Ch 5: Cryptographyg

Objectives Applications and uses of cryptography Encryption methodologies Cryptanalysis Management of cryptography Key management Applications and Uses of Cryptography What Is Cryptography Cryptography is the science of hiding information in plain sight, in order to conceal it from unauthorized parties. Substitution cipher first used by Caesar for battlefield communications Encryption Terms and Operations Plaintext an original message Ciphertext an encrypted message Encryption the process of transforming plaintext into ciphertext (also encipher) Decryption the process of transforming ciphertext into plaintext (also decipher) Encryption key the text value required to encrypt and decrypt data Encryption methodologies Substitution Cipher Plaintext characters are substituted to form ciphertext A becomes R, B becomes G, etc. Character rotation Caesar rotated three to the right (A > D, B > E, C > F, etc.) A table or formula is used ROT13 is a Caesar cipher Image from Wikipedia (link Ch 5a) Subject to frequency analysis attack Transposition Cipher Plaintext messages are transposed into ciphertext Plaintext: ATTACK AT ONCE VIA NORTH BRIDGE Write into columns going down Read from columns to the right Ciphertext: AKCNBTAEORTTVRIAOITDCNAHG Subject to frequency analysis attack Monoalphabetic Cipher One alphabetic character is substituted or another Subject to frequency analysis attack

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Ch 5: Cryptographyg
Polyalphabetic Cipher Two or more substitution alphabets CAGED becomes RRADB Not subject to frequency attack

Running-key Cipher Plaintext letters converted to numeric (A=0, B=1, etc.) Plaintext values added to key values giving ciphertext Modulo arithmetic is used to keep results in range 0-26 Add 26 if results < 0; subtract 26 if results > 26 One-time Pad Works like running key cipher, except that key is length of plaintext, and is used only once Highly resistant to cryptanalysis Types of Encryption Block cipher Encrypts blocks of data, often 128 bits Stream cipher Operates on a continuous stream of data Block Ciphers Encrypt and decrypt a block of data at a time Typically 128 bits Typical uses for block ciphers Files, e-mail messages, text communications, web Well known encryption algorithms DES, 3DES, AES, CAST, Twofish, Blowfish, Serpent Block Cipher Modes of Operation Electronic Code Book (ECB) Cipher-block chaining (CBC) Cipher feedback (CFB) Output feedback (OFB) Counter (CTR) Initialization Vector (IV) Starting block of information needed to encrypt the first block of data IV must be random and should not be re-used WEP wireless encryption is weak because it re-uses the IV, in addition to making other errors CNIT 125 Bowne Page 2 of 8

Ch 5: Cryptographyg
Block Cipher: Electronic Code Book Simplest block cipher mode Each block encrypted separately Like plaintext encrypts to like ciphertext Vulnerable to a dictionary attack WEP does this Microsoft made this error in their password hashes Microsoft also made this error in Microsoft Office document encryption Images from NIST (link Ch 5d)

Block Cipher: Cipher-block Chaining (CBC) Ciphertext output from each encrypted plaintext block is used in the encryption for the next block First block encrypted with IV (initialization vector) Block Cipher: Cipher Feedback (CFB) Plaintext for block N is XORd with the ciphertext from block N-1. In the first block, the plaintext XORd with the encrypted IV

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Ch 5: Cryptographyg
Block Cipher: Output Feedback (OFB) Plaintext is XORd with the encrypted material in the previous block to produce ciphertext

Block Cipher: Counter (CTR) Uses a nonce (a random number that is used once) that is concatenated with a counter or other simple function, to create a series of keys Allows parallel computation Stream Ciphers Used to encrypt a continuous stream of data, such as an audio or video transmission A stream cipher is a substitution cipher that typically uses an exclusive-or (XOR) operation that can be performed very quickly by a computer. Most common stream cipher is RC4 Other stream ciphers A5/1, FISH, Phelix1, ISAAC, MUGI, Panama, Phelix, Pike, Sapphire-II. SEAL, SOBER128, and WAKE CNIT 125 Bowne Page 4 of 8

Ch 5: Cryptographyg
Types of Encryption Keys Symmetric key A common secret that all parties must know Difficult to distribute key securely Used by DES, 3DES, AES, Twofish, Blowfish, IDEA, RC5 Asymmetric key Public / private key Openly distribute public key to all parties Keep private key secret Anyone can use your public key to send you a message Used by RSA. El Gamal, Elliptic Curve Asymmetric Encryption Uses Encrypt message with recipient's public key Only recipient can read it, using his or her private key Provides confidentiality Sign message Hash message, encrypt hash with your private key Anyone can verify the signature using your public key Provides integrity and non-repudiation (sender cannot deny authorship) Sign and encrypt Both of the above Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange Length of Encryption Keys For symmetric algorithms, use at least 128 bits For RSA, use at least 2048 bits 1024 bits no longer recommended by NIST Link Ch 5e Protection of Encryption Keys Symmetric keys Must be restricted to as few people as possible Protected by a strong password, or encrypted again if needed Asymmetric keys Private key requires protection similar to symmetric key Public keys can be published, even on the Internet Protecting Keys in Applications More difficult to protect keys that applications must be able to access directly Hardening techniques Separation of duties Key value known only to operators, not developers or support Store keys in hardware Such as Trusted Platform Module Use of a key encrypting key Cryptanalysis Cryptanalysis Frequency analysis Analyzing frequency of characters in ciphertext

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Ch 5: Cryptographyg
Birthday attacks Collisions in a hash function can be found in approximately sqrt(N) attempts, where N is the number of possible hash values So SHA-1, 160 bits long, will have a collision in 2^80 values Cryptanalysis Ciphertext only attack Attacker has only ciphertext Chosen plaintext attack Attacker is able to see encryption of selected plaintext Chosen ciphertext attack Known plaintext attack Man in the middle attack Effective against Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange Real public key is replaced by fake one Replay attack Effective against SMB, any non-secure cookie-based authentication, almost all Web 2.0 sites Applications and Management of Cryptography Uses for Cryptography File encryption PGP and GPG WinZip (version 9 uses AES) EFS (encrypting file system) for Windows Crypt tool for Unix Encrypted volumes and disks Truecrypt for Windows, Mac, Unix Bitlocker for Windows Vista PGP Disk SafeBoot E-mail PGP / GPG asymmetric key (public key crypto) S/MIME (Secure / Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) certificate based PEM (Privacy Enhanced Mail) not widely used, requires a single global PKI (which was never implemented) MOSS (MIME Object Security Services) not widely used Protecting network communications SSH Replacement for telnet, rsh, rlogin Secure FTP IPsec Encrypts all packets between established pairs of hosts Used for VPNs (Virtual Private Networks) SSL/TLS Protects web browser traffic

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Ch 5: Cryptographyg
Web browsing protects session contents from eavesdropping SSL / TLS (Secure Sockets Layer / Transport Layer Security) https: in URL 40-512 bit encryption with secure key exchange Server authentication common, client authentication rare SET (Secure Electronic Transaction) Not widely used Key management Key Management Key creation Process and results must be protected Key protection and custody Secured keys in control by the fewest number of persons Key rotation Periodic update of encryption keys Key destruction Securely destroy, to protect encrypted data to be retired Key escrow Keys held by a trusted third party Message Digests and Hashing Message digest or hash The result of a one-way function on a file or message Fixed-length result regardless of message size Impossible (or very difficult) to derive original message from digest No other message should produce the same digest (such pairs are collisions) Algorithms MD-5, SHA-1, HMAC Error in Textbook The book says MD5 is stronger than SHA on page 179that is ridiculous MD5 is weaker than SHA-1, but neither is considered secure any longer Official government recommendation: use SHA-2 Instead Links Ch 5f, 5g Digital Signatures Message digest that is cryptographically combined with signers private key Requires public key cryptography Verifies message integrity Verifies identity of signer Algorithms: DSA, El Gamal, Elliptic Curve DSA Non-repudiation Inability for a user to repudiate (deny) an action, because of the methods used to permit or authorize the action Digital signature Verifies integrity of transaction Verifies identity of person performing transaction Password required to use digital signature

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Ch 5: Cryptographyg
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) Online facility Storage of users public encryption keys Fast lookup via an API that makes use automatic PKI platforms LDAP Microsoft Active Directory Encryption Alternatives Steganography Data hidden in image files, subtle changes that the eye wont see; can be encrypted as well Many stego tools available Watermarking Like a digital signature a visible or invisible mark that claims ownership

Last modified 3-1-10

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