EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE DIDACTICS

CURRENT TRENDS: TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
By Pepa Mut
INTRODUCTION
How have people learnt languages through history? How have methods
changed? What theories have changed language learning methodology?
Language teaching has been around for many centuries, and over the
centuries it has changed. Various influences have affected language teaching.
Reasons for learning different languages have been different in different
periods. In some eras, languages were mainly taught for the purpose of
reading. In others, it was mainly taught to communicate orally. These
differences influenced how language was taught and learnt in various periods.
Moreover theories about the nature of learning have also changed.
1.EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE DIDACTICS. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
When speaking about language learning theories; we have to clarify four terms:
1-Focus: group of theories that have resulted from practical and theoretical
discussions in a given historical context. It implies certain objectives and a
particular view of language. A different focus means a different method and
different techniques.
2-Method: refers to the manner of teaching.
3-Technique: refers to the activities in the classroom.
4-Curriculum: document which contains the design of a concrete teaching and
learning program. It is designed by the teaching authorities. Our current
curriculum includes three main areas:
-1-Objectives: Stage, Area and Specific objectives.
-2-Contents: which are divided into:
1-communicative abilities
2-reflection on the language: which includes:
-Linguistic functions and grammar
-Vocabulary
-Phonetics
3-sociocultural aspects
-3-Evaluation Criteria.
 A historical development of language teaching and learning would help
us to see the changes throughout the time.
1-It is known that the history of the consideration of foreign language learning
goes back to ancient civilizations as those as the Greeks and Romans. The
Romans were the first to study a foreign language formally. They were taught
Greek by Greek tutor slaves. Their methodology consisted in reading texts and
later discussing them. It was called “lectio, disputatio”.
2-During the Middle Ages, Latin was the dominant language of higher
education, government and commerce. It was used in Britain as the language of
legal documents. Latin was taught in monastic schools through rote learning of
grammar rules, declensions and translation; that is, students had to learn by
repeated study rather than by understanding the meaning. Latin gave access to
works by classical writers.
3-During the 16th and 17th century, other vernacular languages displaced Latin.
However Latin grammar and rhetoric became the model for foreign language
study. For example, French was used at court and it was also a lingua franca
spoken by travelers, traders and soldiers.
4-In the 18th century, other languages entered the curriculum of European
schools. They were taught according to traditional methodology, that is,
teaching was based on the Latin learning tradition. Textbooks consisted mainly
in abstract grammar rules, lists of vocabulary and sentences for translation. Oral
practice was limited to reading aloud written texts.
5-Before the 20th century foreign languages were only formally taught to
fortunate children. People learned another language through contact with
another people. Natural bilingual situations were frequent.
6-In the 19th century the Grammar Translation Method was the dominant
language teaching method in Europe from the 1840s to 1940s. It was of
German origin and it was known in the USA as the Prussian Method. Its
proponents were the scholars: K.Plotz, H.S. Ollendorf, and J. Meidinger.
Foreign language study was seen as a mental discipline, the goal of which may
be to read literature in its original form or simply to be a form of intellectual
development. The basic approach consists in analyzing and studying the
grammatical rules of language following the traditional order of the grammar of
Latin, and then to practice manipulating grammatical structures through
translation both into and from the mother tongue. This method is mainly based
on written texts. A typical lesson would start by presenting the rules of a
particular item of grammar, then the teacher would illustrate its use by including
the item several times in a text, and practice using the item through wrtiing
sentences and translating them into the mother tongue. The text is often
accompanied by a vocabulary list consisting of new lexical items used in the
text together with the mother tongue translation. Accuracy is central to this
approach. Generally speaking, the medium of instruction is the mother tongue.,
which is used to explain conceptual problems and to discuss the use of a
particular grammatical structure. To summarize:
-goal: read classical literature and benefit from mental discipline.
-syllabus: grammar points and vocabulary lists, direct translation
-sentence: basic unit of language teaching. There is no context.
-grammar rules taught deductively
-accuracy is emphasized
-mother tongue: medium of instruction
-rote learning of rules and vocabulary, formal written examination
7-With World War II there was a massive international movement with armies,
refugees, the radio, etc. which increased the teaching of other languages. It was
in those days when the behaviorist theories appeared. Many experiments like
Skinner‟s rats or Pavlov‟s dogs tried to prove that learning was based on a
stimulus-response-reinforcement basis. In language teaching this was
translated into structuralism. Language was divide into “bits” which were easy to
manipulate. Habits were transformed into language patterns. The product of this
trend can be seen in: the repetitive language drills, the audiolingual method, the
language laboratory and the structuralist taxonomy.
8-In the seventies, we had another perspective: cognitive learning. Other
concepts such as Chomsky‟s language competence were at the center.
Language teachers focused on notions and functions. Notions are universal
abstracts (such as Past, Present, and Possibility) in each language. Functions
are social transactions which require responses.
9-Finally, in the 80s, the communicative approach appeared, and since today it
has been the most widely used.
2.CURRENT TRENDS IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE.
Linguistic specialists on language teaching from different parts of Europe
started to pay attention to the way a child learns his/her mother tongue. This
Reform movement represented a shift from grammar translation methods to
natural methods. Some of these reformers were Marcel, Prendergast, F.Gouin,
F. Sweet, and W.Viëtor.
-C.Marcel took child language learning as a model for language teaching.
-T.Prendergast observed that children used contextual and situational cues to
interpret utterances and that they used memorized phrases and “routines” in
speaking. He proposed learning chunks of language (bits) even thought the
meaning of the individual parts was unknown. He was the first to propose an
structural syllabus and graded language according to grammatical complexity.
Structuralists divided language into “bits” that were easy to manipulate.
-F.Gouin: his proposals were based on the observation of first language
acquisition. (FLA).
-He thought that children learnt if they used language to accomplish events.
-He also highlighted the importance of using situations to present oral language.
-To make meaning clear he emphasized the use of context, gestures & actions.
-F.Sweet: emphasized the following teaching principles:
-to select and mark the limits of what is to be taught
-to arrange content in terms of the 4 skills: listen-read-write-speaking
-W.Viëtor:‟s main ideas were:
-speech patterns were the fundamental elements of language
-the importance of training in Phonetics
-IPA: this tendency to consider Phonetics as an essential element in language
learning led to the foundation of an International Phonetic Association in 1886.
They introduced the International Phonetic Alphabet. The goals of the
association were:
-the study of the spoken language
-phonetic training in order to establish good pronunciation habits
-the use of dialogues to introduce conversational phrases and idioms
-teaching new meanings through establishing associations within the
target language rather than with the mother tongue.
This association helped to reform language learning methodology. Reformers
provided some theoretical foundations in second language teaching:
-spoken language is primary; so language learning should be oral-based.
-phonetics should be presented in teacher training as in SL teaching
-oral forms should be introduced to learners before written forms.
-language should be used in context
-grammar should be taught inductively
-translation should be avoided, although the mother tongue could be
used for explanations and for checking comprehension.
-Other methods or approaches:
The Direct Method
Its theoretical principles come from first language acquisition research. It is a
method of teaching a foreign language through conversation, discussion, and
reading in the language itself. This method lacks these elements: the use of the
students‟ mother tongue, translation and the study of formal grammar. The firsts
words are taught by pointing to objects or pictures, or by performing actions. In
the USA, its main scholars were: Sauveur and Maximilian Berlitz. Sauveur used
questions as a way of presenting and eliciting language. Berlitz‟s principles:
-classroom instructions were exclusively given in the target language
-everyday vocabulary and sentences were employed
-oral skills acquired through graded progression of question-answer exchanges
-grammar was taught inductively
-concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration and abstract
vocabulary through the association of ideas
Although some people considered that it lacked a rigorous basis in Applied
linguistics, this method was introduced and officially approved in France and
Germany. When the former principled were systematized, the Direct Method
developed into:
1-the Audiolingual method in USA.
2-The Oral-situational Approach in the UK.
2-The Audiolingual Method
-teaching principles:
-separation of the 4 skills and primacy of listening and speaking
-use of dialogues to present language
 -emphasis on mimicry (imitative repetition), memorization & pattern drills
-use of the language laboratory
Audiolingualism tries to develop the target language skills without reference to
the mother tongue, like the Direct Method. Listening and speaking are given
priority. This learning process is based on behaviorism, that is, based on
frequent repetition and imitation. In the work Verbal Behavior Skinner applied
his theories of how human language is acquired. He suggested that language is
a kind of behavior based on stimulus-response-reinforcement process. This
method introduced the memorization of dialogues and mimicry. They developed
pattern drills and structural drills.
3-The Situational Approach
This method looked for realism. It was Rupert Firth who stressed the
importance of “context of situation”, things have to be meaningful and related to
real life if we want students to learn. The principle of activity rather than
passivity became the crucial matter, now things like. Games, dramas, songs,
chants, and audiovisual aids became important. In this approach we distinguish
between real situations “out there, outside the classroom”, and simulated
situations in the classroom. Specialists on language teaching have gone on
proposing more and more realism in the classroom, in terms of learner‟s need,
which in effect means a further move away from the monastery tradition.
3.THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
From the mid-seventies two concepts have changed the theory on language
teaching and learning:
1-Communication: is an exchange between people of knowledge, information,
ideas, opinions, feelings…. For genuine communication to take place, what is
being communicated must be something new to the recipient. Communication is
full of surprises. It is the element of unexpectedness and unpredictability which
makes communication what it is, and for which it is so hard to prepare the
student by conventional teaching methods.
2-Communicative competence:
-This concept has received different kinds of treatment depending on the
different perspectives both in linguistic studies and the teaching-learning
processes.
-Traditionally this notion has been considered as linguistic competence: the
correct use of linguistic-grammatical structures or rules of language.
-Saussure introduced two new concepts.
-Langue: is a common faculty to the human race, abstract.
-Parole: is the social product of that language faculty, individual.
There is a common structure underlying the utterances that are produced by the
speakers of a particular language.
-utterances are instances of parole.
-the underlying structure is the language in question.
-Chomsky „s distinction of these two related concepts competence and
performance initiated the age of generative linguistics:
-linguistic competence: Knowledge of language rules on the part of an
ideal speaker-hearer.
-linguistic performance: actual speech, that is, how people actually
produce and understand utterances, how they use their competence.
-In the 60s, however, a different idea of competence started to appear from a
point of view of communicative ability. Hymes‟s theory introduced a social
component to add to linguistic awareness, counting as part of the
communicative competence such other variables as appropriateness,
occurrence or feasibility.
-Communicative competence involves knowing not only using the language
code correctly (linguistic competence) but also the ability to participate
appropriately in any communication event.
-Communicative competence according to Hymes includes the following
components:
-Linguistic competence: the knowledge of the linguistic code (includes
language elements such as phonemes, morphemes and lexical items and
grammar rules) in relation with correctness.
-Sociolinguistic competence: refers to the knowledge of social context in
which communication takes place. It is connected to appropriateness of
meaning and form to context. Appropriateness of meaning is based on the
correct use of language functions together with the correct attitude to the social
context. For instance the question “Would you like to join us for dinner?” is not
an appropriate request according to this context: a waiter who is serving our
table, although it is linguistically correct. We have to consider appropiateness of
form which is based on producing the appropriate message (language
competence) according to the social context (knowledge of social norms). For
example a business partner can address you in this way: “Hi Margaret!” but if
you meet your boss you are not expected to say: “Hi Peter!” You would use the
address form: “Good morning Mr. Walker”.
-Textual or discourse competence: refers to how to interpret individual
elements in connection with other elements, hot to combine them efficiently to
integrate them into a written or spoken text. It refers to the combination of forms
(cohesion) and meanings (coherence) in order to achieve a text unity. Cohesion
is related to how utterances are linked together. Coherence is related to the
relationships among the different meanings in a text. Coherence can be
achieved by the repetition of meaning (continuity), progression of meaning
(development), non-contradiction (consistency) and relevance of meaning (
congruity).
-Interactional or strategic competence: it refers to the use of
communication strategies. It is used to achieve an effective communication with
the interlocutor(s): when to speak or be silent, interrupt, initiate or make a
closing…
-The introduction of these new factors in the communicative process led to
important changes in second language teaching. Now we not only teach
students grammar rules, notions, functions but also in what situations are they
appropriate.
-The communicative approach sees language as a system for the expression of
meaning. The primary function of language is for interaction and
communication, then the main units of language are not merely grammatical
and structural features, but categories of functional and communicative
meaning as exemplified in discourse.
-This approach considers that the following activities promote learning:
-activities that involve real communication and interaction
-using language for carrying meaningful tasks.
-using language that is meaningful to the learner.
-Communicative activities: they are divided into two levels:
1-pre-communicative activities: practice that is not really communicative, but
they train learners to carry out communicative practice: such as: audiolingual
drills, substitution drills, situational drills, gap-filling with a context… They
progress from structural - quasi-communicative – functional - social context.
2-communicative activities: looking for information, following directions,
problem-solving, discussions, dialogues, role-plays, simulations.
-Such approaches as “notional-functionalism” and the communicative approach”
share some significant elements:
-an enthusiasm for language use rather than language structure
-a preference for semantics (meaning in real-life contexts) over grammar
-an interest in analyzing, & planning for, the genuine needs of the learner
-Notional-functionalism concerns 2 general concepts of how language is used:
-notions: relate to how we cut up the world into such things as time,
space, location, movement, shape, emotions, attitudes,
-functions: social transactions: asking for help, thanking, agreeing, etc.
THE COMMUNICATIVE CLASSROOM
The communicative approach emerged in the 1970s and 1980s as the
emphasis switched from mechanical practice of language patterns associated
with the audio-lingual method to activities that engaged the learner in more
meaningful and authentic language use. Most present day teachers would like o
think that their classes are communicative and that activities involve
communication and tasks are completed by means of interaction with other
learners. Today the teacher‟s role has changed, and he/she will facilitate and
then monitor, usually without interruption, and then to provide feedback on the
success or on the communication, and, on the linguistic performance of the
learner in the form of post activity error correction. Communicative lessons
follow the model: presentation-practice-contextualization or performance.
When teaching communicative competence we teachers have to know
how to bridge the gap between linguistic competence and communicative
competence. The answer is by developing a smooth transition between skill-
getting and skill-using activities. The first are used to learn the structures, the
latter, to practice the language, to communicate. The gap is difficult to bridge
when communication is absent in a classroom situation. Communication stems
from necessity, and this necessity must be created in the classroom in the form
of real, simulated and game-like contexts.
Today other principles are given more emphasis:
STRUCTURALIST APPROACH COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
Language structure-form Language use
Linguistic competence Communicative competence
Skill-getting activities (form) Skill-using activities (use)
Accuracy Fluency
Correct mistakes Feedback at the end, not immediately

CONCLUSION
As we have already seen, language has been taught in many different ways.
Theories on the nature of language, such as the behaviorist or the cognitive
theory have also influenced the way in which language was taught. There have
been many different language teaching methods and approaches. To start with,
the grammar-translation method, the oldest one and linked with the monastery
tradition. Then the different direct methods, which moved the focus towards the
living language arguing that speech was primary. After that came the various
structural methods and approaches which focused on listening and speaking
and were based on the assumption that language was habit-based.
Structuralists introduced graded and repetitive sentence drills known as “pattern
drills”. Finally, the communicative approach is nowadays considered the most
appropriate approach in language teaching and learning.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
MC.ARTHUR, Tom. 1984. A Foundation Course for Language Teachers.
Cambridge: C.U.P.