BC Calculus Facts and Formulae

Unless noted otherwise, x, y, z, r, t and theta are real variables, a, b, c, C, d and h are real constants, n is a whole number, e is the base of the natural log and is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter.

1.

Four versions of the analytical definition of the first derivative: f ( x + h) f ( x) right difference: f ( x) = lim
h o

3.

Theorems and major results: A. If lim f (x) = lim+ f ( x) = L , a real number, then x a x a lim f ( x) = L .
x a

left difference: symmetric difference: numerical difference:

f ( x) = lim f ( x) = lim f ( c ) = lim

h 0

f ( x) f ( x h) h

B. If lim f (x) = lim+ f ( x) = f ( a ) (a real #), then f is

x a x a

f ( x + h) f ( x h) h 0 2h

continuous at x = a. C. If f is continuous at x = a and lim f (x) = lim+ f ( x) , then

x a x a

f (x ) f (c ) x c x c

f is differentiable at x = a. D. lim sin x =1 x 0 x cos x 1 =0 x 0 x

2. A)

Derivative: First Derivative

f(x) > 0, then f increasing f(x) < 0, then f decreasing f(x) undefined (DNE) implies f has an asymptote, hole, break or cusp Max/Min: f (x ) = 0 and f changes signs f ( x) undefined endpoints on closed interval

E. lim

F. Mean Value Theorem: If f is cont. on [a, b] and f exists on (a, b), then f ( b) f ( a ) f ( c ) = for some c ( a, b ) . b a G. Intermediate Value Theorem: If f is cont. over (a, b) and if k is between f(a) & f(b), then there is a c in (a, b): f(c) = k. H. Newtons Method: Newtons Method for approx roots: f ( xn ) x n+1 = x n f (x n ) Newtons Method in Calculator Form: First x x TI-82: x - y1 /n Deriv (y1 , x, x) x TI-85: x - y1 /Der1 (y1 , x, x) x

B)

Second Derivative
f(x) >0, then concave up f(x) < 0 then concave down Point of inflection: f(x) = 0 or undefined and f(x) changes signs.

C)

Examples
1. f undefined f > 0 f continuous f 2. f(a) = 0 f(a) = 0 f(x) > 0, x a f(x) < 0, x < a f(x) > 0, x > a

(a, f (a ) )

I.

Rolles Theorem: If f is cont. on [a, b] and diff. on (a, b), and if f(a) = f(b) then c in (a, b): f(c) = 0.

3. f(a) undefined f(a) undefined f(x) > 0, f > 0, x < a f(x) > 0, f < 0, x > a f not cont. at x = a D) If f and g are inverses and f(a) = b, then f(a) = 1/g(b) Normal is perpendicular to the tangent of f at x = a, slope of norm = -1/f(a)

J. Chain Rule: d f (g( h( x)) ) = f ( g( h(x ))) g (h( x) ) h ( x) dx

dx dx dy dz = dt dy dz dt K. The First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus: If f is cont. on [a, b], then

f (x )dx = f (b ) f (a ) .
a

L. The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus: If f is cont. on open I containing a, d t = g( x ) dt then f ( t) dt = f (g( x)) . dx t = a dx

B. Double Angle Identities: sin 2 = 2sin cos cos 2 = cos 2 sin 2 cos 2 = 1 2sin 2 cos 2 = 2cos 2 1 2 tan 8. tan 2 = 1 tan 2 1 1 9. sin 2 x = cos 2x 2 2 1 1 2 10. cos x = + cos 2x 2 2 4. 5. 6. 7. C. Quick Sketches: 11. f(x) = sin x and f(x) = csc x

M. The Mean Value Theorem of Integrals (The Average Value of a Function): If f cont [a, b] then there exists c (a, b), then, b 1 f(c) = f (x )dx b a a

N. Area Approximation by Trapezoids:

f (x ) =
a

x0 = a b a f ( x 0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + ... + f (x n ) , 2n xn = b

O. What is a Limit (in words)? The value f(x) approaches as x approaches a real #. P. What is a Derivative (in words)? 1. An instantaneous rate of change. 2. Local Linear Approximation. Q. What is an Indefinite Integral (in words)? 1. Antiderivative 2. Inverse derivative R. What is a Definite Integral (in words)? 1. The net accumulation of rate of change. 2. The limit of a Reimann Sum. S. Work: W=

12. f(x) = cos x and f(x) = sec x

( Force)(dist )
a x =b

-- springs/elastic W=

x=a

Force dx , where x is displacement from

13. f(x) = tan x and f(x) = cot x

2

natural length. T. LHopitals Rule: f ( x) f ( x) 0 lim = lim , if , x a g(x ) xa g (x ) 0 0 If 0 change form to or and then use LHR. 0

4.

Trigonometry
A. Pythagorean Identities 1. sin x + cos x = 1 2. tan x + 1 = sec x 3. 1 + cot x = csc x
2 2 2 2 2 2

14. Unit Circle

2

4 6 0 (1, 0)

1 3 , 32 2 2 2 2 , 2 4 3 1 , 6 2 2

( 0,1) 2

( cos , sin )

5.

Know Quicky Graphs & Trig. Graphs

y = x, y = x , y = x , y = x , y = 3 x , y = x , y = e , y = ln x, y = sin x, y = cos x, y = tan x, y = cot x, y = sec x, y = csc x (know the standard periods) 2 2 x2 y2 x2 y2 y + x = 9, + = 1, =1 9 4 9 4
2 3 x

9.

Areas and Volumes

A. Area between 2 curves:

( f g)dx + (g f ) dxg(x)
a b

y f(x) x=a x=b x=c

B. Area between two curves (Right - Left):

6.

Logs & Exp.

ln 1 = 0 ln e = 1 e
ln x x

( h( y) g(y ))dy
ln x = 2 ln x ln x 1n e = lim 1+ n n def of ln x =
2 2
a

h(y) y=b

g(y)

x y=a y

=x

ln e = x x ln = ln x ln y y

x1

dt C. Volume by DISK/WASHER:
variable

ln xy = ln x + ln y

7.

Log Differentiation Strategy y = (variable)

a. ln of both sides b. use log properties to bring down exp. c. take derivative with product rule dy d. solve for dx e. replace y

v=

(r
a

ri 2 )h

rectangles axis of rotation h = dy or dx

D. Volume by SHELL:
b

v = 2 rh th
a

8.

Solving Differential Equations

When t = 0, x = 10. Find the general solution and the dx particular solution for x(t). = 6xt 2 dt 1. Separate variables and integrate. dx = 6t2 dt x

rectangles || to axis of rotation th = dy or dx

E. Volume by CROSS SECTIONS:

x =b

x-axis y-axis

x=a y =b

A( x) dx A( y) dy

ln x = 2t + c ln x = 2t + ln 10 x( t) = 10e 2t
3

3 3

ln 10 = c x( t) = e 2t
3

y=a

A is the area of the cross section.

+ ln10

Geometry formulas: A

2. Use slope fields to approximate graph of the solution. 3. Use Eulers Method to approximate solutions to the equation. dy 1 = 6yt 2 , ( 2,10 ), dt = dt 2 (2, 10) (2 + dt, 10 + dy) where dy = 6yt dt dy 4. = ky y = Ce kt dt
2

2 s2 3 r 2 ,A =s ,A = , 4 sq 2

rect.

= bh, A =

( hypotenuse) 2
4

, right isosceles

10.

Reimann Sum Notation

10

11.

Motion (continued)
v(t) = s(t) = velocity a(t) = s(t) = acceleration Total distance =

e 3x dx = lim

1 2 10n 3 3 1 3 n e + e n + ... + e n n

11.

Motion
Particle motion along x-axis s(t) = position, a t b average velocity s( b) s( a ) = (slope of secant) ba instantaneous velocity = s (c ) = v(c ) at t = (c) (slope of tangent)

v(t ) dt Total displacement = v(t) dt

If speeding up, then v(t), a(t) either both + or both If slowing down, then v(t), a(t) have opposite signs. If moving right, then v(t) > 0. If moving left, then v(t) < 0. If at rest, then v(t) = 0. If changing directions, then v(t) = 0 and v changes sign. If maximum velocity, then a(t) = 0, a + to If minimum velocity, then a(t) = 0, a - to +

12.

Derivatives and Integrals

u = f(x), v = g(x), {c, k} = constant d ku = k u dx ku 2 ku du = +c 2 d 0= 0 dx 0 dx = c

d tan u = sec 2 u u dx tan u du = ln cosu + c d cot u = csc2 u u dx cot u du = ln sin u + c d sin 2 u = 2sin ucos u u dx u 1 sin 2 u du = sin 2u + c 2 4 u 1 2 cos u du = + sin 2u + c 2 4 d 2 tan u = 2tan u sec 2 u u dx tan2 u du = tan u u + c d (sec u) = sec u tan u u dx sec utan u du = sec u + c

d u logb u = dx u ln b d u u e = e u dx e u du = e u + c d u b = b u ln b u dx bu bu du = ln b d 1 ln u = u dx u ln u du = uln u u + c

d 1=0 dx 1 dx = x + c d (k ) = 0 dx k dx = kx + c d [ f ( u) g(u )] = f ( u) u g( u) u dx [f (u ) g( u)]du = f (u )du g( u)du d [ u v] = u v + v u dx d u v u u v = dx v v2 d n u = nu n1 u dx u n+1 un = +c n +1 d sin u = cos u u dx sin u du = cos u + c d cos u = sin u u dx cos u du = sin u + c

LIATE Int. by parts

udv = uv vdu
d dx d dx d dx d dx d dx

(Arc sin u) = (Arc cosu ) =

sec u du = ln sec u + tan u + c sec csc

1 u2 u

[ ] [ ]

d (csc u ) = csc u cot u u dx csc u du = ln csc u + cot u + c

2 2

u du = tan u + c u du = cot u + c

d 1 1 = 2 dx x x 1 dx = ln x + c x d e=0 dx e dx = ex + c

1 u2 u (Arc tan u) = 1+ u 2 u (Arc cot u) = 1+ u 2 u (Arc sec u) = u u2 1 d u (Arc csc u) = dx u u2 1 du 1 u = Arc tan + c a a 2 + u2 a du u = Arc sin + c 2 2 a a u du u a
2 2

1 u Arc sec + c a a

13.

Implicit Differentiation
Ex: xy = y x
2

18.

Vectors
Position s(t ) = ( x( t), y( t)) velocity v( t) = (x ( t), y ( t)) acceleration a ( t) = ( x ( t), y ( t) ) object at rest if boty x = 0 and y = 0 at same t
t=b

dy dy + y = 2y dx dx dy = y dx

( x 2y)

Arc length of (total distance) = Speed = |velocity| =

2

dy y = dx x 2y

t =a

(x ( t) )2 + ( y ( t)) 2 dt

(x ( t) ) + ( y ( t)) 2

14.

Related Rates
Ex: v = r h dv dh dr = r 2 + h( 2r ) dt dt dt
2

Surface area of solid of revolution

S = 2 ( radius) Arc length
a

15.

Tangent Line need slope and point

slope = f(x) at a pt. normal line slope =

19.

Arc Length: Rectangular

y = f(x)
x2

1 at a pt. f (x )

s=

x1

1+ [ f (x )] dx
2

16.

Parametric Functions x = f (t ) y = g( t)
dy dy / dt = dx dx / dt d dy d2 y dt dx = dx ( dx)2 dt

Arc Length: Polar r = f ( )

2

s=

[f () ] + [f ( )]
2

Arc Length: Parametric (and Vector) x = f ( t) y = g( t)

t =b

17.

Polar Functions
r = f ( ) x = r cos y = r sin dy dy d = dx dx d 1 Polar Area = 2 x +y =r
2 2 2

s=

t =a

dy dx + dt dt dt

y = Arc tan x

1 r d = 2
2

(f ( ))

d
2

1 Polar Area between curves r0 and ri = 2

(r

2 0

ri2 d

20.

Calculator TI 85/86:
GRAPH MENU: arc length in parametric form root fmin/fmax isect CALC MENU: fnint(f(x), x, start, stop) deriv1 deriv2 evalf form:(fct, x, value) MATH MENU sum seq(f(x), x, start, stop, step) factorials PROGRAMS TO HAVE and KNOW HOW TO USE Trapezoidal Rule (approx. integrals) Slope fields (graph solution of diff eq) Euler (approx solutions diff eq) Know how to graph both parametric and polar equations on your calculator and how to do Newtons Method (finds roots)

centered at x = 0 ex =

n! =
n= 0

xn

x0 x x2 + + +. . . 0! 1! 2!

(1) n x 2n x 0 x 2 x 4 ( 2n )! = 0! 2! + 4! . . . n= 0 ( 1)n x 2n+1 x x 3 x5 sin x = = + . . . ( 2n + 1)! 1! 3! 5! n =0

cos x = centered at x = 1 1 ( 1)n ( x 1) n = ( x 1) 0 (x 1) + ( x 1) 2 . . . = x n =0

dx = ln x = x

(1) n (x 1)n +1
n +1

= ( x 1)

(x 1)2
2

( x 1) 3
3

...

convert functions to geometric series 1 1 1 x 3 = , a 1 = and r = 3 + x 1 x 3 3 3 (1)x n = 3 n+1 n= 0

21.

Series
f ( x) =

a
n =0 n =0

nx

geometric series centered at x = 0 a convert to 1 1r

n1

f ( x) =

Interval of convergence geometric series -1 < r < 1 sinx, cosx, e is All Reals otherwise use ratio test lim power series
n

n nx

f (x )dx = c +

a n n+1 x n +1 n= 0

f(x) , f(x), and f(x)dx have the same interval of

convergence except at endpoints Taylor series for f(x) centered at x = c (Maclaurin series c = 0)

a n+1 <1 an

a
n =0

( x c) n

n =0

f n ( c)( x c) n n!

c is the midpoint of the interval of convergence radius of convergence is half the length of the interval of convergence

In an alternating series, the first term not used in the series approximation is the maximum error. If the series is not alternating: P n = Taylor Polynomial of degree n Taylor Remainder of Pn f n+1 ( z )(x c )n +1 Rn = , z[ x,c ] ( n + 1)!

22.

Tests for Convergence of Series

Test Series Converges If Diverges If lim a n 0
n

Comment If lim a n = 0 Then no conclusion If converges a Then S = 1 r S = a1 L

1. Nth Term

a
n=1

2. Geometric series

a
n =0 n=1

nr

|r| < 1 lim a n+1 = L

r 1

3. Telescoping Series

( a n a n+1 ) n
n=1

L is real

4. p-Series

1
p

p>1

p1

None

5. Integral

a
n=1

an is: 1. decreasing 2. continuous 3. positive 4.

f (n )dn converges
n n

an is: 1. decreasing 2. continuous 3. positive 4.

None

f (n ) dn diverges
n

6. Direct Comparison

a
n=1

1. 0 an bn 2.

b
n=1 n

1. 0 bn an 2.

None

converges

b
n=1 n

diverges

7. Limit Comparison

a
n=1

1. lim
n

an =L>0 bn
n

1. lim 2.

2.

b
n=1

an =L>0 bn
n

converges

b
n=1

an and bn have the same degree

diverges

8. Alternating Series

( 1) a
n n=1

1. an is positive 2. an is non-increasing 3. lim a n = 0

n

( 1)
n=1

n+1

an an + 1 <1 an

Go to nth terms test to prove Remainder divergence S S n = R n a n +1 Error = S S n Maximum Error = an+1 an + 1 >1 an

9. Ratio Test

n=1

an

lim

lim

a n+1 =1 n a n Then no conclusion If lim If lim

n

10. Root Test Definition of Absolute Convergence Definition of Conditional Convergence Series to know:

n=1

an

lim

an < 1

lim

an > 1

an = 1

Then no conclusion

a a

a converges Then a is absolutely convergent If a diverges and a converges Then a is conditionally convergent
If
n n n n n

n=1

1 harmonic diverges, n

n=1

( 1) n
n

alternating harmonic converges.

BCCalcFacts&Form/01-02.2KRsb