Lectures on Rock Mechanics
SARVESH CHANDRA Professor Department of Civil E i D t t f Ci il Engineering i Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur KANPUR, 208016 India email: [email protected] sarv@iitk ac in
The problem in mathematics is black and white but the real world i grey Albert Einstein ld is Alb t Ei t i
Rock Mechanics Problems
How will rock react when put to mens use? p What is the bearing capacity of rock on surface an at depths? What is the shear strength of rocks? What is the response of rocks under dynamic / earthquake type loading? What is the modulus of elasticity of rock and how to get it? What are the effects of rock defects (jointing bedding planes, schistocity, fissures, cavities and other discontinuities) on its strength? What are the mechanisms of failure of rocks?
Rock as a Construction Material
For laying structural foundations to support structures For constructing Underground openings g g p g For protecting slopes For supporting railway tracks Ballasts As base and sub-base for roads and runways As aggregate in concrete Making facia for buildings.
Era
Period
Quaternary
Epoch
Time Boundaries (Years Ago)
10,000 10 000 2 million 5 million 26 million 38 million ll 54 million 65 million 130 million 185 million 230 million 265 million 310 million 355 million 413 million 425 million 475 million 570 million 3.9 billion 4.7 billion
Holocene - Recent Pleistocene Pliocene Miocene
Geolo gic Time Scale
Cenozoic Tertiary y
Oligocene g Eocene Paleocene
Cretaceous Mesozoic M s z ic Jurassic Jur ssic Triassic Permian Carboniferous Paleozoic Devonian Silurian Ordovician Cambrian Precambrian Pennsylvanian Mississippian
Greenland
Earth Beginning
What are we calling a rock?
Grade Description Lithology VI V IV III II I
Soil Completely weathered Highly weathered Moderately weathered Slightly g y weathered Fresh rock Some organic content, no original structure Decomposed soil, some remnant structure Partly changed to soil, soil > rock Partly changes to soil, rock > soil Increased fractures and mineral staining Clean rock
Excavation
Foundations
May need to Unsuitable save and re-use Scrape Scrape NB corestones Rip Blast Assess by soil testing Variable and unreliable Good for most small structures Good for anything except large dams Sound
Blast
Engineering classification of weathered rock
Primary Rock Types by Geologic Origin
Sedimentary Types
Grain Clastic Aspects
Coarse
Conglomerate Breccia
Metaphorphic
Igneous Types
Extrusive
Carbonate
Foliated Massive Intrusive
Limestone Conglomerate
Gneiss
Marble
Pegmatite Granite
Volcanic Breccia
Medium
Sandstone Siltsone
Limestone Chalk
Schist Phyllite
Quartzite
Diorite Diabase
Tuff
Fine
Shale Mudstone
Calcareous Mudstone
Slate
Amphibolite
Rhyotite
Basalt Obsidian
Index Properties of Intact Rock
Specific Gravity of Solids, Gs Unit Weight, Porosity, n Ultrasonic Velocities (Vp and Vs) ( Compressive Strength, qu Tensile Strength, T0 Elastic Modulus, ER (at 50% of qu)
Specific Gravity of Rock Minerals
galena it pyrite barite olivine dolomite calcite chlorite feldspar quartz serpentine gypsum halite 0
Reference Value (fresh water)
Common Minerals Average Gs = 2.70
Specific Gravity of Solids, Gs Solids
Unit Weights of Rocks
28
Saturated Unit Weight T (kN/m ) t,
26
sat = water [ Gs(1-n) + n]
24
22
20
18
16
Dolostone Graywacke Mudstone Sandstone
Granite Limestone Siltstone Tuff
Gs = 2.80 2.65 2.50
0.4 0.5 0.6
14
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Porosity, Porosity n
Geologic Mapping of Rock Mass Features
INHERENT COMPLEXITIES
1. 1 2. Rock fracture R kf t
under compressive stresses
Size effects
response of rock to loading affected by the size of the l d d l th loaded volume (j i t & f t (joints fractures) )
3.
Tensile strength
is low (similar to concrete); HOWEVER a rock mass can have even less tensile strength
COMPLEXITIES.
4. Groundwater effects
water in joints: if under pressure, reduces normal stress (less resistance along joints) water in permeable rocks (e.g. sandstone) soil like response softening of clay seams & argillaceous rocks (e.g. shales)
COMPLEXITIES.
5. Weathering
chemical/physical alteration, reduction of engineering p p properties limestone caverns, sinkholes: Karst basic rocks with olivine (e.g. basalt) and py ( g ) pyroxene minerals are reduced to montmorillonite by hydrolysis
Cavernous limestone
Coffin Bay
STRUCTURAL FEATURES or DISCONTINUITIES
1) Bedding planes 2) Folds
tension joints at the crest of a fold (strike, dip & shear jo s) s ea joints) folding may cause shear failure along bedding planes (axial plane or fracture cleavage)
Folding
DISCONTINUITIES
3) Faults
shear displacement zones - sliding
Faults may contain
Fault F lt gouge (clay) weak ( l ) k Fault breccia (re-cemented rock) weak Rock flour weak Angular fragments may be strong
Defects
Defects
DISCONTINUITIES
4) Shear zones
bands of materials - local shear failure
5) Dykes
igneous intrusions (near vertical) weathered dykes, e.g. dolerite weathers to montmorillonite unweathered dykes attract high stresses
6) Joints
breaks with no visible displacement
Joint Patterns
sedimentary rocks usually contain 2 sets of joints, joints orthogonal to each other and the bedding plane
JOINTS
1) Open ) p Filled Healed (or closed) 2) Stepped Undulating Planar Pl 2B) each of the above can be Rough Smooth Slickensided
JOINT CLASSES (AS 1726-1993)
I II II IV V VI VII VIII IX Stepped St d Rough R h Smooth Slickensided Rough Smooth Slickensided Rough Smooth Slickensided
Undulating
Planar
Order of Description of Rocks (AS 1726-1993)
ROCK MATERIAL COMPOSITION rock name g grain size ( (Table A6) ) texture and fabric (Table A7) colour
e.g. Basalt, fine, massive, vesicular, dark grey to black
Order of Description of Rocks (AS 1726-1993)
ROCK MATERIAL CONDITION weathering (Table A9) strength (Table A8)
e.g. VL strength, XW OR EH strength, FR
Order of Description of Rocks (AS 1726-1993)
ROCK MASS PROPERTIES structure defects (much information required) weathering of joints
Structure: sed e ta y oc s sedimentary rocks bedded, laminated a ated metamorphic igneous rocks foliated, banded, cleaved massive flow banded massive,
DEFECTS information needed
tightness ti ht cementation or infill smoothness or irregularity of surfaces
class of joint
water in joints joint orientation joint spacing
DESIGN IN ROCK
Take into account: Local geological structure Shear strength of the rock mass Impact of water on stability R k anchoring? Rock h i ? Drilling and blasting procedures Monitoring of stability
the observational method
Intact Rock
H t Heterogeneous Anisotropic Spatial variability (soils less so) (soils the same)
Yield mechanisms are non-linear & depend on stress level and rock type Failures are often brittle (soils strain soften or harden past the peak strength)
Rock Masses
C t i di Contain discontinuities with littl t ti iti ith little tensile il strength Scale effect
response is dependent on stressed volume
Affected by groundwater & weathering In-situ stresses difficult to estimate
Rock Masses
DEFINITIONS
Dip angle, w: the acute angle measured in a vertical plane between the line of maximum dip in a non horizontal plane and the horizontal non-horizontal plane i.e. 0 i e 0 w 90 90 Dip direction, w: the geographical azimuth measured in a clockwise direction from north (0) of the vertical plane in which ( ) p the dip angle is measured i.e. 0 w 360
Dip Angle
North Horizontal
Line of maximum dip
Dip direction
Azimuth is the direction of an object, measured clockwise around the observer's horizon from North, i.e. an object due north has an azimuth of 0
Dip Direction
North N th Horizontal w
Line of maximum dip
Quantitative Classification of Rock Mass
Description of Joints: Orientation, Persistence, Roughness, Wall Strength, Aperture, Filling, Seepage, Strength Aperture Filling Seepage Number of sets, Block size, spacing. ISRM commissions report i i t Classification of Rock Material Based on Uniaxial Compressive Strength
Ranges for some Common Rock Material Term Kg/cm2 Schist, Silt stone VW-W, Sand y < 70 Very Weak- VW Stone, Lime stone Weak- W 70-200 VW-M,Granite, Medium Strong-MS 200-700 Basalt Gneiss, Strong MS 200 700 Basalt, Gneiss Strong- S 700-1400 Quartzite, Marble MS-VS MS VS Very Strong- VS Strong > 1400 |
Uniaxial Compressive Strength
Classification for Rock Material Strength
Intact Rock Classification
Rock Type Geologic Formation and Age I di Indices:
Specific Gravity, Porosity, Unit Weight, Wave Velocities W V l iti Strength (compressive, tensile, shear) Elastic Modulus
What is Rock Mechanics? Rock R k mechanics is a h i i discipline that uses the p c p es of ec a cs principles o mechanics to describe the behaviour of rock of engineering scale.
How to correlate the properties of rock studied in the laboratory with in-situ properties? What in-situ test methods will provide actual inp situ conditions and properties of rock? g parameters are to be used for rock What design p slope design? How to stabilize slopes and underground openings?
