6. The Clause Complex — Expanding the Message If the single independent clause can be defined as the linguistic experience of a situation, Clause complexes (the combination of several clauses) are the linguistic expressions of complex situations, and reflect the cognitive organization of our experience into what is more important and what is less important ‘The “Clause complex” is a term referring to a unit consisting of two or more clauses related paratactically or hypotactically, but not by embedding (constituent of another, superordinate clause). This larger unit is traditionally called the sentence. We usually distinguish three types of sentences: + the simple sentence, consists of one independent clause, e.g. Peter hought the hooks; «the compound sentence, consists of two independent clauses, linked in a relationship of coordination, e.g. Peter bought the books and Mary made a call; ‘the complex sentence, made up of one independent and one dependent clause, linked in relationship of subordination, e.g, Peter bought the books, while Mary made a call. We will, however, resort to the term Clause complex, which is generally used to define @ constituent of grammar, at the expense of ‘sentence,’ an orthographical unit primarily associated with the written language, which starts with a capital letter and comes between full stops. ‘There are two kinds of relationship between clauses in a clause complex: (1) syntactic relationships of interdependency and (2) logico-semantic relations. 1. Syntactic relationships between clauses Clauses are related to each other in two ways: a relationship of equivalence, all clauses having the same syntactic status, and 4 relationship of non-equivalenee. the clauses having a different status. The relationship of equivalence is called paratactic relationship, whereas the onc of non-equivalence is called hypotaetic relationshi 1.1. Parataxis (juxtaposition) is the placing of clauses or phrases one after another without words indicating coordination or subordination eg. Tell me how are you Paratactic linking is often treated as equivalent to coordination. More exactly, coontination is one type of parataxis. Semantically, the information presented in one clause is as important as the one presented in the other or others. However, this does not mean that the order of the paratactic clauses is necessarily reversible, Syntactic and pragmatic forces frequently intervene to make reversibility impossible: eg. Ihave bought some beautiful shirts and I think you will like them. (dhem refers anaphorically to an antecedent in the first clause) He made a fortune and bought an oil tanker. vs. He bought an oil tanker and made a fortune. (different pragmatic interpretations) 1.2 Hypotaxis is the relationship between units of unequal status. One clause is syntactically and semantically subordinated to another or to a series of clauses. The information contained in the subordinate clause is often presented as background to the information presented in the superordinate clause, e.g. You never can tell till you try. If wishes were horses, beggars would ride. 522. ‘The logico-semantic relationships ‘Traditional grammar has no terms to define this particular kind of relationship the main (independent, primary clause in a hypotactic clause complex) and the dependent (subordinate, secondary clause). According to M. A. K, Halliday: (a) the dependent (secondary clause) expands the main (primary clause) by: (a) ng, (b) extending, (c) enhancing it, paratactically or hypotactically: Expansion! (@ Paratactic Gil) Hypotactic @ “Tom Kept quiet; Tom Kept quiet, elaboration he said nothing. Which was unexpected. ) ‘Tom kept quiet, Tom kept quiet, extension but Pete took the floor. Whereas Pete took the floor. © Pete was late, Pete took a taxi, enhancement so he took a taxi because he was late (b) the dependent is projeeted through the main as: (a) a locution, via the verb of saying, or (b) an idea, via a verb of thinking: Projection @ Paratactic Gi) Hypotactic @ ‘Tom said: Tom said locution ‘Vl go there tomorrow.” he would go there the next day ©) ‘Tom thought: ‘Tom thought idea ‘Vl go there tomorrow.” hhe would go there the next day To conclude this introductory scotion we would like to reiterate the fact that in order to accurately convey a message we have to cither join simple independent clauses into clause complexes, or expand a clause by elaborating, extending and en 2 it A) ELABORATION This means that one clause elaborates on the meaning of another by further specifying or describing it. The dependent does not introduce a new element into the picture but rather provides a further characterization of one of the already existing elements, restating it, clarifying it, refining it or adding a descriptive attribute or comment. The elaborated thing can be the whole primary clause, a part of it, or one or more of its constituents. Elaboration may occur paratactically or hypotactically 1. Paratactic elaboration (Apposition) means the joining of two clauses of equal status in apposition. The second clause elaborates the first clause as a whole, or one or more of its constituents. The symmetry of this type of clause complex is reflected in punctuation by the use of the semi-colon, colon or dash: e.g. It’s like going out with a child; she stops dead and refuses to go any further. You need a better excuse: no one will believe that Tom had been overworking for some time — only [knew much. This is simple juxtaposition of separate, independent units. In writing, we view them as a possible clause complex, because the punctuation conventions support such interpretation. However, in spoken language it is difficult to decide whether such combinations of clauses are to be interpreted as a single unit or as two separate clauses. With juxtaposed clauses, we have to rely on an implicit semantic connection. By the use of Conjunets, which provide cohesive, 53not structural linking, the connection becomes explicit. In this respect. depending on the meaning and the type of connectors, we distinguish three types of paratactic elaboration (a) expositive: the secondary clause restates the thesis of the primary clause in different words, in order to present it from another point of view, or perhaps just to reinforce the message. This occurs with the help of conjunctive expressions such as, in other words, or rather, that is (to say), specifically, namely, as follows, 1e. (in writing): e.g. That clock doesn’t go, in other words, it is not working. Alcoholic drinks are sold only to adults, ic. people over 18, (b) exemplifying: the secondary clause develops the thesis of the primary clause by becoming, more specific about it, by means of an example. The explicit conjunets are: for example, for instance, in particular, e.g.(in writing): e.g, There are lots of things you might do — for example, you might learn to play a musical instrument. Your face is the same as everybody else has ~ the two eyes, 80, nose in the middle, mouth under. (©) clarifying: the secondary clause clarifies the thesis of the primary clause by an explanatory comment, the cohesive conjunets being: in fact, actually, indeed, sometimes also te. and v eg. I didn’t mind their questions — indeed, I was glad to be able to answer them. We should get through this job fairly soon; actually there is very little left to do, 2. Hypotactic elaboration (Non-restrictive relative clauses) means the combination of hypotaxis (dependency) and claboration, out of which the non-defining or non-restrictive relative clause is born. eg. They decided to cancel the show, which upset everybody alike. The dependent clause can be either finite or non-finite. 24. clauses Non-restrictive relative clauses differ from the restrictive/defining ones in both me: expression, In terms of meaning, non-restrictive relative clauses do not define subsets, as do the restrictive ones. They add a further specification of something that is already presented as specific: eg. Imet his only uncle, who lives in Cluj. (non-restrictive ~ the only) vs. T met his aunt who lives in Cluj. (restrictive ~ one of his aunts, the one who lives in Cluj) ‘The specific antecedent is not necessarily @ noun, but it can be the whole clause, or any of its constituents. We have three convenient groupings: (@) whole clauses as antecedent; the relative pronoun is which: eg. They decided to stay, which turned out to be fatal. (b) nominal group as antecedent; the relative pronoun is: who, whose, prepos which (rarely that). When the Nominal Group is in non-final position in the main clause, the dependent clause is often enclosed: e.g. She went to her best friend, who helped her with the essay. Inflation, which was necessary for the system, became also lethal. © an expression of time or place as antecedent; the relative adverbs where and when arc used. The dependent clause may be enclosed, too, like above, eg. It should be ready by July, when the holidays start. In winter, when the fields are white, Ising this song for your delight. g and n+ whom or 34We drove down to Valencia, where some of the best oranges come from. In terms of expression, non-restrictive relative clauses are clearly signaled both in speech and in writing. In written English they are marked off by punctuation — usually commas, but sometimes, they are being introduced by a dash: whereas the restrictive relative clause is not marked by punctuation from its antecedent. In spoken English the non-defining relative clause forms a separate tone group. Furthermore, the primary and secondary clauses are linked by Tone Concord, in other words, they are spoken on the same tone. 2.2 Non-finite and abbreviated ct The non-finite verb forms (-ing, 1o-infinitive and — en partici express the same meanings as the finite forms. e.g. Iworked for a local firm at that time, selling office equipment. Thave brought down a table from the attic, to put the television set on. The city was invisible, enveloped in a thick mist The non-finite form may have its own explicit Subject c.g. John went off by himself, the rest of us staying behind. ‘That was the last time I saw him, his face all covered in bandages. It’s amuch bigger house, for the children to have their own rooms Ie) are used non-restrictively to B) EXTENSION It has an additive meaning, in other words, one clause — usually the secondary one ~ extends the meaning of another (the primary one) by adding something new to it. What is added may be an addition, a variation, an alternation, an explanation or an exception. Cohesive connectors can be used to reinforce these meanings. There are two forms of extension: paratactic and hypotaetic extension 1. Paratactic extension (coordination between clauses) means the combination of parataxis and extension through which coordination between clauses is achieved. Coordination is typically achieved by the conjunctions: and, or, nor, but, which are often accompanied by cohesive expressions. 1.1 Addition is the adjoining of two processes in relation of equality that can be positive, negative or adversative. Paratactic additions are often accompanied buy cohesive expressions like too, in addition, moreover, also, on the other hand. furthermore, besides, as additive conjunets, and in fact, actually, as a matter of fact, as adversative conjunets: eg. He doesn’t like bacon, and also he’s better without it. (positive) He had no intention of staying, nor in fact did he ever promise to. (negative) You can phone the doctor, buf I very much doubt he will come. (adversative) 1.2 Variation Here one clause is a total or a partial replacement of another, the variation conjunets being but (meaning “instead of” / “except for”), instead, only, on the contrary. e.g. Don’t stand there chattering to yourself, bur tell me your name and business. I would have let you know, only I couldn’t find your phone number. 13 Alternation means that the second clause represents an alternative to the first. The associated cohesive conjunctions include conversely, alternatively, on the other hand, or else preceded by either (either... 07) e.g. You should (either) accept his invitation or (else) tum it down politely. You can add the wine to the water: conversely, you can add the water to the wine. 351.4 Explanation: the secondary clause comments on of explains the primary clause: e.g. There’s one thing you must realize and that is that she is crossed with you and leaving. 2. Hypotactic extension (contrastive dependency) ‘The combination of extension with hypotaxis also embraces addition, replacement and alternation, but with the extending (secondary) clauses dependent (a dependency relationship). The dependent clause may be finite or non-finite. 2.1 Finite clauses The conjunctions whereas and while introduce finite dependent clauses which contrast with the primary clause. The former conjunction is more formal than the latter. e.g. Jane already speaks two foreign languages, whereas her brother hasn't yet learned any. The executioner, the King and the Queen were all talking at once, while all the rest were quite silent. ‘There is no clear line between the additive and the adversative clauses; these clauses sometimes have an adversative component, sometimes not. There is no finite form for replacement. For subtraction, we use the conjunctions: except that, but (for the fact) that. eg. Iwould gladly give you a lift there, except that my wife took the car today. The hypotactic form of the alternative relation is if.. not (corresponds to the either...or in paratactic combinations): eg. Ifyou haven't lost it, then it’s in the drawer, (© Either you lost your purse or it in the drawer.) 2.2 Non-finite clauses ‘The non-finite clause, which extends the meaning of the primary clause by contributing additive, replacive, adversative and subtractive meanings, is usually ~ing clause, introduced by prepositions such as besides, instead of, without, other than, apart from, functioning conjunetively: e.g. Besides losing her job, her car was stolen. (additive) Instead of turning down that alley, you should have kept straight on. (replacive) He gladly accepted the offer, without realizing what it involved. (adversative) You won't get rid of it, other than giving it away. (subtractive) [ANCEME! nhancing clause is a secondary clause which adds to the meaning of the primary clause by reference to some circumstantial feature: time, place, manner. condition, purpose, cause. concession, etc. There are two forms of enhancement: paratactic and hypotactic relationship to the primary clause. 1. Paratactic enhancement (associated circumstantials) means the combination of parataxis, and circumstantial meaning, which is a kind of coordination or juxtaposition with a circumstantial feature incorporated into it. The secondary clause is introduced by: conjunctions: then, so for but, yet, still; conjunctive combinations of and + another ite and then, and here, and this, and so, and yet; and + cohesive conjunction, not structural: at that time, soon afterwards, till then, in thai case, in that way. eg. (time: now, then) They spread the cloth on the grass and then began unpacking the things. W's the Cheshire Cat: now J shall have somebody to talk to. 36(place: arid there) She tumed the comer, and there stood Robin waiting for her. He looked up, and there she stood in front of him. (manner — means: [and] in that way) Put labels on everything, and that way you'll know what you've got in the freezer. (manner — comparison: similarly, in the same way, likewise, and so...) She likes the simple liffe, and so does he, (cause/effect: arid so) Alice didn’t want to begin another argument, so she said nothing. (effeet/cause: for) We left in silence, for there was little we could say. (condition — positive: and then, [and] in that case) You might have an accident, and in that case who will rescue you? (condition — negative: otherwise, or else) Put everything back, otherwise something will get mislaid. (concession: stil, yet, though) He criticizes his colleagues, yet relies on them for support. (consequence: consequently, as a result) He had not taken the precaution of being vaccinated, consequently he got malaria. 2. Hypotactic enhancement (dependent circumstantials) The combination of hypotaxis with enhancement gives the “adverbial clauses” (of traditional grammar) of time, place, condition, purpose, concession, reason and manner, They are cither finite or non-finite. 2.1 Finite clauses are introduced by hypota (@) simple conjunetions: when, whenever, where, wherever, because, if, unless, until, while, as: is if, as though, even if, even though, even when, soon after, no sooner, ions: that, provided that, granted that, considering that, seeing that, suppose that, supposing that, say, in case, in the event that, to the extent that, in spite of the fact that, the day, the way, sofas long as, as soon as, sofas far as, much as, now( that). e.g. The crowd roared as the Ball went into the net. (time) As he is an only child, he gets a great deal of attention. (reason) While I admire his tenacity, I deplore his ruthlessness. (concession) Go wherever you like, as long as you don't get Jost. (condition) Fasten the sunshade securely, so that it won't blow coway. (purpose) The oil tanker ran aground, so that the whole coastline was polluted. (result) (b) conjunctive groups: (6) complex conjun 2.2 Non. of enhancement express many of the meanings conveyed by the finite type in addition to some others. The semantic relationships may be made clear by means of conjunetions (when, while [time], while [concession], though, if), conjunetive prepositions (before, after, since, from, by, on, with, without [concession], without [reason or extending use]), or they may be left inexplicit, the fo-infinitive usually signaling purpose: eg. Take extra care when driving at night. (time) Though feeling unwell, he made an effort to appear cheerful. (concession) IVith redecorating the house, our funds are pretty low. Without having read the book, 1 can’t give an opinion. (reason) They left without saying “Good-bye.” (an extending use) 37Don’t do it just fo please me. (purpose) The meanings expressed by the —ing and en forms may sometimes be clarified by ‘adding one of the above-listed conjunctions or conjunctive prepositions. Despite being less explicit than finite forms and the speaker being free to exploit this inexplicitness, non-finite forms are an economical means of expressing relationships, which are not required to be further specified, However, when greater specification is required, finite forms are available preceded by conjunctions. e.g. Living in the US, he only manages to see his parents every other year. (© Because he lives in the US, he only manages to see his parents every other year.) D) PROJECTION It is the relationship between a clause containing a verb of saying or thinking and a clause which expresses what is said or thought. With paratactic projection (clauses of equal status), we have quoted speech or thought (also known as “Direct Speech”), whereas with hy potactic projection (clauses of uncqual status) we are dealing with reported speech and thought (also known as “Indircet Speech”). Writers of present-day fiction use a variety of verbs, many not strictly verbs of speaking, to introduce both quoted and reported specch. In addition, and in order to give the reader the illusion of entering a character's mind, writers of fiction combine features of quoted and reported speech to produce the varieties known as “Free Direct Speech” and “Free Indirect Speech.” In projection, one clause is projected through another, cither as a locution after a verb of saying, or as an idea after a verb of thinking. Their combination with paratasis and hypotaxis is illustrated below (Downing and Locke, 1992:297): ‘Types of projection Parataxis Hiypotaxis Tocution She said, “Tl go.” She said she would go. “Go!” she told him. he told him to go. idea She thought, “Tl go.” She thought she would go. “Go!” she willed him. She wanted him to go. Locutions and ideas, when projected paratactically, give Direct Speech, in which the exaot words of the sayer are quoted, whereas when projected hypotactically, they give Indirect Speech, that is the meaning is reported without a repetition of the exact words of the sayer. uoted speech and quoted thought (direct speech / paratactic locutions (a) Quoted speech: describes the way we represent the spoken word in writing ‘Actual spoken statement ‘Quoted statement in writing “Tm waiting.” “Fim waiting,” John said, Actual spoken question ‘Quoted question in writing “When did you amive, John?” “When did you arrive, John?” Mary asked. ‘The projecting clause contains a verb of saying (traditionally called “reporting verb”). The projected clause contains that which is said (traditionally called “quotation”). The order is fre c.g. “Two notable suocesses have marked this trip.” he said. He said, “Two notable successes have marked this trip.” “Two notable successes,” he said, “have marked this trip.” 58In spoken English, the projected clause is more important than the projecting one, in whatever position the latter occurs. In written English, the quoted clause is marked by inverted commas, and if the quotation extends to a new paragraph, the quotation marks are repeated. ‘The reporting verb is always followed by a comma (sometimes a colon [:] in AmE) and the quotation begins with a capitals letter. When the quotation ends with an exclamation mark or a question mark, no comma is used between it and the reporting verb. If there is a “quote within ‘8 quote,” we use a second set of quotation marks. If double quotation marks have been used on the “outside.” single ones are used on the “inside” and viee versa; e.g. Ann said, “Just as I was leaving, a voice shouted, “Stop! ‘What do you mean, “Are you all right?”"?” Jane asked. Here are some of the verbs that introduce quoted speech: © generally: say (less frequently tell); + for statements: announce, point out, observe, remark, report: © for questions: ask demand, inquire, quer * other verbs of communication which contain reference to the circumstance of the speech act: affirm, answer, argue, beg, boast, declare, interrupt, object, protest, repeat, urge, warns, «for utterances (commands, exclamations = verbs with connotative meaning), somehow reflecting/illustrating the way in which they are made: bark, bleat, chirp, complain, croak, cry, drawl, exclaim, grumble, hiss, holler, mumble, mutter, scream, shout, shriek, snap, snarl, stammer, stutter, whisper, yell, ete., and also behavioral verbs expressing some emotive state that accompanies the act of speaking: laughter — chuckle, laugh, smile, grin, giggle, smirk, simper, twinkle; weeping — sob, wail, excitement, concern — breathe, pant; incredulity — gasp; pain, anger — bellow, choke, flash, and others e.g. “T'll take the cases,” he whispered, “Don’t be a fool,” he snarled. “What's happened? What's wrong?” he pleaded, “Come on, lads,” Tommy yelled. ‘Isaid come in Mrs. Friar!” John barked at her. “Ruth,” he breathed, ‘how long have you had this cough?” Gordon Parker, Lightning in May. (b) Quoted thought describes the way we render thought in writing. The number of mental processes verbs that occur in the projecting clause is very little, in comparison with the lc varicty of verbs used in quoted speech. They include: * the basic verb: think; * other verbs of cognition: ask oneself; wonder, reflect, surmise, ponder, muse, ete Quotation marks (inverted commas or dashes) are generally not required when “direct thoughts” are rendered in writing. The projecting clause is made parenthetic: eg. He’s very well dressed, thought Clarissa, yet he always criticizes me. Here she is mending her dress: mending her dress as usual, he thought; here she’s been sitting all the time I've been in India; mending her dress; running to the House and back and all that, he thought, growing more and more irritated, more and more agitated, for there’s nothing in the world so bad for some women as marriage, he thought; and politics; and having a Conservative 59husband, like the admirable Richard. So it is, so it is, he thought, shutting his knife with a snap, Virginia Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway 2. Reported speech and reported thought (indirect speech /hypotactic locuti (a) Reported speech is when the speaker is telling someone what another person says or said, In the reported representation of an utterance, the speaker or writer may keep close to the original wording, except for the necessary temporal, spatial and pronominal shifts: eg. “Twon't be long,” she said. + She said she wouldn't be long. “I's raining,” Peter said. — Peter said that it was raining, Reported speech requires a great deal more than the mechanical application of reporting rules. Very often the speaker/reporter must interpret what he hears or reads before reporting it. He has to accurately convey the manner in which words were spoken or written. Stress and intonation in direct speech can be reported by means of adverbs or emphatic reporting verbs. Moreover, reported speech also involves paraphrase or summary of the original utterance: e.g. “You really must let me pay the bill,” Andrew said, — Andrew insisted on paying the bill, “Why don’t we go sailing?” Diana said. + Diana suggested they should go sailing. “Dammit, man,” he shouted, and slammed his fist hard on the desktop. > He cursed as he slammed his fist hard on the desktop. Verbs used in reporting statements and questions are essentially the same as those used in quoting. ‘The main exceptions are the following: ‘+ semantically complex verbs expressing thetorival processes (used only in reporting): claim, deny, hypothesize, imply, insinuate, maintain, make out, pretend, * verbs which are not intrinsically verbs of saying, like behavioral verbs (used m: quoting): those mentioned above at 1. (a) e.g. “I'm not involved in the accident,” says he. + He denies being involved in the accident. “So what?” he sneered. — He asked with a sneer what it mattered, (b) Reported thought (ideas, beliefs, fears, speculations) is achieved with the help of verbs of mental processes: believe, feel, hold, imagine, maintain, understand, fear, suspect, think, say to oneself, eto. e.g. “And that’s the jury box,” thought Alice. Alice said to herself that that was the jury box. 3. Reported offers, suggestions and commands refers to the projection of directives, either paratactically or hypotactically. Offers and commands, and also suggestions that are simply the combination of the two (offer “VII do it,” command “you do it,” suggestion ‘let’s do it’), can be projected paratactically (quoted) in the same way as propositions, by means of a verbal process clause having a quoting function, for example, using an exclamation mark: e.g. If we're talking when she’s writing up on the board, all of a sudden she'll turn round and go “will you be quiet!” For hypotactical projection, we use an extensive set of verbs, especially in narrative fiction, followed by finite or non-finite constructions: 60* the general verb: say; * verbs specific to offers and commands: suggest, offer, call, order, request, tell, propose, decide, ‘* verbs embodying some circumstantial or other semantic feature: threaten, vow, urge, plead, warn, promise, agres «verbs expressing a wide variety of rhetorical processes: persuade, forbid, undertake, encourage, recommend, verbs involving some additional connotation: blare, thunder, moan, yell, fuss, sooth, shriek out, eto. e.g. “T'll blow up the city!” he threatened. + He threatened to blow up the city He threatened that he would blow up the city. * she said. — She told / urged us (me) to hurry up. — She said that we were to hurry up. — She said that we should / must / have to hurry up. = She said to hurry — She said for us to hurry. (AME) Abbreviated clauses, quite common in quoted speech, especially in fiction, present a problem in reporting, since they contain no verb, Therefore, a verb must be provided, although this involves an interpretation on the part of the person who utters the reported version. Moreover, more than one reported version is possible, which makes the reported clause differ considerably from the quoted version. eg. “This way, please,” the usher said. The usher asked/invited (us, the caller?) to accompany him. — The usher showed (us, the caller?) the way. In effect, the two versions are different messages. 4, Free direct speech and free indirect speech are common devices of narrative writing for a better portrayal of the fictional characters” stream of thought, (a) Free direct speech or thought consists in simply omitting the inverted commas or dashes that conventionally signal quoting, as illustrated above in the extract from Virginia Woolf's Mrs. Dalloway. (b) Free indirect speech and thought is even more radical, as the projecting clause is altogether omitted, More flexible than normal indirect speech, it also aids concision by allowing a writer to retell someone’s words indirectly and at length without having to insert reporting expressions (He satd, She exclaimed). Moreover, free indirect speech can incorporate the question and exclamation structures of direct speech, vocatives, utterance-time adverbs such as now, tag questions or the lack of temporal and spatial shifts. In other words, it has become the widespread, standard practice of describing ‘interior monologue’ in the fiction of the twentieth century. The following excerpt from Joyce Carol Oates” short story Happy, is a blending of indirect speech, free indirect speech, and direct speech without a projecting claw: “Hurry up! They stopped for dinner at a Polynesian restaurant ten miles up the Tumpike, her mother explaining that there wasn't anything decent 10 eat at home, also it was getting late, wasn’t it, tomorrow she'd be making a big dinner, That's okay honey isn’t it? She and her new husband quarrcled about getting on the Tumpike then exiting right away, but at dinner they were in high spirits again, laughing a good deal, holding hands between courses, sipping from each other's tall frosted bright-colored tropical drinks. Jesws I’m 61crazy about that woman, her mother’s new husband told the girl when het mother was in the powder room, Your mother is a high-class lady, he said. He shifted his cane chair close, leaned moist and warm, meaty, against her, an arm across her shoulders. There’s nobody in the world precious to me as that lady, I want you to know that, he said, and the girl said Yes J kriove it, and her mother’s new husband said in a fierce voice close to tears, Damn right, sweetheart, you know it. HIGHLIGHT = __‘Theterm Sentence is widely used fo refer to different type of ui grammatically: itis the highest unit and consists of one independent clause ot two or more related clauses; orthographically and rhetorically: itis the unit which starts with a capital letter and comes, between full stops. * Syntactically, clause complexes are combinations of several clauses (minimum two) related paratactically or hypotactically. + Semantically, clause complexes are achieved by: Expansion (secondary clause expands the ‘meaning of the primary elause in some way) and Projection (one clause is projected through another via a verb of saying or thinking). + Elaborating clauses clarify or comment on a primary clause. They can be finite or and in paratactic or hypotactic relationship with the primary clause. "By Extension (addition, variation, alternation, explanation, exception) the secondary clause extends the meaning of the primary clause. = Enhancing clauses are secondary clauses which add to the meaning of the primary clause by reference to some citcumstantial feature: time, place, manner, condition, purpose, cause, etc. "Projection is the relationship which exists between a clause containing a verb of saying ot thinking and a clause which expresses what is said or thought. finite PRACTICE TASKS, 1X the following clauses into clause complexes ‘A man carrying a new strain of AIDS virus has left the country The job was quite attractive don’t like sleeping in caravans Either you take traveler's cheques The dress suits you very well She blamed herself for the aceident ‘The Prime Minister has carried out a reshuflle of his cabinet In the spring of last year we were in Buenos Aires 2.) Using hypotactic enhancement tum the following clauses into clause complexes: He is fascinated by Morocco It’s too early for dinner Weather reports are good ‘The film is certainly watchable 62 ith the help of conjunctions and cohesive expressions associated with coordination tumWe were not allowed to see each other We sat there in silence L opened the door She buys all her clothes in boutiques 3.) Give one or more possible reported forms for each of the following statements and questions: “I'm sorry to interrupt you in this vital discussion,” said Annie, “What exactly is your job?” I said to the EEC official. iar!” she shouted at me angrily. “Why don’t you wear a sports jacket?” Ellen said to George. “Won't you sit down for a minute?” Annie said to the new student, “Shall I buy you some cigarettes?” John asked me. Ih dear, I've laddered my stocking again!” Jenny said to Mary. Ly goodness, you do look beautiful tonight, Chris!” said Peter. “How delicious your soup tastes, Mary,” said her husband, careful, the steps are slippery,” I said to him. “Don't forget to greet and take off your cap, if you address a teacher,” said mother. “If you give me some wire, I'll mend the fuse for you,” said my cousin.