the vol-
tage level that needs to be held constant.
Simultaneous manual/automatic operation is prevent-
ed by selector switch
If transformer ate operated in parallel on one line,
special precautions have to be taken to avoid loop
currents flowing between the transformer which
could cause damage to the transformer,
5.6.2 Power capacitors
The term power capacitor is mainly applied to capa-
citors having 2 rated frequency of 50 or 60 Hz which
compensate the reactive power at points of heavy
cdemand in public and industial networks. This gene-
‘al designation aso incudes “umace capacitors” and
“medium-frequency capacitors” which cover the high
reactive power requirement of meting furnaces and
inductive heating coi, and also “welding machine
capacitors” and “fuorescent lamp capacitors” used
for compensating welding transformers and the bal
lasts of fluorescent larhps.
The reactive power of a capacitor is determined by its
capacitance, the rms value of the operating voltage
and the system frequency
Q=Ua
The rated power of a capacitor as stated on its name-
plete is always in elation to its rated voltage U, and
rated frequency f,
In three-phase networks, the capacitors, ahveys three
ofthe same size, are connected in either sta or deta
ft
«© G, is the capactance in one phase with star
connection
+ Cys the capacitance in one phase with delta
connection
then for the sare reactive power:
G=3Cy
Voltage and frequengy increases and total harmonic
distortion of the voltage or the current place adcltio-
nal stress on capacitors
Capacitors must be able to cay continuously 13
times the current flowing with sinusoidal rated volta
ge and frequency at an ambient air ternperature cor-
responding to its temperature dass, With this loading,
the voltage must not be higher than 1.1. U, with no
transient over-voltages taken into account.
5.6.2.1 Compensation of reactive power
Only the active power produced by the active current
(,) in Figure 5-23 a) s utiized at the point of con-
‘surmption, The reactive power produced by the reac-
‘ive current (,) does not contribute to the conversion
into useful power ands therefore not counted by the
‘active power meter. However the reactive power has
an unfavorable effect on the electrical equipment in
that it constitutes an additional load on generators,
transformers and conductors. It gives rise to additio-
nal voltage drops and heat losses.
Static reactive-power (vat) compensation in systems
With the aid of thyristors is desaibed in chapter 57 Its economically sound to draw the reactive power
from capacitor, Figure 5-23 b). These are loceted in
the vicinity of the largest reactive loads (motors and
transformers) in order to relieve the transmission net-
works, induding transformers and generators, from
the corresponding share ofthe reactive curent if the
capacitors are properly positioned, by reducing the
reactive current (,) in this way, itis possible in many
instances to connect adcitional loads to existing sup-
ply systems without having to increase the power or
extent of the network.
a,
7
é
a >
©)
Fyne 5:23 het an rections hn etc!
‘etoaton 9 uncmperate
1) compensated with capacitor,
©) power vector diagram
With full compensation as shown in Figure 5-23 b)
the generator (G) supplies only the currently fr the
purely active load (R) and active current lox for the
‘Capacitor loss resistance Re.
Figute 5-23 c) shows the reactive before compensa-
tions with
Q
Pran@,
‘And after compensation with
Qe =P tan @
Where g is the phase displacement angle of the
desired cos «The capacitor rating required for this
is
Qe =P (tan @,-tan ga)
‘The electricity supply ullites generally specify a
wer factor of 08 to 09. Compensation beyond cos
(0ver-compensation Qc > Q,) must be avoided
25 this gives rise to capactve reactive power, which
stresses the conductors in the same way as inductive
reactive power, and in addition, unwelcome valtage
increases can occur
5,63 High voltage reactors
5.6.3.1 Current limiting reactors
Curtentlimiting reactors are reactances employed to
limit short-circuit curents. They are used when one
intends to reduce the short-circuit power of networks
Cr installations to a value which is acceptable with
regard to the short-circuit current carrying capability
Of the equipment or the breaking capacity of the ci-
cut-breaker.
Since the reactance of a series reactor must remain
Constant when short-circuit curents occur, only the
air-core type of construction is suitable. If iron cores
were used, saturation ofthe iron caused by the short
aut currents would result in a drop in the induc-
‘tance of the col thus seriously reducing the short cir
ait protection
5.63.1.1 Voltage drop and voltage variation
‘The rated impedance is the impedance per phase at
tated frequency. The resistance of a current firiting
reactor is neghgble and in general, amounts to not
more than some 3 9 of the reactance X,.
563
85 563.1.2
86
The rated voltage drop AU, is the voltage induced in
the reactor when operating with rated current and
rated reactance:
AU=1X
When the voltage drop is referred to the system vol
tage, the rated voltage drop is denoted Au, and
usually stated in 9.
Au=A u ¥3/U, 100%
For given values of reactance and current, the voltage
Variation Upin the network ie. the difference be-
tween the network voltage before and after the reac-
tor is also dependent on cos g, Figure 5-24. Thus,
whereas the voltage difference U, across the reactor
is small under normal operating conditions itincreas-
5 in the event of a short drcut
‘in proportion to the shor-
