Intermediate Modifying & Terminating Devices

•In most cases, the mechanical quantity which was detected will
be transduced into an ‘electrical form’. The output of the first
stage has to be modified (signal conditioning) before it is fed to
the third or terminating stage such as indicators, recorders or
control elements.
•Signal conditioning equipment used may be of mechanical,
electrical or electronic. Mechanical types (using elements such as
linkages, gearing, cams, etc.) have many limitations such as friction,
inertia, non linearity, backlash, elastic deformation, etc.
•Hence electrical & electronic systems are used which are free
from these drawbacks. Also they give large voltage & power
amplifications required to drive the recording devices.

•The mechanical signals transduced into electrical signals are

not only amplified but in special types, signal conditioning may
involve filtering, integration, differentiation, remote recording,
etc.
 Rm
Current indicator
to sense output
current io

ei
kRi
Resistance
type transducer

Simple current sensitive circuit

 Input Circuitry for Electrical Devices
Simple current sensitive circuit: This circuit uses the flow
of current through a passive resistance transducer as
an indication of value of the resistance. The resistance
of transducer changes when there is a change in
physical quantity being measured, thereby causing a
change in the current.
Let Rt=maximum resistance of the transducer, kRt=
Resistance of the transducer when measuring a
particular value of physical quantity,
Rm= Resistance of the measuring circuit excluding the
transducer.
k represents a %age factor which may vary from 0 to 1.
Using ohm’s law, the current flowing through the circuit io
(the current indicated by the indicator) is,
ei
io 
kR t  R m
The maximum value of current occurs when k=0.
ei io Rm 1
 i max  , Rewriting,  
Rm i max R m  kR t  Rt 
1  k 
 Rm 
The fig shows the variation of (io/imax) ratio with k for
various values of (Rt/Rm), io represents the output
signal and k depends on the input signal and hence
represents the input.
Hence the fig shows the input-output relationship for a
current sensitive circuit which is non linear which is
undesirable.
Also higher the ratio (Rt/Rm) , the greater is the output
variation. It can also be noted that the output io is a
function of imax, which in turn is dependent on ei . This
means that careful control of the driving voltage is
necessary if calibration has to be maintained.
Variation of output current with input signal k for a
current sensitive circuit

Rt
= 0.5
Rm

2
io
imax
4

10

k
 Ballast Circuit
A ballast circuit is only a simple variation of the
current sensitive circuit. In this case a voltage
sensitive device is connected across the
transducer as shown in fig. It is also called as
‘voltage sensitive circuit’.
A ballast resistor Rb is the resistance of the
measuring circuit excluding the transducer. In the
absence of a ballast resistor, the voltage indicator
will always record the full source voltage ei & hence
some value of resistance Rb is always necessary
for proper functioning of the circuit.
In order to analyze a ballast circuit, we assume that
the voltage indicator has an infinite resistance such
that it does not draw any current.
 Schematic of Ballast Circuit
R
b

Resistance
ei type transducer
Voltage indicator
to sense output kRi
voltage eo
By Ohm' s law, the output current is ,
ei
io  . If e o is the voltage across kR t , which is indicated by
R b  kR t
the voltage indicator, then the output voltage indicated is,
ei kR t
e o  i o (kR t )  . This can be written as,
R b  kR t
eo kR t k Rt Rb e
  . For a ballast circuit, o is a meausure of the output and
ei R b  kR t  kR t  ei
1  

R
 b 
 kR t 
  is a measure of the input.
 Rb 

Fig shows the input-output relationships for a ballast circuit. It may be

noted that a percentage in supply voltage ei results in greater change in
output than does a similar percentage change in k, hence very careful
voltage regulation must be employed. Further the relationship between
input & output is not linear.
Input-output relationship for Ballast Circuit
Rt
= 2.0
Rb

1.0

eo 0.5

ei

k
 Electronic Amplifiers
Electronic amplifiers are used to provide voltage gain,
current gain, and impedance transformation.
In most transducers, electrical voltage is the output
but the voltage level available from the transducer
is very low, hence a voltage amplifier is required to
increase the level for subsequent processing.
Some times the input signal may be used to drive a
recorder or some control apparatus. In such cases
power must be increased by using current or power
amplifiers.
Also high output impedance leads to noise. Hence it
is desirable to include an amplifier which converts
high impedance input into a low impedance output.
 Vacuum tube Amplifiers
Plate
Grid Cathode

Signal
input Amplifier
load

Heater supply
(A)

_ + _ +
Bias voltage Plate supply
(C) (B)

Single stage Amplifier circuit

 Vacuum tube Amplifiers
In this, the electrons emitted from a heated cathode are
attracted to a positively charged plate, causing a
current to flow in the plate circuit as shown in fig. The
flow of electrons is controlled by a grid which is
placed between the cathode and the plate and is
negatively charged relative to the cathode. This
negative voltage on the grid is called ‘bias voltage’.
Variations in the charge on the grid supplied by the
input signal controls the current flow in the plate
circuit. As shown in the fig, C supplies the necessary
bias voltage, B provides the plate supply, and A heats
the cathode. In practice, these voltages are drawn
from a common supply using voltage dividers.
This illustrates a single stage amplification. Number of
stages may be connected together for greater
amplifications.
 Telemetry
Telemetry is the technique of measuring from a
distance. It may be defined as indicating,
recording or integrating of a quantity at a
distance by electrical means. It is a very
important part of missile & aircraft flight
testing.
Telemetry systems require radio links which
permits use of readout devices located on the
ground. They are also used in industrial,
medical & transportation applications.
A general telemetering system is as shown in fig.
Measuring Primary Telemeter Telemeter Telemeter End
quantity detector transmitter channel receiver devices

Intermediate stage Indicator

recorder or
controller

Block diagram of general Telemetering System

The primary detector and end devices of the telemetering
system have the same functions as in any general
measurement system. However, the intermediate stage
consists of three elements, such as telemeter transmitter,
telemeter channel & telemeter receiver. The function of the
telemeter transmitter is to convert the output of a primary
detector into an analogous transmitted signal which can be
transmitted over the telemeter channel. The function of the
telemeter receiver at the remote location is to convert the
transmitted signal into a related suitable quantity.
Advantages: of telemetering over recording of data at
source are;
(1) For the same capacity, weight of telemetering
equipment is less.
(2) Many channels may be individually and continuously
monitored without the direct attention of the operator.
(3) Exceeding of safe limits may be immediately recognized
and corrective measures can be taken.
(4) In case of destructive failure, telemetered data gives a
complete record upto the final moment. This is
important in missile testing when the test item may not
be recoverable.
(5) Practical recording time is not limited.
Disadvantages:
(1) It is more complex & expensive.
(2) The required extra processing of data leads to greater
chance for error.
(3) Greater chances for the introduction of unwanted
signals.
 Telemetry transmitting & receiving system
The telemetering transmitting system widely uses subcarrier
oscillators (SCO) whose frequencies are controlled by
the input signals through appropriate transducer
elements. A variety of audio- frequency channels may be
employed, with the frequency of each SCO modulated by
the magnitude of the corresponding input signals. The
outputs from all these SCO’s are then mixed and fed to a
phase modulated transmitter which relays the combined
information to a remote receiving station.
At the receiving end, the various subcarrier frequencies are
separated using filters or discriminating circuits, and the
information from the individual channels may be recorded
by conventional methods. The operation is time
controlled initiated by the pilot, or controlled from the
recording installation with the help of radio links.
 Flap position Sub carrier
Oscillators
+
_
SCO Antenna

TELEMETRY
Temperature
SCO
TRANSMITTING
+ SYSTEM
_
Transmitter

SCO

Accelration

etc
 Sub carrier
Descriminator

SCD

TELEMETRY
Antenna RECEIVING
SCD SYSTEM
Receiver

Recorder SCD

etc
 Terminating devices
Usefulness of any measuring system depends on its ability
to present the measured quantity in a form which can
be understood fully by the human operator or any
controlling device. The primary function of a
terminating device is to accept the analogous driving
signal and to provide output for the immediate reading
or for recording.
For direct human interpretation, a terminating device
provides information as;
(1) A relative displacement: For ex, a pointer moving over
a scale, light beam & scale, liquid column & scale, etc.
(2) A digital form: Examples: Odometer in an automobile
speedometer, a rotating drum mechanical counter.
(3) ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ limiting type: Ex, red oil pressure lights in
automobiles, Pilot lamps on equipments.
Most of the dynamic mechanical measurements require
electrical terminating devices due to poor response
characteristics of mechanical, pneumatic or optical
systems.
 Meter indicators
Pointer & scale meters are useful for static &
steady state dynamic indications, but not
suitable for transient measurements. This is
due to relatively high inertia of the meter
movement. Meter indicators may be classified
as: (i) Simple D’Arsonval type meter
(ii) Ohm meters & Volt-Ohm milli ammeters
(iii) Vacuum tube voltmeters.
Among these, D’Arsonval type meter is widely
employed as the final indicating device.
D’Arsonval type meter is the common type used
for measuring either current or voltage. It
consists of a coil assembly mounted on a
pivoted shaft whose rotation is constrained by
two spiral springs, one at each end of the shaft
as shown in fig. The coil assembly is mounted in
a magnetic field.
The electric current to be measured is passed
through the coil and the two interacting magnetic
fields result in a torque applied to the pivoted
assembly. Then the resulting displacement of
the pointer on scale is calibrated in terms of
electric current. This principle forms the basis for
most of the electric meters, stylus & light beam
Oscillograph.
D’Arsonval type meter
 D’Arsonval type meter

Scale
Pointer

N S

Coil assembly Permanent magnet

on pivoted shaft
 Mechanical counters
A mechanical counter consists of a large number of small
drums, each numbered from 0 to 9 round the periphery
as shown in fig. The first drum may rotate
continuously. As each rotation of drum 1 is completed,
a transfer segment engages with a transfer pinion, to
rotate the drum 2 by 360.
A complete rotation of drum 2 rotates drum 3 by 36 0 and
so on. This device is used in automobile odometers, in
component counters, shaft revolution counters, etc.
Alternately operation may be by an electrical solenoid,
actuated by a pulse from a switch or transducer.
Variants of the basic counter may be used to add or
subtract digits or to operate a switch after a preset
number of pulses or rotations have been counted.
                                  

                                         
                                         
     

Mechanical Counter
 
                                  

                                         
                                         
     
                           

                                         
                                         
       
Mechanical
Counter
 CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)
CRO is the most versatile readout device for mechanical
measurements. It is used for measurement and analysis of
waveforms and other phenomenon in electrical & electronic
circuits. CRO is a voltage sensitive instrument with an electron
beam striking the fluorescent screen. The extremely low inertia
beam of electrons enables it to be used for following the
rapidly varying voltages.
The heart of the CRO is the Cathode ray tube (CRT), whose
important parts are;
(1) Electron gun assembly: The electron gun assembly produces
a sharply focused beam of electrons which in turn are
accelerated to high velocity. This beam of electrons strikes the
fluorescent screen with sufficient energy to cause a luminous
spot on the screen.
(2) Electron gun: An electron gun emits electrons and makes
them into a beam. It consists of a heater, cathode, grid,
focusing and accelerating anodes. Electrons are emitted from
an indirectly heated cathode. These pass through a small hole
in the control grid. The grid controls the electrons emitted from
the cathode and hence the intensity of the beam. The
 CRT (continued…..)
(3) Deflection plates: These are two pairs of electrostatic
plates. A voltage applied to a pair of vertical plates moves
the electron beam vertically up or down. And if the voltage is
applied to the pair of horizontal plates, the electron beam
moves horizontally from one end to other end of the screen.
The CRT is evacuated so that the emitted electrons can
move freely from one end of the tube to the other.
Usually in CRO’s, the horizontal voltage is internally
developed where as the vertical voltage is the voltage under
investigation (input). This voltage moves the luminous spot
up & down in accordance with the instantaneous value of
voltage. In other words, it traces the ‘waveform’ of the input
voltage w.r.t. time.
CRO’s can also be used to visualize various quantities such
as current, strain, acceleration, pressure if they can be
converted into voltages.
 Important parts of a Cathode ray tube

Flourescent
Electron gun screen
Vertical
deflection
plates
Cathode
Accelerating
anodes
Heater

Grid to control Horizontal

spot intensity deflection
plates Electron
beam
CATHODE RAY TUBE

1. Deflection voltage electrode;

2. Electron gun;
3. Electron beam;
4. Focusing coil;
5. Phosphor-coated inner side of
the screen
CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
 Fixed anchor

Mirror
Reflected light
beam
coil assembly

Lens
N
Input
Photographic
Incident paper
light beam

Light source

Permanent
magnet
 Coil assembly
Permanent magnet

N S

Stylus

Paper

Paper movement

Trace
 Reference
source
Chopper Amplifier
Pen
Balance drive
Y-Input Attenuator circuit motor

Pen X-diection
A
R
Y-direction M
Graph
paper

Balance Arm
X-Input Attenuator drive
circuit
motor
Chopper Amplifier

Reference
source