MODULE III: Arithmetic and Geometric Progression, Permutation and Combination

Introduction The simple sequence we have been looking at is called an arithmetic sequence. Any time you are adding the same number to each term to complete the sequence; it is called an arithmetic sequence. The number that is added to each term is called the common difference and denoted with the letter d. So in our example we would say that d = 1. The common difference can be subtracting two consecutive terms. You can subtract any two terms as long as they are consecutive. So we could find d by taking 5 - 4 = 1 or 2 - 1 = 1. Notice that we will always use the term that appears later in the sequence first and then subtract the term that is right in front of it. If we looked at a sequence like bn = 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, . . . this would not fit our definition of an arithmetic sequence. We are not adding the same number to each term. However, notice that we are multiplying each term by the same number (3) each time. When you multiply every term by the same number to get the next term in the sequence, you have a geometric sequence. Geometric sequences can also be written in recursive form. In this case, we would write bn = 3 bn 1 . Remember that in the language of sequences we are saying, to find any term in the sequence (bn), multiply the previous term(bn-1) by 3. Just as arithmetic sequences have a common difference, geometric sequences have a common ratio which is denoted with the letter r. The common ratio is found by dividing successive terms in the sequence. So in our geometric sequence example, we could use 9/3 = 3 or 243/81=3 to find that r = 3. As with finding a common difference, when we find a common ratio, we must use the term that appears later in the sequence as our numerator and the number right before it as our denominator. There are other types of sequences that do not fit into the arithmetic or geometric category, but are still considered sequences because there is a pattern to determining the next term. Our focus in these lessons will be on arithmetic and geometric series

Arithmetic Progression
Arithmetical series structure An arithmetical series starts with the first term, usually given the letter 'a'. For each subsequent term of the series another term is added. This is a multiple of the letterd called 'the common difference'. So the series has the structure:

S n = a + ( a + d ) + ( a +2 d ) +( a +3 d ) +.... +( l d ) +l

Where Sn is the sum to 'n' terms, the letter 'l' is the last term. The common differenced is calculated by subtracting any term from the subsequent term. The nth term (sometimes called the 'general term') is given by:

a + (n 1)d
So a sequence is arithmetic if each term the previous term = d, where d is a constant E.g. For the sequence

2, 4, 6, 8... d = 2nd term 1st term = 3rd term 2nd term = 2 The 1st term of an arithmetic sequence is given the letter a. An arithmetic sequence is of the form

a,

a + d,

a + 2d ,

a + 3d , . . .

Thus we can say that, Quantities are said to be in Arithmetic progression when they increase or decrease by a common difference. E.g., Each one of the following series forms an A.P. i) 1, 3, 5, 7, ii) 3, 7, 11, 15, iii) 15, 12, 9, iv) x, x - d, x - 2d, ..... The common difference is found by subtracting any term of the series from the immediate succeeding term. In the above example, common difference in the first is 2, in the second it is 4, in the third it is -3, in the fourth it is d. The general form of an A.P. is as follows: a = first term, d = common difference, then A.P. is a, a+d, a+2d, a+3d,..... We observe that in any term the coefficient of d is always less by one than the number of terms in the series. Thus, second term is a+d third term is a+2d fourth term is a+3d . . tenth term is a+9d and generally, nth term is a + (n-1)d. If n is the number of terms and if Tn is the nth term, then Tn = a+ (n-1) d Example: 2, 6, 10, 14,... is an AP find the nth term of this Here first term "a" is 2 and the common difference "d" is (6-2=) 4. So, Tn = a+ (n-1) d = 2 + (n-1)4 = 2 + 4n - 4 = 4n - 2 So, (4n-2) is the nth term of this AP from the starting.

Example: Find the 8th term from the last of the AP 4, 9, 14, 19,....., 254 Here, a=4, d=9-4=5 and l=254 So, T8 = 254- (8-1)5 = 254-7*5= 254-35 = 219 So, 219 is the 8th term from the last term of this AP.

Sum of a number of terms in Arithmetical Progression

Let a=first term, d=common difference, l=tn=last term, s=required sum. Then,

S = a + ( a + d ) +.... + a +( n 2) d + a +( n 1) d

Writing the series in the reverse order,

S = a + (n 1)d + a + (n 2)d + ........a+ d + a

Adding together the two series,

2S = [2a + (n 1)d ]+ [2a+ (n 1)d ]+ ......to n term

= n{2a + (n 1)d }
n S == {2a + (n 1)d }..........(i ) 2

= n{a + a + (n 1)d }

S = {a + l} where l = a + (n 1)d .......(ii )

Example: Find out the arithmetic progression (AP) for common difference then the next 3 terms of the arithmetic progression is 1, 4, 7... Solution: The common difference of AP d = 4 1 = 3 General form of AP are a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d .... Next three terms are a + 3d, a + 4d,a + 5d a + 3d = 1 + 3(3) = 1 + 9 = 10 a + 4d = 1 + 4(3) = 1 +12 = 13 a + 5d = 1 + 5(3) = 1 + 15 = 16 Therefore the next 3 terms are 10, 13, and 16.

Example: Find out the arithmetic progression (AP) for 12th term of an A.P. 6, 2, 2... Solution: Assume the arithmetic progression in the form a, a + d, a + 2d ... where, a = 6, d = 2 6 = 4, n = 12 tn = a + (n1) d t12 = 6 + (12 1) (4) = 6 + (11 * 4) = 6 44 = 38 The 12th term is 38 Example: Find out the number of integers between 60 and 600 that are divisible by 9. Solution: Let us take the 1st number divisible by 9 among 60 and 600 is 63. The last number divisible by 9 that is 594. 594 is less than 600. The series is 63, 72, 81... 594. Here AP is 594. Where, a = 63, d = 72 63 = 9 tn= 594 a + (n 1) d = 594 63 + (n1) 9 = 594 (n1) 9 = 594 63 = 531 n 1 = 59 n = 60 Among 60 and 600 which are divisible by 9 is 60 integers. Example: Find the 12th term of an Arithmetic progression 11, 15, 19, 23... Solution: Here, a = 11, d = 15 11 = 4, n = 12 By formula, tn = a + (n1) d t12 = 11 + (12 1) (4) = 11 + 11 x (4) = 11 + 44 t12 = 55 Hence, the 12th term is 55. Example: Find the arithmetic progression for common difference and the next three terms of the A.P. 1, 4, 7, ... Solution: The common difference = 4 1 = 3 The next three terms are 7 + 3 = 10, 10 + 3 = 13, 13 + 3 = 16 The next three terms are 10, 13, and 16. Example: In an arithmetical progression the 8th term is 23 and the 11th term is 4 times the 3rd term. Find the 1st term, the common difference and the sum of the first 10 terms.

L t th first te e e rmb a a d c m o iffe n e d e n o m nd re c th nth thte e e 8rmis a +7 2 d = 3 i( ) th 1 e this a 1 + d rd te 1 ( d a 0 )n 3 rmis + d ) a 2 ( + =+ a 1 d 0 4 d ) a 2 ( a +d + d 1= a 8 0 4 2 = a d ii ( ) 3 p ttin th in i w ( a e u g is e h), v 2 d +7 2 d = 3 3 = d 3 su stitu g th b tin is ii in ( ) w hv a e ae =2 W n wth t ek o a n S n = a2 n ( d ) } + { 1 2 p ttin a u g a dd = 3 =2 n S10 = 5 15

Example: The sum of terms of an arithmetic progression is 48. If the first term is 3 and the common difference is 2, find the number of terms. Solution:

n {2 d } a n 1 + ( ) 2 putting a = 3, = S = d 2, Sn = w have n2 2n4 = 0 e + 96 ( n n 8) 0 6)( + = = 6, 8 n = 6 n

48

Arithmetic Mean
If a, x, b are in A.P, then x is called the arithmetic mean (A.M.) between the Extremes a and b a, x, b are in AP then x-a = b-x => x = (a+b)/2

To insert n arithmetic means between two given quantities Let a and b be any two given quantities, and let A1, A2, A3, -----An be n arithmetic means to be inserted between a and b so that a, A1,A2,A3,-----An, b will be in A.P. Let d be the common difference Now the total number of terms including a and b is (n+2)

b = (n + 2)th term = a + (n +1)d Second term = A1 = a + d = na + b n +1

ba =d n +1

similarly third term A2 = A1 + d = hence the arithmetic means are

(n 1)a + 2b n +1

na + b (n 1)a + 2b (n 2)a + 3b , , ,....... n +1 n +1 n +1 this can be inserted between a and b

To find the sum of n arithmetic means between the two given quantities: Let the two quantities (numbers) be a and b The required sum = A1 + A2 + A3 + ---- + An

= (a + d ) + (a + 2d ) + ........ + (a + nd ) = na + d (1 + 2 + 3 + 4........... + n) dn(n + 1) a +b = na + =( )n 2 2

Example: Insert 6 numbers between 3 and 24 such that the resulting sequence is an A.P. Solution: Let A1, A2, A3, A4, A5 and A6 be six numbers between 3 and 24 such that 3, A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, 24 are in A.P. Here, a = 3, b = 24, n = 8. Therefore, 24 = 3 + (8 1) d, so that d = 3. Thus A1 = a + d = 3 + 3 = 6; A2 = a + 2d = 3 + 2 3 = 9; A3 = a + 3d = 3 + 3 3 = 12; A4 = a + 4d = 3 + 4 3 = 15; A5 = a + 5d = 3 + 5 3 = 18; A6 = a + 6d = 3 + 6 3 = 21. Hence, six numbers between 3 and 24 are 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 and 21

Questions 1. Find the sum of odd integers from 1 to 2001. 2. Find the sum of all natural numbers lying between 100 and 1000, which are multiples of 5. 3. In an A.P., the first term is 2 and the sum of the first five terms is one-fourth of the next five terms. Show that 20th term is 112. 4. How many terms of the A.P. 6, -11/2, -5, are needed to give the sum 25? 5. In an A.P., if pth term is 1/ q and qth term is 1/p, prove that the sum of first pq 1 terms is (pq +1), where p q 2 6. If the sum of a certain number of terms of the A.P. 25, 22, 19, is 116. Find the last term. 7. Find the sum to n terms of the A.P., whose kth term is 5k + 1. 8. If the sum of n terms of an A.P. is (pn + qn2), where p and q are constants, find the common difference. 9. The sums of n terms of two arithmetic progressions are in the ratio 5n + 4 : 9n + 6. Find the ratio of their 18th terms. 10. Insert five numbers between 8 and 26 such that the resulting sequence is an A.P. 11. A man starts repaying a loan as first instalment of Rs. 100. If he increases the instalment by Rs 5 every month, what amount he will pay in the 30th instalment? 12. The difference between any two consecutive interior angles of a polygon is 5.If the Smallest angle is 120, find the number of the sides of the polygon.

Geometric progression

In mathematics, a geometric progression, also known as a geometric sequence, is a sequence of numbers where each after the first is found by multiplying the previous one by a fixed non-zero number called the common ratio.

For example, the sequence 2, 6, 18, 54, is a geometric progression with common ratio 3. Similarly 10, 5, 2.5, 1.25 geometric sequence with common ratio 1/2. The sum of the terms of a geometric progression is known as a geometric se Thus, the general form of a geometric sequence is
4 a, ar , ar , 2 , ar ,..... ar 3 andthat of a geometric series is

a +ar+ ar+ 2ar +

+ ar

.....

Where r 0 is the common ratio and a is a scale factor, equal to the sequence's start value. nth Term: The n-th term of a geometric sequence with initial value a and common ratio r is given by n 1 n

a = ar

Example: Find the 10th and nth terms of the G.P. 5, 25, 125, Solution: Here a = 5 and r = 5. Thus, a10 = 5(5)10-1 = 5(5)9 = 510 and an = arn-1 = 5(5)n-1 = 5n . E.g., Which term of the G.P., 2,8,32, ... up to n terms is 131072? Solution : Let 131072 be the nth term of the given G.P. Here a = 2 and r = 4. Therefore 131072 = an = 2(4)n-1 or 65536 = 4n-1 This gives 48 = 4n-1. So that n 1 = 8, i.e., n = 9. Hence, 131072 is the 9th term of the G.P Example: In a geometrical progression the sum of the 3rd & 4th terms is 60 and the sum of the 4th & 5th terms is 120.Find the 1st term and the common ratio Solution:

with the first term a and common ratio r ar 2 + ar 3 = 60 ar 3 + ar 4 = 60 factori sin g and dividing 1 1 = r 2 substituting r = 2 int o ar 2 (1 + r ) = 60 we have a = 5

Sum of n terms of a GP: Let a = First term, r = common ratio, n = number of terms.

a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + ar 4 + .....

(i )

Multiply both sides of (i) by r, the common ratio

rS n = ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + ..... + ar n 1 + ar n ...(ii ) subtracting (ii ) from (i ) (1 r n ) Sn = a , when r < 1 1 r (r n 1) Sn = a , when r > 1 r 1

Sum to infinity of a GP when the common ratio r is numerically less than 1 Consider the GP a, ar, ar2...

S =

a 1 r

Example: Find the sum of first n terms and the sum of first 5 terms of the geometric 2 4 Series 1 + + + ......... 3 9 2 Solution: Here a = 1 and r = 3 Putting values in

(1 r n ) Sn = a , when r < 1 1 r
We have Sn = 211/81

Example:

What is the smallest number of terms of the geometrical progression 2 + 6 + 18 + 54 + 162 ...that will give a total greater than 1000? Solution:

from the series a = 2, and r = 3 ( r n 1) by S n = a , when r > 1 1 r we have S n = 3n 1 making S n = 1000 3n 1 = 1000 n=7
Geometric Mean The geometric mean of two positive numbers a and b is the number ab . Therefore, the geometric mean of 2 and 8 is

We observe that the three numbers 2,4,8 are consecutive terms of a G.P. This leads to a generalization of the concept of geometric means of two numbers. Given any two positive numbers a and b, we can insert as many numbers as we like between them to make the resulting sequence in a G.P. Let G1, G2,, Gn be n numbers between positive numbers a and b such that a,G1,G2,G3,,Gn,b is a G.P. Thus, b being the (n + 2) th term, we have b = arn+1 or r = (b/a)1/n+1 Example: Insert three numbers between 1 and 256 so that the resulting sequence is a G.P. Solution: Let G1, G2, G3 be three numbers between 1 and 256 such that 1, G1, G2, G3 , 256 is a G.P. Therefore 256 = r4 giving r = 4 (Taking real roots only) For r = 4, we have G1 = ar = 4, G2 = ar2 = 16, G3 = ar3 = 64 Similarly, for r = 4, numbers are 4,16 and 64. Hence, we can insert, 4, 16, 64 or 4, 16, 64, between 1 and 256 so that the resulting sequences are in G.P.

Example: If the 4th term of a geometrical progression is 40 and the 6th is 160, what is the 5th term?

Solution:

by the exp ression for mean, for series a, b, c b = ac = 40 160 = 6400 = 80 the fifth term is 80
Example: Express 0.055555... as a fraction. Solution:

0.055555 or .05 may be written as 5 5 5 + + + ......... 100 1000 10000 5 where a = and r = 1 /10 100 a by the equation S = 1 r 5 1 = 100 1 1 10 1 = 18

Questions

1. 2. 3. (a) (b) 4. (a)

5 5 5 , , ,...... 2 4 8 Find the 12th term of a G.P. whose 8th term is 192 and the common ratio is 2. Find the 20th and nth terms of the G.P. Which term of the following sequences: 2, 2 2 ,4,... is 128 ? 3,3,3 3, ..... is 729?

Find the sum to indicated number of terms in each of the geometric progressions 0.15, 0.015, 0.0015, ... 20 terms. (b) 7 , 21 , 3 7 , ... n terms How many terms of G.P. 3, 32, 32, are needed to give the sum 120? The sum of first three terms of a G.P. is 16 and the sum of the next three terms is 128. Determine the first term, the common ratio and the sum to n terms of the G.P.

5. 6.

Combinations and Permutations

Whats the Difference? In English we use the word "combination" loosely, without thinking if the order of things is important. In other words:

"My fruit salad is a combination of apples, grapes and bananas" We don't care what order the fruits are in, they could al "bananas, grapes and apples" or "grapes, apples and bananas", its the same fruit salad.

"The combination to the safe was 472". Now we do care about the order. "724" would not work, nor would "247". It h be exactly 4-7-2. So, in Mathematics we use more precise language: If the order doesn't matter, it is a Combination. If the order does matter it is a Permutation. In other words: A Permutation is an ordered Combination. Permutations There are basically two types of permutation: Repetition is Allowed: such as the lock above. It could be "333". No Repetition: for example the first three people in a running race. You can't be first and second. 1. Permutations with Repetition: These are the easiest to calculate.

When we have n things to choose from ... we have n choices each time! So when choosing r of them, the permutations are: n n ... (r times) = nr (Because there are n possibilities for the first choice, THEN there are n possibilities for the second choice, and so on.) Example: there are 10 numbers to choose from (0,1,..9) and if we choose 3 of them: 10 10 ... (3 times) = 103 = 1000 permutations So, the formula is simply: nr Where n is the number (Repetition allowed, order matters) 2. Permutations without Repetition: In this case, we have to reduce the number of available choices each time. of things to choose from, and we choose r of

For example, what order could 16 pool balls be in? After choosing, say, number "14" we can't choose it again. So, our first choice would have 16 possibilities, and your next choice would then have 15 possibilities, then 14, 13, etc the total permutations would be: 16 15 14 13 ... = 20,922,789,888,000 But maybe we don't want to choose them all, just 3 of them, so that would be only: 16 15 14 = 3360 In other words, there are 3,360 different ways that 3 pool balls could be selected out of 16 balls. But how do we write that mathematically? Answer: we use the "factorial function" Factorial Function: The factorial function (symbol: !) just means to multiply a series of descending natural numbers. Examples: 4! = 4 3 2 1 = 24 7! = 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 = 5040 1! = 1

Note: it is generally agreed that 0! = 1. It may seem funny that multiplying no numbers together gets we 1, but it simplify a lot of equations. So, if we wanted to select all of the billiard balls the permutations would be: 16! = 20,922,789,888,000

But if we wanted to select just 3, then you have to stop the multiplying after 14. How do we do that? There is a neat tri we divide by 13! ... (16 15 14 13......) 13 12.. = 16 15 14 = 3360 The formula is written:

n! ( n r) !
Where n is the number (No repetition, order matters) Example: Our "order of 3 out of 16 pool balls example" would be: 16! = (16-3)! 13! 16! = 6,227,020,800 20,922,789,888,000 = 3360 of things to choose from and you choose r of

them

(which is just the same as: 16 15 14 = 3360) How many ways can first and second place be awarded to 10 people? 10! = (10-2)! (which is just the same as: 10 9 = 90) Notation: Instead of writing the whole formula, people use different notations such as these: 8! 10! = 40,320 3,628,800 = 90

P ( n, r ) = nPr = n Pr =
Example: P (10, 2) = 90

n! ( n r) !

Combinations:
There are also two types of combinations (remember the order does not matter now):

Repetition is Allowed: such as coins in your pocket (5,5,5,10,10) No Repetition: such as lottery numbers (2,14,15,27,30,33) 1. Combinations with Repetition: Let us say there are five flavors of ice-cream: banana, chocolate, lemon, strawberry and vanilla. You can have scoops. How many variations will there be? Let's use letters for the flavors: {b, c, l, s, v}. Example selections would be

{c, c, c} (3 scoops of chocolate) {b, l, v} (one each of banana, lemon and vanilla) {b, v, v} (one of banana, two of vanilla)

(And just to be clear: There are n=5 things to choose from and you choose r=3 of them. Order does not matter you can repeat!) 2. Combinations without Repetition: This is how lotteries work. The numbers are drawn one at a time, and if we have the lucky numbers (no matter order) we win! The easiest way to explain it is to: assume that the order does matter (i.e. permutations), Then alter it so the order does not matter.

Going back to our pool ball example, let us say that you just want to know which 3 pool balls were chosen, no order. We already know that 3 out of 16 gave us 3360 permutations. But many of those will be the same to us now, because we don't care what order. For example, let us say balls 1, 2 and 3 were chosen. These are the possibilities: Order does matter 123 132 213 231 312 321 Order doesn't matter

123

So, the permutations will have 6 times as many possibilities

In fact there is an easy way to work out how many ways "1 2 3" could be placed in order, and we have already t about it. The answer is: 3! = 3 2 1 = 6

So, all we need to do is adjust our permutations formula to reduce it by how many ways the objects could be in (because we aren't interested in the order any more):

n! 1 n! = ( n r ) ! r ! r !( n r ) !
That formula is so important it is often just written in big parentheses like this:

n n! = r !( n r ) ! r
Where n is the number of (No repetition, order doesn't matter) things to choose from, and you choose r of

the

It is often called "n choose r" (such as "16 choose 3") And is also known as the "Binomial Coefficient" Notation As well as the "big parentheses", people also use these notations:

n C (n, r ) = nCr = n Cr = = r
Example: So, our pool ball example (now without order) is: 16! / Example: How many different signals can be made by 5 flags from 8-flags of different colors? Solution: Number of ways taking 5 flags out of 8-flags = 8P5 = 8! / (8-5)! = 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 = 6720

3! (16-3)!

= 560

Example: How many words can be made by using the letters of the word SIMPLETON taken all at a time? Solution: There are 9 different letters of the word SIMPLETON Number of Permutations taking all the letters at a time = 9P9 = 9! = 362880. Example: In how many ways can the letters of the word Pre-University be arranged? Solution: 13! / 2! X 2! X 2! Example: A child has 3 pocket and 4 coins. In how many ways can he put the coins in his pocket? Solution: First coin can be put in 3 ways, similarly second, third and forth coins also can be put in 3 ways. So total number of ways = 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 = 34 = 81

Questions
1. In how many ways can the letters of the word PROBLEM be rearranged to make 7 letter words such that none of the letters repeat? 2. Ten coins are tossed simultaneously. In how many of the outcomes will the third coin turn up a head? 3. In how many ways can 5 letters be posted in 3 post boxes, if any number of letters can be posted in all of the three post boxes 4. A coach must choose five starters from a team of 12 players. How many different ways can the coach choose the starters? 5. There are fourteen juniors and twenty-three seniors in the Service Club. The club is to send four representatives to the State Conference. (a) How many different ways are there to select a group of four students to attend the conference? (b) If the members of the club decide to send two juniors and two seniors, how many different groupings are possible?