September 2, 2003

Satellite Communications

Chen, Zhi Ning

„e-mail: [email protected]
„URL: http://www1.i2r.a-star.edu.sg/~chenzn

EE5404 Antenna Basics 1

 3 Antenna Basics
3.1 Introduction
3.2 System Parameters
•Field and power radiated by an antenna
•Far-field distance
•Radiation intensity
•Radiation patterns
•Directivity
•Radiation efficiency
•Gain
•Aperture efficiency
•Effective area
•Antenna polarization

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 receive & transmit
antennas

3.1 Introduction
The propagation of electromagnetic energy is the key
physical phenomenon in any wireless communications. It
links transmitters to receivers in a wireless communication
system.
Radio Channel
The antennas are the key devices in the energy transfer.
Therefore, the antennas are playing a vital role in any
satellite communication systems. With the antennas, it is
possible to build up the communications between the
satellites in space and the users on ground.
In this chapter we will characterise the antennas in a
systems point of view. Our goal is to calculate the
received signal and noise power in terms of transmit
power, range, antenna gain, and efficiency. receive &
transmit
antennas
EE5404 Antenna Basics 3
 3.1 Introduction-antenna and EM theory

However, antenna theory and design are complex

topic.
The electromagnetic theory is found on the
antenna theory & design mathematics and physics. The antenna theory and
design are one of electromagnetic applications.
••••••
The antenna engineering involves not only
electromagnetics electromagnetics, applied mathematics but also
material, mechanics, manufacturing and so on.
Usually, we must take some particular courses to study
mathematics physics the antennas.
Here, we are not interest in the detailed EM theory of
the antenna operation. We are just interested in the
system aspect of the antennas such as radiation
patterns, directivity, gain, efficiency, and polarization.
EE5404 Antenna Basics 4
 3.1 Introduction-what is an antenna
In an EM point of view, an antenna is
a radiator or an inductor of EM fields.
plane wave When the antenna radiates EM fields,
Zs Spherical wave the electric currents on the antenna are
excited by its feed and then excite the
electromagnetic fields in space.
Pt Pr Zl When the antenna receives the EM
Vs fields, the impressed electromagnetic
fields on the surface of the antenna
excite the electric currents on the
Transmit antenna receive antenna antenna surface, that is, the electric
currents are induced on the antenna
currents EM fields currents surface. Then the induced currents are
received by load of antennas, usually,
RF circuits.

EE5404 Antenna Basics 5

 3.1 Introduction-what is an antenna
plane wave In a radio systems point of view, an
Zs Spherical wave antenna is a device to convert a
guided EM wave on a transmission
system to a plane wave propagation
Pt Pr Zl in free space.
Vs One side of an antenna acts as an
electric circuit element. Meanwhile,
Transmit antenna receive antenna the other side of the antenna
provides an interface with a
Guided propagating plane wave.
EM fields Guided
EM wave In free-space EM wave So, the EM waves with RF signals
are transmitted and received by the
Zs antennas.

Pt Zant Pt Due to the gain of antennas, the RF

signals may be amplified when the
Vs antennas transmit or receive the
EE5404 Antenna Basics 6
signals.
 3.1 Introduction-what is an antenna
Wire: monopole, dipole, loop, helix, ...
Aperture: horn, waveguide, ...
Microstrip: dipole, patch, ...
Array: wire, aperture, microstrip, waveguide, ...
antennas
Reflector: parabolic, corner, ...
Lens: convex, concave, …
……

For satellite communications, we need light-weight high-gain antennas satellites and mobile
users, and high-gain antennas for earth stations. The wire structures and microstrip antennas are
often used for satellites and mobile users. And the reflector, aperture and array antenna with very
high gain are commonly used for earth stations.
EE5404 Antenna Basics 7
 3.1 Introduction-some products for satellite comm.

D=2.4m
Antenna Size 2.4 M (96 in.)
Operating Frequency 3.625 - 4.2
Midband Gain (± .2dB) GHz
37.5 dBi
3 dB Beamwidth 2.1°
Antenna Noise Temperature
(linear) 33K
20° elevation 31K
30° elevation
First Sidelobe (typical) -20 dB
Cross-Pol Isolation (linear) >30 dB (on D=1.2m
VSWR axis)
1.3:1 Max.
Feed Interface CPR 229 F
Insertion Loss 0.2 dB Max.

C-Band Dual Pol Rx Only Antenna

receive VSAT antennas

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 3.1 Introduction-some products for satellite comm.

Model 9322-800/16-inch Disk Array

for Vehicles GPS antennas

Frequency: L-band
Gain:9 dBi
Steered in: Azimuth
Features: 20° - 65° elevation coverage
CP "disk" array.
16 inch diameter, 1 inch high.
EE5404 Antenna Basics 9
 3.1 Introduction-some products for satellite comm.

Low loss "suspended

technology" dual polarized
radiating elements.
(Courtesy Saab Ericsson
Space, Sweden).

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 3.2 System Parameters
9Reciprocity theorem
9Impedance matching To describe the characteristics and performance
9Radiation by an antenna of an antenna, we have defined many
Antenna parameters.
System
9Far-field distance
Here we mainly introduce some antenna
Parameters 9Radiation intensity parameters, which are related to systems. Using
them, we shall discuss antenna effects on system
9Radiation patterns
performance.
9Directivity
For example, compared with the near-field
9Radiation efficiency parameters such as impedance matching, we are
more interested in far field characteristics of an
9Gain antennas, such as radiation pattern, gain,
9Aperture efficiency polarization and so on.

9Effective area
EE5404 9Antenna polarization Antenna Basics 11
 3.2 System Parameters: Reciprocity Theorem

T EMF I R R I EMF T

Antenna A Antenna B Antenna A Antenna B

Basically passive antennas are reciprocal devices.

The reciprocity theorem for the antennas states that if a current I is induced in output of the
antenna B (operating in receiving mode) by applied electromagnetic fields at input of the antenna
A (operating in transmitting mode), then the same electromagnetic fields at the input of the
antenna B will induce the same current I at the output of the antenna A.
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 3.2 System Parameters: Reciprocity Theorem

Important consequences

•In a linear antenna system, the power delivered in either

direction (ant. 1 to ant. 2 or ant. 2 to ant.1) is the same.
•The radiation pattern for an antenna operating in the
transmitting mode is the same as the that in the receiving
mode.

It suggests that we can determine the property of an antenna operating in either transmitting or
receiving mode because the receiving and transmitting characteristics of the antenna are identical
at any specific frequency.
This simplifies antenna analysis and measurements greatly.

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 3.2 System Parameters:Impedance matching
antenna In the analysis and design of an antenna, the impedance
source
matching is a key parameter to measure the capability to
delivery energy between the antenna and the feed or load.
S

standing Using an equivalent circuit of an antenna in a transmitting

mode, the antenna system can be divided into source,
wave transmission line and radiator. If the impedance is matched
between the source or antenna and transmission line, there
Zs=Rs+jXs Zo Za=Ra+jXa will not be the reflection at the interface of source-
transmission line transmission line or antenna-transmission line. As a result,
maximum energy will be transmitted from the source to the
antenna.
Zs= Zo* Impedance
Zo= Za* Usually we can define some parameters to assess the
match matching condition, such as VSWR or return loss based on
the reflecting coefficient.
VSWR or
Besides the ohmic loss in the source, transmission line and
return loss antenna, the impedance mismatching also result in the loss.
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 3.2 System Parameters: Radiation by an antenna
At large distance, the radiated electric field by an antenna can be expressed as

[ ]
r − jkr
e
E ( r,θ , φ ) = θˆFθ (θ , φ ) + φˆFφ (θ , φ ) V/m
r
r
where E ( r,θ , φ ) the electric field vector;
θˆ, φˆ unit vectors in the spherical coordinate system;
r the radial distance from the origin
k the free-space propagation constant with wavelength λ
Fθ (θ , φ ), Fφ (θ , φ ) pattern functions, independent of distance r

The electric field propagates in the radial direction, with a phase delay of (jkr) and amplitude
attenuation of 1/r. The electric field may be polarized in either θ or φ directions, but not in the
radial direction.

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 3.2 System Parameters: Radiation by an antenna

Eθ Eφ
The associated magnetic field is Hφ = and Hθ = −
ηo ηo

ηo = 377Ω : the wave impedance of free space

The magnetic field vector is also polarized in either θ or φ directions only.

The Poynting vector for EM waves can be given by the cross product of E and H fields:
r r r*
S = E × H W/m2 : the radiated power density

() ( )
r 1 r 1 r r*
Savg = Re S = Re E × H W/m2 : time-average Ponyting vector
2 2

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 3.2 System Parameters: Far-field zone

At large distances the near fields of an antenna can be negligible. So, the fields can be
expressed simply as TEM waves. Moreover, the fields can be considered as a plane
wave with ideal planar phase. This distance is called far-field distance and can be
determined by maximum dimension of an antenna, D.

2D2
rfar − field = m
λ
This relationship is derived from the condition that the actual spherical wave front
radiated by the antenna departs less than π/8=22.5o from a true plane wave front over
the maximum extent. Or the angular field distribution is essentially independent of the
distance r.

However, for small antennas, far-field distance rfar-field is at least 2λ.

EE5404 Antenna Basics 17

 3.2 System Parameters: Far-field zone-Example

A dish for DBS reception is 1.2m in diameter and operates at 12.4GHz.

1) Find its far-field distance.
2) Evaluate the critical diameter of the dish which makes the DBS satellite
not locate within its far-field zone.
Solution: 1.2m
1) The wave length is λ=c/f=2.42 cm.
So, the distance rfar-field=2 (D)2/ λ=119 m<<36,000,000 m
(The distance from a DBS satellite to the dish is 36,000km.)
2) The far-field distance is 36,000km.
So, the diameter D =[rfar-field λ/2]1/2= 660 m
That means that the DBS satellite will not locate in the far-field region of the
dish of a diameter of <660 meter.

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 3.2 System Parameters: Radiation Intensity

The radiation intensity can be defined as

r
U (θ , φ ) = r S avg =
2 r2
2
r
Re S =
r2
2η o
( )
Re E θ ( 2
+ Eφ
2
) = 2η1 o
(
Re Fθ
2
+ Fφ
2
) W

The radiation intensity is the radiation power per unit solid angle since the radial
dependence has been removed. It gives the variation in radiated power versus position
around antenna. So, we can find the total power radiated by the antenna by integrating
the Ponyting vector over surface of a sphere of radius r. The sphere encloses the antenna.

2π π r 2π π
Prad = ∫φ ∫θ=0 =0
S avg • rˆ r 2 sin θ d θ d φ = ∫φ ∫θ
=0 =0
U (θ , φ ) sin θ d θ d φ W

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 3.2 System Parameters: Radiation pattern

An important fact is that an antenna is a directional device and characterised in

terms of a radiation pattern.
Radiation pattern: a plot of the relative far-field strength or power transmitted or received
by the antenna versus position around antenna at a fixed distance from antenna. Thus the
pattern can be plotted from the pattern functions Fθ and Fφ versus θ (in an elevation plane)
and φ (in an azimuthal plane) of a spherical co-ordinate system at one frequency one
polarization and one plane cut. The polarization of the antenna determines the plotting Fθ and
Fφ . The radiation patterns can be measured at a constant radius r. And the plots also can be 2
or 3-dimensional.

Radiation Pattern for fields: f (θ , φ)= Fθ or φ (θ , φ)/Fmax

Radiation Pattern for power: p (θ , φ)= F2θ or φ (θ , φ)/Pmax

EE5404 Antenna Basics 20

 3.2 System Parameters: Radiation pattern
Usually, we normalize the power at a certain
3-dimensional radiation
z
patterns point by the maximum power at the fixed
radius.
This trace is the received power or field at a
constant radius, called the power or field
pattern.

elevation
There are main lobe or beam and some side
plane lobes or minor lobes.
main
lobe
With the help of the radiation pattern, we can
minor y know maximum radiation direction easily.
lobes
This is helpful for us to design the RF link.
As said, the purpose of communications is
delivery the information to the desired
azimuth destination (in the certain direction) by the RF
plane
x energy.
EE5404 Antenna Basics 21
 3.2 System Parameters: Radiation pattern
z
First null beamwidth main Radiation
FNBW lobe intensity

Half-power main
beamwidth lobe
HPBW
Side lobes HPBW
minor back Side lobe back
lobes sidelobe lobe lobe
FNBW
y

back lobe
minor π π/2 0 π/2 π θ
x lobes

3-dimensional pattern 2-dimensional pattern

This is a two dimensional radiation pattern in a specific cut. It displays radiated field distribution
in a specific plane. Using the 2-D pattern, we can easily define the main lobe, side lobes, back
lobe, first null beamwidth and also half-power beamwidth.
EE5404 Antenna Basics 22
 3.2 System Parameters: Radiation pattern

For satellite communications, we can

plot the radiation patterns in this way.
This figure shows the field or power
distribution of the coverage region
0 illuminated by a satellite antenna.
Relative
gain Absolute
There is maximum power near the
dB gain, dB origin.
elevation
angle

azimuth
angle

radiation pattern for satellite antenna

EE5404 Antenna Basics 23

 3.2 System Parameters: Radiation pattern
Distribution of E-field
feed

reflector
(aperture)
Da practical

reflector antenna
Here we consider the antennas most commonly used in satellite
communication systems, namely, reflector antenna.This is a typical
reflector antenna sometimes used in earth station. The reflector
antennas can focus transmissions within desired areas with very high ideal
gains. The radiation patterns of aperture antennas depend on the field
distribution patterns across the antenna aperture.
EE5404 Antenna Basics 24
 3.2 System Parameters: Radiation pattern
To minimized spill-over of energy, the field distribution is
HPBW:half-power beam-width usually tapered across the aperture with the maximum at the
center of the aperture. Usually, we describe the ability to focus
the energy on a certain area in terms of half-power beam-width.
We can evaluate it from this approximate relationship.
Nλ
Θ= (radian)
Da
N: a constant dependent on aperture distribution
Da N=58 uniform distribution
N=70 tapered distribution
Da: antenna diameter
λ: operating wavelength
So, the half-power beam-width depends on the aperture field
distribution, antenna diameter, and operating frequency.
EE5404 Antenna Basics 25
 3.2 System Parameters: Directivity

Directivity is one measure of focusing property of an antenna. It is defined as the ratio of

maximum radiation intensity in the main beam to average radiation intensity over all space
.
U max 4πU max Pmax
Directivity D= = =
U avg Pavg Pavg
Umax & Uavg: maximum & average radiation intensity
Pmax & Pavg : maximum & average radiated power

The average power radiated from an antenna is the power over unit solid angle.
Pr
P avg =
4π

Pr: the total radiated power from an antenna.

EE5404 Antenna Basics 26

 3.2 System Parameters: Directivity
Fθ or φ max 4π
D = 4π 2π π = ΩA: beam solid angle
∫ ∫ Fθ or φ (θ , φ )sin θ d θ d φ ΩA
.0 0

 4π We also can calculate the directivity using pattern

4π  Θ1rad Θ 2 rad functions. This is an exact expression to calculate
D= ≈ the maximum directivity. But, in practice, it seems
Ω A  4π (180 / π )
2
not easy to use it.
 Θ1deg Θ 2 deg
So, for the directional patterns, we can use the
Θ1rad: HPBW in one plane in radian simple expression, such as two half-power beam-
Θ2rad: HPBW in a plane at a right angle to the widths in radian or degree to approximate the beam
other plane in radian solid angle.
Θ1degree: HPBW in one plane in degree
Θ2degree: HPBW in a plane at a right angle to
the other plane in degree
EE5404 Antenna Basics 27
 3.2 System Parameters: Efficiency

However, the definition of the directivity does not consider the efficiency of an antenna because
Pr is only related to the actual power radiated into free space.
In fact, some power in an antenna is definitely lost as a result of spill-over, blockage of RF
energy by sub-reflector and supporting structures, manufacturing defects, ohmic and
mismatching losses. Such losses reduce the power delivered from the the input of an antenna to
free space. The radiated power is lower than the input power of the antenna. We can measure
the difference by radiation efficiency.
Prad Pin − Ploss P
erad = = = 1 − loss
Pin Pin Pin
Prad : the power radiated by the antennas
Pin: the power applied to the input of the antenna
Ploss: the power lost in the antenna

?Question:Do impedance mismatch at the input or output of antennas, polarization mismatch

with the receive antenna contribute to the loss of transmit power? How to eliminate them?
EE5404 Antenna Basics 28
 3.2 System Parameters: Gain

Another useful measure describing the performance of an antenna id the gain.

Although the gain of the antenna is closely related to the directivity, it is a measure to take
into account the efficiency as well as its directional capabilities. Remember that the directivity
is a measure only describing the directional properties of the antenna and so controlled only
by the pattern. Therefore, the gain function is related to directivity and efficiency as described
in its definition.

maximum radiation power, Prad

Gain: G = = e rad D
input power, Pin

Prad
e rad =
Pin

EE5404 Antenna Basics 29

 3.2 System Parameters: Gain
Gain for an aperture antenna
Ae
G = 4π Ae: the effective aperture (area) of the antenna
λ 2

2
A em  π D ape 
G = e rad 4 π = e rad e ape   For circular aperture
λ2  λ 
A em eape : efficiency of aperture
e ape = Aape=π(Dape/2)2 the physical area of aperture of the antenna
A ape
Daee: diameter of aperture
As example, we calculate the gain for an aperture antenna using its aperture dimension, Ae. The
Ae is determined by the field distribution on the aperture and radiation efficiency of the
antenna. For a circular aperture, we can calculate its aperture area Aape with its diameter. eape is
the efficiency of the aperture. The efficiency of a typical parabolic antenna is 50-70%.
In addition, it is clear that the gain of an antenna increases with an increase in its aperture size.
So, the larger the diameter of an antenna is, the higher the gain of an antenna is.
EE5404 Antenna Basics 30
 3.2 System Parameters: Effective area

The important parameters, such as antenna directivity, efficiency, and gain have been
discussed above in terms of transmit antennas. In fact, they all can apply to receive antennas as
mentioned in Reciprocity Theorem. However, for a receive antenna, we need a parameter to
measure its ability to receive power for a given incident plane wave.
From the calculation of the gain for an aperture antenna, we know that the received power is
proportional to the effective aperture (area), Ae and incident power density.

received power: Pr = S avg A e Savg: incident power density

λ2
Maximum effective aperture (area) A emax = e rad D max
4π
The maximum effective area of any antenna is proportional to the maximum directivity of
the antenna and the operating wavelength. (C. A. Balanis: Antenna Theory-analysis and design,
2nd edition,Wiley, 1997)

EE5404 Antenna Basics 31

 3.2 System Parameters: Polarization

Polarization of an EM wave describes the orientation of radiated electric field vector in

space and is usually a function of time. The polarization is determined by the antenna or the
feed of an antenna.
For example, when a plane wave is propagating along the z-axis, the electric field can be
expressed using its x- and y-components.
r
E = (xˆ E x + yˆ E y )e − jkz

Ex and Ey are the amplitude of the x- and y-components of the EM wave and in-phase.
If Ex =0, and Ey=1, or Ex =1, and Ey=0, the EM wave is linearly polarized in the y- or x-
direction.
If Ex =1, and Ey=1 (in phase), the EM wave is linearly polarized in the 45o direction.

EE5404 Antenna Basics 32

 3.2 System Parameters: Polarization
For the case of the x- and y-components with arbitrary amplitude and phase, the EM wave
operates in an elliptical polarization. This can be considered the general case as illustrated in
this figure. The waves is propagating in –z direction. Usually, we use the axial ratio to
express the polarization. The linear and circular polarization are just the special cases of the
elliptical case.For elliptical or circular cases, there are right-hand and left-hand polarized
polarization. The rotations are clockwise and counter-clockwise for right and left-hand case
respectively. right-hand: clockwise
y left-hand: counterclockwise
Propagation axial ratio:
direction
E AR=1 & phase difference is 90o
Ey : circular AR=0 (Ey=0): linear (horizontal)
Ex AR =
ω x
E x AR=∞ (E =0): linear (vertical)
x

Otherwise:
Ey right-hand: clockwise
Elliptically polarized wave elliptical left-hand:counter-clockwise
EE5404 Antenna Basics 33
 ? What will happen as α=90o?
TV antenna outdoor

3.2 System Parameters: Polarization

The polarization characteristics of an antenna (in transmitting mode) are defined by the
polarization of the wave it transmitted. (For example, a transmitting dipole horizontally
positioned would produce horizontally polarized waves.On the other hand, it properly receives
the maximum energy with the horizontal polarization.)
For the maximum received power, the receive antenna must be in the same polarization and
point to the transmit antenna. We can use polarization match factor to measure the former and
misalignment the latter. In the different planes
In the same plane linear case
α α
E E
T R T R

Erec=E cosα Erec=E cosα

EE5404 Antenna Basics 34
 3.2 System Parameters: Polarization

In satellite communications, the antennas of circular polarization are commonly used.

At a certain time, the E-field can be divided into two orthogonal components, which
can be received by a circularly polarized antenna or a two-orthogonal-dipole antenna.

Propagation
direction
Ev E
Ex E
ω Eh
Ey
Elliptically polarized wave
EE5404 Antenna Basics 35
 3.2 System Parameters: Polarization

We can assess the isolation of the polarization I in dB.

E co − pol
Isolation of polarization: I dB = 20 log
E X − pol
Also, we can use the cross-polarization discrimination XPD assess the loss caused by the
depolarization in signal propagation. We will discuss this loss in the next Chapter.
E co − pol
+1
E X − pol
Cross-polarization discrimination XPD dB = 20 log
E co − pol
−1
E X − pol
E co − pol + E X − pol
= 20 log
E co − pol − E X − pol
EE5404 Antenna Basics 36
 Conclusion

•The antenna is one of basic elements of a satellite communication link.

•Fundamental characteristics of the antenna affect the design of satellite
communication link.
impedance matching; radiation efficiency; directivity; gain;
aperture efficiency
•The characteristics of propagation are also important for the link design.
polarization

Important!!!
Effects on link design

EE5404 Antenna Basics 37