AirLoads
AirfoilGeometry
Camberline
linejoiningthemidpointsbetweenupperandlowersurfaces.
Chordline
straightlinejoiningendpointsofcamberline(length=c)
Camber
max.distanceofcamberlinefromchordline(expressedas%c;
usuallylessthan5%c)
Zu
=(Zc
+Zt
)Z
l
=(Zc
Zt
)
z thickness
camber
Lowersurface
C
h
o
r
d
lin
e
TE
TE
thickness
Zt
Zc
Zl
Zu
LEcircle
(radius)
AE212 Jha Loads-1
Uppersurface
ForcesandMoments
Angleof attack o =
V
Arbitraryref.pt.
(generallyc/4orcg)
S V R M f F
N
2
). , , ( o =
Forairfoil,
Liftcoefficient
Dragcoefficient
Pitchingmomentcoefficient
1( ) S c unitspan =
cos
sin
l lift F
d drag F
m pitchingmoment
o
o
= =
= =
=
l
d
F
1
2
l
l l
C
qc
V c
2
= =
d
d
C
qc
=
2
m
m
C
qc
=
AE212 Jha Loads-2
m
o
o
WingPlanform
Aerodynamiccharacteristics
generally
basedongrosswingarea(assumed
extendeduptofuselagecenterline)
Exposedwing(onlyoutsidefuselage)
areausedforskinfrictiondrag
LE
C(y)
Ct
TE
s=b/2
b
chordline
Cr
y
LE
A
/ 4 c
A
0
2
/ 2
( ) 2 ( ) (1 )
2 2
,
, /
r t r
wing
t r
b
wing
b b
S c c c ydy c
b
Wingaspectratio A
S
Wingtaper ratio c c
}
= + = = +
=
=
AE212 Jha Loads-3
MeanAerodynamicChord(MAC),
Wingtwistalongspan
+
y/s=1.0
Washin
tip
Washout
tip
Root
u +
u
u
MeanAerodynamicChord
/2
2
/2
2
0
/2
0
0
2
1
1
( )
2 2
( )
3 ( )
b
b
b
r
c y dy
c c y dy c
S c y dy
| |
+ +
|
+ \ .
}
}
}
= = =
/2
0
2 1 2
( ) ( )
6 1
( (1/ 4) )
b
mac
b
y c y ydy
S
Aerodynamiccenter at c for subsonicM
}
+
= =
+
Root
AE212 Jha Loads-4
TheVnDiagram(FlightEnvelope)
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
2.5
5.0
A
150 300 450
Vs,
1g
V4
V*
V5
+7.5
3.0
B
C
D
E
Max.speed
boundary.
M=0.85
approx.
Ve
(knots)
Stall
area
CLmaxboundary
Negativelimitloadfactor
CLmaxboundary
Positivelimitloadfactor
Maxq
Vn(velocity-load factor) diagramforatypicalJet
Trainer(1knot=1.15mph)
Vcruise
3
2
1
o
AE212 Jha Loads-5
o +
Stall
area
VnDiagram
Limitloadisthesafelimituptowhichthereisnopermanentdeformation
Ultimateloadfactor
Structuralfailureoccurswhenn>nultimate
Vn(velocityloadfactor)diagramincludesbothaerodynamicand
structurallimitationsandestablishesmaneuverboundaries.
CurveAB:aerodynamiclimitonloadfactor,imposedby(CL
)max
2
max
max
max max
max max
max 4
( ) 1
2 /
1 ,
2 ,
3
, ( )
L
L L
L L
C
n V
W S
Pt C C n n
Pt C C n n
Pt Outside flight envelope
AsVincreases n possiblealsoincreases V
=
< <
= =
AE212 Jha Loads-6
VnDiagram
HorizontallineBC:Positivelimitloadfactorofthestructure
LineCD:highspeedlimitsetbymaximumdynamicpressure(designdive
speed,VCD
)
Athigherspeeds,undesirableinstabilities(likeflutter,aileronreversal,
divergence,buffetingetc.)mayoccur.
VCD
=1.5xVmax,cruise
(max.cruisevelocity)(FARpart25airplanes)
Forsupersonicaircraft,(Vmax
/a
sL
)=Max.Machno.inlevelflight+0.2
(a=speedofsound)
1/2
max
max
max
2
*, * ,
L L
L
n W
AtV V whereV C C
C S
(
> = <
(
AE212 Jha Loads-7
VnDiagram
Maneuverpt.B:CL
andnaresimultaneouslyattheirhighestpossible
values.HighestInstantaneousTurnRate(V*=cornervelocity)
CurveAE:NegativeCLmax
limit(flowseparationfrombottomsurface)
LineED:Negativelimitloadfactor(Whydifferentfromthepositivenmax
?
skinthickness)
2
2
2
1
2
1
V V
e SL
=
; ( )
; ( )
SL e
Sealevel density V Equivalentair speed EAS
densityat flightaltitude V Trueair speed TAS
= =
= =
AE212 Jha Loads-8
AirLoadDistributiononLiftingSurfaces
Usehigh(CLmax)limitandmaxq
limitpointsforload
calculationsonwings.
Spanwise
liftdistributionisproportionaltothecirculationateachspan
station.Foranellipticalplanform,liftdistributioniselliptical.Fornon
ellipticalwings,useSchrenks
approximation(semiempirical)toestimate
liftdistribution(Loaddistributiononawingistheaverageofactual
planform
shapeandanellipticshapeofthesamespanandarea.)
Schrenks
methodisnotapplicabletohighlysweptwings(suchasdelta
wings)duetovortexflow
o
elliptic
Rectangularplanform
average
2
2
: ( ) 1 (1 )
4 2
: ( ) 1
r
y
Trapezoidal c y C
b
S y
Elliptical c y
b b
t
(
=
(
| |
=
|
\ .
Wingplanform
AE212 Jha Loads-9
ShearForcesandBendingMoments
Supportshear
reaction
shear
Support
moment
reaction
Tension
Compression
moment
Ultimate Load on each wing, ) 2 / 5 . 1 * * ( n W L
w
=
Beam (wing) with distributed load
AE212 Jha Loads-10
0 0.15c 1.0c
actual
Approx.
Foranyspanstation,theshearforceissimplythesumofthevertical
loadsoutboardofthatstation(or,theintegralofdistributedload)
Bendingmomentatanystationequalsthesumofproductofloadateach
outboardstationanditsdistancefromthestation
ForapositiveBendingMoment(asshowninthefigure),theinternal
forcesproducecompressiononupperpartandtensiononlowerpart
Wingweightisproportionalto.Halving(t/c)increaseswingweight
by41%.Wingweightistypically15%oftotalemptyweightofaircraft
Addfuelweighttoemptywingweighttoobtaingrosswingweight
Chordwise
liftdistributionmaybeapproximatedasshownbelow
ShearForcesandBendingMoments
AE212 Jha Loads-11
1
/ t c
(1)PickloadcasesfromVndiagram(maxAoA,maxdynamic
pressure,max.negativeAoA
,etc.)
(2)Calculatetotalliftforce(approx.normalforce);
Loadoneachwing,
(3)Approx.wingasstrips
fromcenterlinetotip(e.g.,10stripsof
of
10%semispaneach)
(4)DistributeliftforceoneachstripusingSchrenks
approximation
(6)Estimateshearforceandbendingmoment
(7)Usewingcenterofpressureat25%chord(subsonicspeeds)
(8)Usingsamestripsasin(3),calculatetorqueaboutfrontspar
location(say,15%chord).Thensumtorquevaluesfromtiptoroot
SF, BM, Torsion Calculation
) 2 / 5 . 1 * * ( n W L
w
=
AE212 Jha Loads-12
Rectangularwing:chord=0.5m,span=4m,TOGW=5,000N,nmax
=4
Wingarea=2sqm,AR=b/c
=8
Calculatetotalliftforce(approx.normalforce)oneachwing:
=15,000N(Ultimateloadoneachwing)
DistributeLw
alongwingspanusingstripsofequalwidth
Use3stripsforthisexampleproblem
Chordforellipticalwing
Example - SF, BM, Torsion Calculation
) 2 / 5 . 1 * * ( n W L
w
=
AE212 Jha Loads-13
y-station Wing chord, c Elliptical c(y) Average chord
0 0.5 0.637 0.569
0.66 0.5 0.601 0.550
1.33 0.5 0.475 0.488
2 0.5 0 0.250
2 2 2
4 2 4(2) 2
( ) 1 1 0.637 1
(4) 4 2
S y y y
c y
b b t t
| | | | | |
= = =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
DistributeliftforceoneachstripusingSchrenks
approximation
Calculatestriparea=(Averageofgeometricandellipticalchord)*width
=Averagechord*0.667
Calculatefactor
forliftdistribution:Lw
=(factor)*(sumofstripareas)
15,000N=(factor)*(0.965sqm)
factor=15,544N/sqm
AE212 Jha Loads-14
Example - SF, BM, Torsion Calculation
Strip Strip area Lift on each strip
1 0.373 5798 N
2 0.346 5378 N
3 0.246 3824 N
Estimateshearforceandbendingmoment
SFatanyystation=sumofliftforceoutboardofystation
BMatanyystation=sumof(liftforce*distance)outboardofystation
Forcalculatingdistance,assumeliftactingthroughthecenterofstripwidth
Calculatetorqueabout15%cusingwingcenterofpressureat25%c(good
approximationatsubsonicspeeds);sumtorquevaluesfromtipto
root
AE212 Jha Loads-15
Example - SF, BM, Torsion Calculation
y-station Shear Force, N Bending Moment, N-m
0 15000 13676 (6361+5381+1934)
0.667 9202 5620 (3826+1794)
1.33 3824 1275
2 0 0
Strip Torque, N-m
1 750 (460.1+289)
2 460.1 (191.2+268.9)
3 191.2
