Planar Graphs

Marc Culler

Planar Graphs p. 1/?

graphs A (nite) graph G is a topological space with G = V E where V is a nite discrete set (vertices); E is a nite disjoint union of open sets (edges); For each edge e there is a continuous map [0, 1] G mapping (0, 1) homeomorphically onto e and sending {0, 1} to V .

Planar Graphs p. 2/?

graphs A (nite) graph G is a topological space with G = V E where V is a nite discrete set (vertices); E is a nite disjoint union of open sets (edges); For each edge e there is a continuous map [0, 1] G mapping (0, 1) homeomorphically onto e and sending {0, 1} to V . A subgraph of a graph is a closed subspace which is a union of edges and vertices.

Planar Graphs p. 2/?

graphs A (nite) graph G is a topological space with G = V E where V is a nite discrete set (vertices); E is a nite disjoint union of open sets (edges); For each edge e there is a continuous map [0, 1] G mapping (0, 1) homeomorphically onto e and sending {0, 1} to V . A subgraph of a graph is a closed subspace which is a union of edges and vertices. The valence of a vertex v is the minimal number of components of an arbitrarily small deleted neighborhood of v .

Planar Graphs p. 2/?

graphs A (nite) graph G is a topological space with G = V E where V is a nite discrete set (vertices); E is a nite disjoint union of open sets (edges); For each edge e there is a continuous map [0, 1] G mapping (0, 1) homeomorphically onto e and sending {0, 1} to V . A subgraph of a graph is a closed subspace which is a union of edges and vertices. The valence of a vertex v is the minimal number of components of an arbitrarily small deleted neighborhood of v . A cycle is a graph which is homeomorphic to a circle.

Planar Graphs p. 2/?

graphs A (nite) graph G is a topological space with G = V E where V is a nite discrete set (vertices); E is a nite disjoint union of open sets (edges); For each edge e there is a continuous map [0, 1] G mapping (0, 1) homeomorphically onto e and sending {0, 1} to V . A subgraph of a graph is a closed subspace which is a union of edges and vertices. The valence of a vertex v is the minimal number of components of an arbitrarily small deleted neighborhood of v . A cycle is a graph which is homeomorphic to a circle. Lemma. A graph which is not a cycle is homeomorphic to a graph without valence 2 vertices.

Planar Graphs p. 2/?

topology of S 2

Planar Graphs p. 3/?

topology of S 2 Theorem (Riemann Mapping). A connected open subset of S 2 with (non-empty) connected complement is conformally homeomorphic to the open unit disk.

Planar Graphs p. 3/?

topology of S 2 Theorem (Riemann Mapping). A connected open subset of S 2 with (non-empty) connected complement is conformally homeomorphic to the open unit disk. Theorem (Jordan-Schnies). A simple closed curve in S 2 is o the common boundary of two disks with disjoint interiors.

Planar Graphs p. 3/?

topology of S 2 Theorem (Riemann Mapping). A connected open subset of S 2 with (non-empty) connected complement is conformally homeomorphic to the open unit disk. Theorem (Jordan-Schnies). A simple closed curve in S 2 is o the common boundary of two disks with disjoint interiors. Theorem. Suppose that f is a conformal homeomorphism from the open unit disk onto an open set S 2 . If the boundary of is locally connected, then f extends to a continuous map dened on the closed unit disk.

Planar Graphs p. 3/?

planar graphs A graph is planar if it can be embedded in S 2 . If G is embedded in S 2 then the regions in the complement of G are faces. If G is connected the faces are open disks.

Planar Graphs p. 4/?

planar graphs A graph is planar if it can be embedded in S 2 . If G is embedded in S 2 then the regions in the complement of G are faces. If G is connected the faces are open disks.

But the boundary of a face is not necessarily a cycle.

Planar Graphs p. 4/?

cut vertices A vertex v of a graph G is a cut vertex if G is the union of two proper subgraphs A and B with A B = {v }.

Planar Graphs p. 5/?

cut vertices A vertex v of a graph G is a cut vertex if G is the union of two proper subgraphs A and B with A B = {v }. Proposition. Let G be a graph embedded in S 2 . Suppose F is a face of G and F is not a cycle. Then F contains a cut vertex of G.

Planar Graphs p. 5/?

cut vertices A vertex v of a graph G is a cut vertex if G is the union of two proper subgraphs A and B with A B = {v }. Proposition. Let G be a graph embedded in S 2 . Suppose F is a face of G and F is not a cycle. Then F contains a cut vertex of G.

Planar Graphs p. 5/?

cut pairs A pair {u, v } of vertices of a graph G is a cut pair if G is the union of two proper subgraphs A and B, neither of which is an edge, so that A B = {u, v }.

Planar Graphs p. 6/?

cut pairs A pair {u, v } of vertices of a graph G is a cut pair if G is the union of two proper subgraphs A and B, neither of which is an edge, so that A B = {u, v }. If G has no cut vertex, then A and B are connected.

Planar Graphs p. 6/?

cut pairs A pair {u, v } of vertices of a graph G is a cut pair if G is the union of two proper subgraphs A and B, neither of which is an edge, so that A B = {u, v }. If G has no cut vertex, then A and B are connected.

A graph is 3-connected if it is connected, has no cut vertex and has no cut pair.

Planar Graphs p. 6/?

boundaries of faces Lemma. Let G be a planar graph and let C G be a cycle. The cycle C is the boundary of a face for every embedding of G in S 2 if and only if G C is connected.

Planar Graphs p. 7/?

boundaries of faces Lemma. Let G be a planar graph and let C G be a cycle. The cycle C is the boundary of a face for every embedding of G in S 2 if and only if G C is connected. Proof. If G C is connected, then for any embedding of G in S 2 , the connected set G C is contained in one of the two disks bounded by C. The other disk must be a face.

Planar Graphs p. 7/?

boundaries of faces Lemma. Let G be a planar graph and let C G be a cycle. The cycle C is the boundary of a face for every embedding of G in S 2 if and only if G C is connected. Proof. If G C is connected, then for any embedding of G in S 2 , the connected set G C is contained in one of the two disks bounded by C. The other disk must be a face. Suppose G C is disconnected. Write G as A B where A and B are subgraphs, neither one a cycle, such that A B = C. Choose an embedding of G in S 2 . If C is not the boundary of a face, then we are done. Otherwise, restrict the embeddings to A and B, to obtain embeddings of A and B into disks, sending C to the boundary of each disk. Gluing the boundaries of the two disks together gives an embedding of G in S 2 for which C is not a face.

Planar Graphs p. 7/?

unique embeddings Theorem (Whitney). A 3-connected planar graph has a unique embedding, up to composition with a homeomorphism of S 2 .

Planar Graphs p. 8/?

unique embeddings Theorem (Whitney). A 3-connected planar graph has a unique embedding, up to composition with a homeomorphism of S 2 . Proof. Say there are two embeddings of G in S 2 . Then some cycle C G is the boundary of a face for one embedding, but not the other. By the Lemma, G C has at least two components.

Planar Graphs p. 8/?

unique embeddings Theorem (Whitney). A 3-connected planar graph has a unique embedding, up to composition with a homeomorphism of S 2 . Proof. Say there are two embeddings of G in S 2 . Then some cycle C G is the boundary of a face for one embedding, but not the other. By the Lemma, G C has at least two components. Look at an embedding where C is a face.

A component of G C is in the complement of the face Planar Graphs p. 8/? bounded by C.

unique embeddings Theorem (Whitney). A 3-connected planar graph has a unique embedding, up to composition with a homeomorphism of S 2 . Proof. Say there are two embeddings of G in S 2 . Then some cycle C G is the boundary of a face for one embedding, but not the other. By the Lemma, G C has at least two components.

The other components of G C have to t in the gaps.

Planar Graphs p. 8/?

unique embeddings Theorem (Whitney). A 3-connected planar graph has a unique embedding, up to composition with a homeomorphism of S 2 . Proof. Say there are two embeddings of G in S 2 . Then some cycle C G is the boundary of a face for one embedding, but not the other. By the Lemma, G C has at least two components.

Here is a cut pair.

Planar Graphs p. 8/?

Kuratowskis Theorem A minimal non-planar graph is not planar, but every proper subgraph is planar. Theorem (Kuratowski). Every minimal non-planar graph is homeomorphic to either K(5) or K(3, 3).

Planar Graphs p. 9/?

Kuratowskis Theorem A minimal non-planar graph is not planar, but every proper subgraph is planar. Theorem (Kuratowski). Every minimal non-planar graph is homeomorphic to either K(5) or K(3, 3).

Planar Graphs p. 9/?

Euler characteristic Suppose a connected graph in S 2 has V vertices, E edges and F faces. Then 2 = (S 2 ) = V E + F.

Planar Graphs p. 10/?

Euler characteristic Suppose a connected graph in S 2 has V vertices, E edges and F faces. Then 2 = (S 2 ) = V E + F. If every face has at least k edges on its boundary then kF 2E, so k 2k 2 V 2=V E+F V E+ E E k k 2 k 2 If k = 3 then E 3V 6. If k = 4 then E 2V 4.

Planar Graphs p. 10/?

Euler characteristic Suppose a connected graph in S 2 has V vertices, E edges and F faces. Then 2 = (S 2 ) = V E + F. If every face has at least k edges on its boundary then kF 2E, so k 2k 2 V 2=V E+F V E+ E E k k 2 k 2 If k = 3 then E 3V 6. If k = 4 then E 2V 4. For K(5) we can take k = 3 and we have V = 5 but E = 10 > 15 6. For K(3, 3) we can take k = 4 and we have V = 6 but E = 9 > 12 4. So these are non-planar graphs.

Planar Graphs p. 10/?

no cut vertex Lemma. A minimal non-planar graph G has no cut vertex. Proof. Suppose G = A B, A B = {v }. By minimality, A and B are planar. Embed A in a closed disk, so that v lies on the boundary. Do the same for B. Then embed the two disks so they meet at v .

Planar Graphs p. 11/?

no cut vertex Lemma. A minimal non-planar graph G has no cut vertex. Proof. Suppose G = A B, A B = {v }. By minimality, A and B are planar. Embed A in a closed disk, so that v lies on the boundary. Do the same for B. Then embed the two disks so they meet at v .

Planar Graphs p. 11/?

no cut pair Lemma. A minimal non-planar graph G has no cut pair. Proof. Suppose G = A B, A B = {u, v }. Since G has no cut vertex, A and B are connected. Claim: A can be embedded in S 2 so that u and v are in the boundary of the same face. (Likewise for B.)

Planar Graphs p. 12/?

no cut pair Lemma. A minimal non-planar graph G has no cut pair. Proof. Suppose G = A B, A B = {u, v }. Since G has no cut vertex, A and B are connected. Claim: A can be embedded in S 2 so that u and v are in the boundary of the same face. (Likewise for B.) Join u to v by an arc b B.

Planar Graphs p. 12/?

no cut pair Lemma. A minimal non-planar graph G has no cut pair. Proof. Suppose G = A B, A B = {u, v }. Since G has no cut vertex, A and B are connected. Claim: A can be embedded in S 2 so that u and v are in the boundary of the same face. (Likewise for B.) Join u to v by an arc b B. By minimality A b is planar. Embed A b in S 2 .

Planar Graphs p. 12/?

no cut pair Lemma. A minimal non-planar graph G has no cut pair. Proof. Suppose G = A B, A B = {u, v }. Since G has no cut vertex, A and B are connected. Claim: A can be embedded in S 2 so that u and v are in the boundary of the same face. (Likewise for B.) Join u to v by an arc b B. By minimality A b is planar. Embed A b in S 2 . Now remove the arc b.

Planar Graphs p. 12/?

no cut pair, contd To nish the proof of the lemma, embed A in a disk so that u and v lie on the boundary. Do the same for B.

Planar Graphs p. 13/?

no cut pair, contd To nish the proof of the lemma, embed A in a disk so that u and v lie on the boundary. Do the same for B.

Then embed the two disks so they meet at u and v . This is a contradiction since G is non-planar.

Planar Graphs p. 13/?

the graph G Let G be a minimal non-planar graph with no valence 2 vertices. Remove an arbitrary edge e with endpoints x and y . Call the resulting planar graph G . Embed G in S 2 .

Planar Graphs p. 14/?

the graph G Let G be a minimal non-planar graph with no valence 2 vertices. Remove an arbitrary edge e with endpoints x and y . Call the resulting planar graph G . Embed G in S 2 . The graph G has no cut vertex.

Planar Graphs p. 14/?

the graph G Let G be a minimal non-planar graph with no valence 2 vertices. Remove an arbitrary edge e with endpoints x and y . Call the resulting planar graph G . Embed G in S 2 . The graph G has no cut vertex.

If x is a cut vertex for G , then x is a cut vertex for G. Likewise for y .

Planar Graphs p. 14/?

the graph G Let G be a minimal non-planar graph with no valence 2 vertices. Remove an arbitrary edge e with endpoints x and y . Call the resulting planar graph G . Embed G in S 2 . The graph G has no cut vertex.

If G has a cut vertex v distinct from x and y , then x and y are separated by v and {x, v } is a cut pair for G.

Planar Graphs p. 14/?

the graph G Let G be a minimal non-planar graph with no valence 2 vertices. Remove an arbitrary edge e with endpoints x and y . Call the resulting planar graph G . Embed G in S 2 . The graph G has no cut vertex. The graph G may have cut pairs, but no cut pair can contain x.

If {x, v } is a cut pair for G then it is a cut pair for G as well.

Planar Graphs p. 14/?

the wheel Consider the graph G S 2 . Construct a graph G S 2 by erasing the vertex x and the edges that meet it. Let R be the boundary of the face of G containing the point x. Claim: R is a cycle.

Planar Graphs p. 15/?

the wheel Consider the graph G S 2 . Construct a graph G S 2 by erasing the vertex x and the edges that meet it. Let R be the boundary of the face of G containing the point x. Claim: R is a cycle. Otherwise R would contain a cut vertex v for G .

Planar Graphs p. 15/?

the wheel Consider the graph G S 2 . Construct a graph G S 2 by erasing the vertex x and the edges that meet it. Let R be the boundary of the face of G containing the point x. Claim: R is a cycle. Otherwise R would contain a cut vertex v for G .

But then x and v would form a cut pair for G, a contradiction.

Planar Graphs p. 15/?

the wheel Consider the graph G S 2 . Construct a graph G S 2 by erasing the vertex x and the edges that meet it. Let R be the boundary of the face of G containing the point x. Claim: R is a cycle. Otherwise R would contain a cut vertex v for G . We conclude that x R together with all the edges of G incident to x, form a wheel graph W inside of G .

Planar Graphs p. 15/?

the straddle Let Y be the component of G W which contains y . Claim: Y meets at least two sectors of the wheel W .

Planar Graphs p. 16/?

the straddle Let Y be the component of G W which contains y . Claim: Y meets at least two sectors of the wheel W . Suppose not. Then all of the points of Y R are contained in one sector S.

Planar Graphs p. 16/?

the straddle Let Y be the component of G W which contains y . Claim: Y meets at least two sectors of the wheel W . Suppose not. Then all of the points of Y R are contained in one sector S. Consider the (planar) graph Z = S Y e.

Planar Graphs p. 16/?

the straddle Let Y be the component of G W which contains y . Claim: Y meets at least two sectors of the wheel W . Suppose not. Then all of the points of Y R are contained in one sector S. Consider the (planar) graph Z = S Y e.

Since Z S is connected, every embedding of Z has S as a face. So we can embed Z inside of S. This gives a planar embedding of G, a contradiction.

Planar Graphs p. 16/?

case 1 Suppose Y meets R in a vertex which is not an endpoint of a spoke.

Planar Graphs p. 17/?

case 1 Suppose Y meets R in a vertex which is not an endpoint of a spoke.

Planar Graphs p. 17/?

case 1 Suppose Y meets R in a vertex which is not an endpoint of a spoke.

Planar Graphs p. 17/?

case 1 Suppose Y meets R in a vertex which is not an endpoint of a spoke.

Planar Graphs p. 17/?

case 1 Suppose Y meets R in a vertex which is not an endpoint of a spoke.

Planar Graphs p. 17/?

case 1 Suppose Y meets R in a vertex which is not an endpoint of a spoke.

Planar Graphs p. 17/?

case 2 Suppose Y meets R in exactly two endpoints of spokes.

Planar Graphs p. 18/?

case 2 Suppose Y meets R in exactly two endpoints of spokes.

Planar Graphs p. 18/?

case 2 Suppose Y meets R in exactly two endpoints of spokes.

Planar Graphs p. 18/?

case 2 Suppose Y meets R in exactly two endpoints of spokes.

Planar Graphs p. 18/?

case 2 Suppose Y meets R in exactly two endpoints of spokes.

Planar Graphs p. 18/?

case 3 Suppose Y meets R in three or more endpoints of spokes.

Planar Graphs p. 19/?

case 3 Suppose Y meets R in three or more endpoints of spokes.

Planar Graphs p. 19/?

case 3 Suppose Y meets R in three or more endpoints of spokes.

Planar Graphs p. 19/?

case 3 Suppose Y meets R in three or more endpoints of spokes.

Planar Graphs p. 19/?

case 3 Suppose Y meets R in three or more endpoints of spokes.

Planar Graphs p. 19/?

case 3 Suppose Y meets R in three or more endpoints of spokes.

Planar Graphs p. 19/?