FLUID TRANSIENTS in Hydro-Electric Engineering PracticeFLUID TRANSIENTS in Hydro-Electric Engineering Practice CHARLES JAEGER MILC.E,, S.LA,, Dr. és So. Techn. (Zurich) Formerly Professor at the Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich 19 Professor of Hydro-Power Engineering, Imperial College, London Formerly Visitin sor of Rock Mechanics, Colorado State University Formerly Visiting Profess TEHNICN "iTOSTRO! Stevitlee 6366 Blackie Glasgow and LondonBlackie & Son Li Bishopbriggs Glasgow G64 2NZ 450/452 Edgware Road London W2 1EG ited © 1977 C. Jaeger First published 1977 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in @ retrieval system, or transmitte in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the Publishers International Standard Book Number 0216 90225 8 Filmset by Technical Filmsetters (Europe) Limited, Manchester, England Printed in Great Britain by Robert MacLehose & Co. Ltd, Printers to the University of GlasgowPreface WHILE THE BROAD OUTLINES OF THE ANALYTICAL THEORIES OF FLUID Transients were well established by the early fifties, considerable advances have been made since then. The development of graphical methods and computer techniques opened up unexpected new areas of research of particular application to industry. This book summarizes modern theories of Fluid Transients and illustrates some practical applications of new techniques. ‘Within the last two decades, considerable experience has been gained in the design of very large hydro-power stations, modern pumped-storage plants, water distribution systems, and water cooling systems for thermal or nuclear stations. Unforeseen difficulties with surge stability of surge tank systems or with resonance in conduits led to more research, backed by model and in situ tests, The results of this research have been discussed at international engineering congresses and symposia. This book presents a discussion of problems facing design engineers, with reference to particular case histories. It will be of interest not only to designers and consultant engineers but also to students, for whom this approach represents the best method of training. There isa strong feeling in academic circles and among practising engineers that university work should, in future, be more closely involved with actual engineering projects. To make the case-history analyses understandable, the chapters on basic theories, graphical and computer methods have been developed to points at which they can be of immediate use. The book is divided into three parts: Part A covers mass oscillations in surge systems; Part B deals with the theory of water hammer; and Part C considers engineering problems, case histories, and model and in situ tests, irrespective of whether they are on surges or on water hammer, and irrespective of the method—analytical, graphical or computing—used to solve them. Several methods often have to be used in parallel to analyse the diverse aspects of practical situations. ‘A sound knowledge of the relevant theories is a first requirement for the designer. But, conversely, solutions ofcase histories have given newimpulses to theoretical research. The book will frequently illustrate this reciprocal relationship between theory and practice.Contents Preface Introduction PART A: MASS OSCILLATIONS IN SURGE SYSTEMS Chapter 1, Oscillations in the Elementary Surge System (Pressure Tunnel, Pressure Pipeline and Surge Tank) Chapter 2. Notation Chapter 3. The Basic Equations of Mass Oscillations in the Simple Surge Tank (a) The dynamic equation (b) The equation of continuity Chapter 4. Solution of Equations (1) and (II), neglecting Tunnel Friction (a) Sudden closure of turbine valve (b) Sudden opening of turbine valve, or sudden increase in load (6) Linear rate of change of load Chapter 5. Calculation of Water-level Oscillations, including Tunnel Friction. Direct Integration (a) Sudden complete closure of turbine valve (b) Linear rate of decrease of load; sudden increase of load (c) Choice of the factor F for friction losses (@) Intake losses Chapter 6. Step-by-step Integration (a) Presset’s method (b) Direct determination of Az from equations (1*) and (2*) (c) Escande's finite-difference method (d) Further remarks on the analysis of surge shafts Chapter 7. Introduction of Ratios into the Calculation of Surge Tanks (a) Vogt parameters (b) Calame and Gaden parameters (c) Application to the calculation of instantaneous total closure (instantaneous total rejection of load) xiii I 13, 21vil Contents (a) Gradual linear closure (linear reduction of load) (@) Sudden opening from rest (load suddenly thrown on; constant flow to turbine) Chapter 8. Surge Shafts with Expansion Chambers 29 (a) General methods of computation (b) Partial increase of load, surge shafts with expansion chambers Chapter 9. Head Losses in Pipe Junctions (Pipe Branchings) 36 Chapter 10. Throttled Surge Tanks 42 (a) The cylindrical surge tank with throttled inlet (b) Johnson's differential surge tank Chapter 11. Other Surge-tank Problems 52 (a) Multiple surge tanks (b) Underground power stations (c) Surge chamber with an enclosed compressed air cushion (@ Surge tanks or shafts fed by more than one tunnel (e) Long pressure tunnels fed by a series of intermediary adits or intake shafts (/) Determination of the rate of valve closure ensuring a required sequence of pressures at the downstream end of a tunnel (g) The problem of a burst in the pipeline Chapter 12. The Stability of Single and Multiple Surge Tanks 2B (a) Stability of cylindrical surge tanksand of shafts with expansion chambers— cases of small and large amplitudes (b) Stability of throttled, differential, and multiple surge tanks (6) Other factors which may influence surge-tank stability (a) Choice of the factor of safety n. Effect of the factor n on the course of the oscillations (e) Additional remarks on the stability of downstream surge tanks Chapter 13. The Graphical Method of Schoklitsch 105 (a) Basic principles of the method (b) Surge tank with overfiow (c) Flow Q, into the surge shaft, from external sources (@ Throttled surge tank (sudden loading and sudden rejection of load) (©) The differential surge tank (/) Analysis of multiple surge tanks Chapter 14. Computing Techniques 119 Chapter 15. Comparison of Experimental Results with those of Computation 123Contents ix PART B: THEORY OF WATER HAMMER Chapter 16. Allievi's Theory of Water Hammer in a Pipeline of Constant Diameter and Constant Thickness of Wall 127 (a) Notation (b) Derivation of basic equations of water hammer (c) Physical meaning of equations (11) (@) Note on the calculation of the velocity of propagation a (6) Alliev's interlocked series of equations for a simple pipeline (/) Analysis of particular problems of importance (@) Pressure surges at any point along the pipeline (i) Water hammer in pipes with reversed flow Chapter 17. General Theory of Water Hammer in a System of Pipelines or Tunnels 148 (a) Main equations (b) Calculation of the reflection coefficient a; (6) Parallel pipelines (d) Conical pipelines (e) Approximate method of water-hammer analysis Chapter 18. Theory of Water Hammer in Pipelines with Surge Tanks | 159 Chapter 19. Theory of Pipelines with Air Vessels 162 (a) Fock's theory for large air vessels (without allowing forthe vesse’s elasticity) (b) Allievis theory for smaller elastic air vessels (0) The perfect-gas law Chapter 20. Theory of Periodic Motion and Resonance in Pipelines 166 (a) Periodic motion in simple pipelines {b) Basic equations of periodic motion in compound pipelines (c) Resonance in compound pipelines. Overtones (@) Self-excited oscillations Chapter 21. Governing of Turbines 177 (a) Change of power with time (b) Determination of rotating masses (¢) Inclusion of governor equation {a Inclusion of the inertia of rotating masses in step-by-step calculations Chapter 22. The Graphical Method of Schnyder and Bergeron 189 (a) Basic principles of the method (b) Analysis of water hammer in a pipeline of constant diameter: friction neglected (c) Water-hammer analysis for a pipeline with variable diameter: friction neglected (d) Intersection of three pipes; case of a simple branch (@) Water hammer in a system consisting of @ reaction turbine placed between upstream and downstream pressure tunnels (f) Allowance for friction () Introduction of the inertia term WR? into Schnyder-Bergeron diagrams5 Contents Chapter 23. Computer Techniques for Hydraulic Transients 218 (a) The digital computer (b) The electronic analog Chapter 24, Controlling Pressure Rises. Valve Stroking. Controlling Valves for Pumped-storage Schemes 226 Chapter 25. Comments on the Theories and Methods on Surges and Water Hammer 228Contents PART C: ENGINEERING PROBLEMS, CASE HISTORIES, MODEL TESTS AND IN SITU TESTS ON HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS I. Introduction IL. Stability of Surges in Hydro-Power Plants. In situ Tests Chapter 26. Stability of Large Surges. In situ Tests (a) Developments of theory (b) In situ test results and case histories (c) Method for improving the stability of surges (d) Model tests for checking Bersimis II surge stability (e) Norwegian model tests (/) Additional remarks on the stability factor to be adopted (@) Conclusions concerning the theory of stability of large surge oscillations Chapter 27. Stability of Systems of Surge Tanks (@ Two surge tanks located in series along the same pressure tunnel or collecting gallery (i) General equations (ii). Stability conditions (ii) Discussion of stability conditions (b) Double surge-tank system: one tank on each side of a reac (c) One turbine fed by two pressure systems n turbine Chapter 28. Stability of Medium and Low-head Power Stations connected to a Large Electric System (a) Investigation of a surge tank working on an isolated system {b) The unstable hydraulic system is connected to a large electric system IIL. Resonance in Industrial Pressure Systems Chapter 29. The General Analytical Equations Governing Resonance in Systems of Conduits (a) Resonance of the fundamental of the system (b) Resonance of harmonics in a system of pipelines (c) Resonance in parallel pipes Chapter 30. Solving Resonance Problems on Digital Computers Chapter 31. Case Histories and Comments (a) The Lac Blane-Lac Noir case {b) The accident at Kandergrund tunnel (c) Resonance at Bersimis II Power Station (Quebec Hydro-Electric Commission) (@) The Fiestiniog incident (e) Other cases (/) Remarks on the shape and dimensions of hydro-power conduits in relation to possible resonance {g) Conclusions Natural frequency of components (i) Prevention and cure of resonance 231 235 252 279 285 290 293xii Contents Chapter 32. In situ Tests on Resonance (a) Early tests on resonance in pressure conduits (6) Tests and measurements on the Bersimis IT system IV. Water Hammer Caused by Pumps Chapter 33. General Information on Hydraulic Transients Caused by Pumps (a) Simple treatment of pumping problems (b) Typical water-hammer problems involving pumps Chapter 34. Trip-outs of Pumps: Correlation of Graphical or Computer Calculations and Tests Chapter 35. Pumped-storage Projects (a) General remarks (b) Systems equipped with reversible runners (c) Systems with separate runners (d) Remarks on runner characteristics V. Special Problems, Methods and Results. Checking and Testing Hydro-power plants. Other Engineering Problems Chapter 36. Methods and Results: a Comparative Analysis (a) Analytical and graphical methods (b) Model tests (0) Field testing (@ Hussain on methods and field tests (First method: based on equation of masses (rigid column theory) (ii) Alternative method based on the theory of pressure transients (ii) Comparative calculations with mass equations and elastic wave equations (iv) In situ tests carried out at the Simmenfluh power station Chapter 37. Water-column Separation. Vacuum, Cavitation (a) Cavitation (b) Vacuum caused in pipes or conduits by gate or valve movements (©) Column separation and vacuum in hydro-power plants (@) Water-column separation in pumping systems (e) Laboratory and in situ tests Chapter 38. Vibrations of Conduits other than Resonance Vibrations (a) Vibrations in the Geesthacht pumped-storage plant (b) Case history concerning the rupture of a large steel lining inside a hydro- power tunnel VI. Concluding Remarks Selected References Indexes Author Index Subject Index Index of geographical names 311 319 334 335 349 362 371 379 381 401 1 | |Introduction | THE PREFACE SUMMARIZES THE LINES ALONG WHICH THIS BOOK HAS BEEN |. Conceived. It aims to bridge the gap between the theories of fluid transients and real engineering problems, as solved by practising engineers. Detailed analyses of case histories, describing not only the problems to be solved ut also the methods used by designers and manufacturers to analyse them, is the main contribution of this book. To guide the reader in his approach, basic information on surges (Part A) and on water-hammer theories and methods (Part B) precedes Part C, which deals with the practical applications. ‘As mentioned in the Preface, the choice of practical cases and examples was influenced by the topics selected for discussion at international engineering conferences and symposia. To cope with more advanced theories and to benefit fully from the powerful computing methods developed over the last two decades, there has been in technical universities a trend towards scientific and mathematical aspects of engineering. However, more recent inquiries have detected a change and have shown there to be “a strong feeling that university work should in future be more closely involved with actual engineering projects ‘and with the engineers responsible for such work”.” Direct contacts with great technical universities have proved this development to have a con- siderable body of support. The present book has therefore been written for practising engineers who may be interested in comments on case histories but also for advanced students anxious to study some “real life” situations. Students may have to g0 through the basic information summarized in Parts A and B before really coming to grips with Part C. (a) The problems to be solved ‘The range of engineering problems connected with hydraulic transients has been considerably widened in the last ten to twenty years. As large hydro- power stations with complex pressure conduits are interconnected to large + spducation; less maths, more involvement,” New Civil Engineer, 14 March 1974, p. 48xiv Introduction electric systems, responsive turbine governing and reliable surge stability are becoming increasingly important. Resonance in conduits has always interested theoreticians but, when severe cases of resonance have occurred in large industrial conduits, practising engineers have also become involved, and theories and testing methods have had to be taken a step further. To balance the electric base-load generated by large thermal or nuclear power stations, pumped-storage plants are now becoming favoured. Such plants were developed in great numbers within a few years in many industrial countries. A series of difficult problems of pump design and of water hammer generated by pumps or reversible turbines had to be solved. Large pumps were also used to circulate water in the cooling systems of thermal power stations. While, in the past, pump designers and manufacturers could be guided by practical experience, new methods and accurate analyses of pressure waves became of paramount importance to modern engineering. (b) The methods to be used Progress has been achieved in the methods to be used for the analysis of such real cases, The introduction of electronic analogues and digital computers into engineering has caused a reappraisal of earlier methods of transient analysis and research. There was a time when some experts predicted that graphical transient analysis would render analytical methods obsolete. Now, similarly, it is being argued that electronic and digital computing will supersede graphical methods. Certainly computer programming methods for transients have been devised which allow practising engineers to solve any problems which arise. The precision of the analyses obtained by such computingmethodsis greater than that ofanalytical or graphical methods in the past. But the progress of recent years presents a somewhat different picture. Graphical and analytical methods are still in use and have not lost their importance. A typical example is the analysis of the severe resonance pressure waves which originated in the Bersimis II pressure system (11 and 29 June, 1961). They will be described in detail in Part C. As soon as news of the pressure oscillations was published, and the type of oscillations was described, it was possible to check that they were a special case of analytical theories developed—as an academic exercise—in the years 1936 and 1939." (The same theories had already been used in 1946 to explain the rupture of the Kandergrund pressure tunnel)? These analytical equations were used + Jagger, C,"Notesurles phénoménes périodiques danslesconduites foreées caractéristiquesmultiples”, La Houille Blanche, Vol. 35, Nos. 233-236, May-August 1936, Jaeger, C, “Theory of Resonance in Pressure Conduits”, Trans. 4.S.M.E, February 1939, pp. 109-115 * Faoger, C, "Water Hammer Effects in Power Conduits”, Civil Engineering and Public Works Review, Vol.43, ‘Nos. 500-503, February-May 1948. On auto-oscllations, see also Jaeger, C, Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Blackie, Glasgow, 1956, pp. 322-323; and Rocard, Y., Les phénoménes d'auto-oscillation dans les installations hydrauliques, Herman, Paris 1937; and L'insiabilité en mécanique, Masson, Paris 1954.