Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Written by: William G. Huitt Last modified: February 2004
Abraham Maslow (1954) attempted to synthesize a large body of research related to human motivation. Prior to Maslow, researchers generally focused separately on such factors as biology, achievement, or power to explain what energizes, directs, and sustains human behavior. Maslow posited a hierarchy of human needs based on two groupings: deficiency needs and growth needs. Within the deficiency needs, each lower need must be met before moving to the next higher level. Once each of these needs has been satisfied, if at some future time a deficiency is detected, the individual will act to remove the deficiency. The first four levels are: 1) Physiological: hunger, thirst, bodily comforts, etc.; 2) Safety/security: out of danger; 3) Belongingness and Love: affiliate with others, be accepted; and 4) Esteem: to achieve, be competent, gain approval and recognition.
According to Maslow, an individual is ready to act upon the growth needs if and only if the deficiency needs are met. Maslow's initial conceptualization included only one growth need--self-actualization. Self-actualized people are characterized by: 1) being problem-focused; 2) incorporating an ongoing freshness of appreciation of life; 3) a concern about personal growth; and 4) the ability to have peak experiences. Maslow later differentiated the growth need of self-actualization, specifically naming two lower-level growth needs prior to general level of self-actualization (Maslow & Lowery, 1998) and one beyond that level (Maslow, 1971). They are: 5) Cognitive: to know, to understand, and explore; 6) Aesthetic: symmetry, order, and beauty; 7) Self-actualization: to find self-fulfilment and realize one's potential; and 8) Self-transcendence: to connect to something beyond the ego or to help others find self-fulfilment and realize their potential. Maslow's basic position is that as one becomes more self-actualized and self-transcendent, one becomes more wise (develops wisdom) and automatically knows what to do in a wide variety of situations. Daniels (2001) suggests that Maslow's ultimate conclusion that the highest levels of selfactualization are transcendent in their nature may be one of his most important contributions to the
study of human behavior and motivation. Norwood (1999) proposes that Maslow's hierarchy can be used to describe the kinds of information that individual's seek at different levels. For example, individuals at the lowest level seek coping information in order to meet their basic needs. Information that is not directly connected to helping a person meet his or her needs in a very short time span is simply left unattended. Individuals at the safety level need helping information. They seek to be assisted in seeing how they can be safe and secure. Enlightening information is sought by individuals seeking to meet their belongingness needs. Quite often this can be found in books or other materials on relationship development. Empowering information is sought by people at the esteem level. They are looking for information on how their ego can be developed. Finally, people in the growth levels of cognitive, aesthetic, and selfactualization seek edifying information. While Norwood does not specifically address the level of transcendence, I believe it safe to say that individuals at this stage would seek information on how to connect to something beyond themselves or to how others could be edified. Maslow published his first conceptualization of his theory over 50 years ago (Maslow, 1943) and it has since become one of the most popular and often cited theories of human motivation. An interesting phenomenon related to Maslow's work is that in spite of a lack of evidence to support his hierarchy, it enjoys wide acceptance (Wahba & Bridgewell, 1976; Soper, Milford & Rosenthal, 1995). The few major studies that have been completed on the hierarchy seem to support the proposals of William James (1892/1962) and Mathes (1981) that there are three levels of human needs. James hypothesized the levels of material (physiological, safety), social (belongingness, esteem), and spiritual. Mathes proposed the three levels were physiological, belongingness, and self-actualization; he considered security and self-esteem as unwarranted. Alderfer (1972) developed a comparable hierarchy with his ERG (existence, relatedness, and growth) theory. His approach modified Maslow's theory based on the work of Gordon Allport (1960, 1961) who incorporated concepts from systems theory into his work on personality. Alderfer's Hierarchy of Motivational Needs Level of Need Definition Properties
Growth
Satisfied through using Impel a person to make capabilities in engaging creative or productive effects problems; creates a greater on himself and his sense of wholeness and environment fullness as a human being Satisfied by mutually sharing thoughts and feelings; acceptance, confirmation, under- standing, and influence are elements
Relatedness
Involve relationships with significant others
Existence
Includes all of the various forms of material and psychological desires
When divided among people one person's gain is another's loss if resources are limited
Maslow recognized that not all personalities followed his proposed hierarchy. While a variety of personality dimensions might be considered as related to motivational needs, one of the most often cited is that of introversion and extroversion. Reorganizing Maslow's hierarchy based on the work of Alderfer and considering the introversion/extraversion dimension of personality results in three levels, each with an introverted and extroverted component. This organization suggests there may be two aspects of each level that differentiate how people relate to each set of needs. Different personalities might relate more to one dimension than the other. For example, an introvert at the level of Other/Relatedness might be more concerned with his or her own perceptions of being included in a group, whereas an extrovert at that same level would pay more attention to how others value that membership. A Reorganization of Maslow's and Alderfer's Hierarchies Level Introversion Self-Actualization (development of competencies [knowledge, attitudes, and skills] and character) Personal identification with group, significant others (Belongingness) Extroversion Transcendence (assisting in the development of others' competencies and character; relationships to the unknown, unknowable) Value of person by group (Esteem)
Growth
Other (Relatedness) Self (Existence)
Physiological, biological (including basic Connectedness, security emotional needs)
At this point there is little agreement about the identification of basic human needs and how they are ordered. For example, Deci and Ryan (1991) also suggest three needs, although they are not necessarily arranged hierarchically: the need for autonomy, the need for competence, and the need for relatedness. Thompson, Grace and Cohen (2001) state the most important needs for children are connection, recognition, and power. Nohria, Lawrence, and Wilson (2001) provide evidence from a sociobiology theory of motivation that humans have four basic needs: (1) acquire objects and experiences; (2) bond with others in long-term relationships of mutual care and commitment; (3) learn and make sense of the world and of ourselves; and (4) to defend ourselves, our loved ones, beliefs and resources from harm. The Institute for Management Excellence (2001) suggests there are nine basic human needs: (1) security, (2) adventure, (3) freedom, (4) exchange, (5) power, (6) expansion, (7) acceptance, (8) community, and (9) expression.
Notice that bonding and relatedness are a component of every theory. However, there do not seem to be any others that are mentioned by all theorists. Franken (2001) suggests this lack of accord may be a result of different philosophies of researchers rather than differences among human beings. In addition, he reviews research that shows a person's explanatory or attributional style will modify the list of basic needs. Therefore, it seems appropriate to ask people what they want and how their needs could be met rather than relying on an unsupported theory. For example, Waitley (1996) advises having a person imagine what life would be like if time and money were not an object in a person's life. That is, what would the person do this week, this month, next month, if you had all the money and time needed to engage in the activities and were secure that both would be available again next year. With some follow-up questions to identify what is keeping the person from happening now, this open-ended approach is likely to identify the most important needs of the individual. There is much work still to be done in this area before we can rely on a theory to be more informative than simply collecting and analyzing data. However, this body of research can be very important to parents, educators, administrators and others concerned with developing and using human potential. It provides an outline of some important issues that must be addressed if human beings are to achieve the levels of character and competencies necessary to be successful in the information age. References
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Alderfer, C. (1972). Existence, relatedness, & growth. New York: Free Press. Allport, G. (1960). Personality and social encounter: Selected essays. New York: Beacon Press. Allport, G. (1961). Pattern and growth in personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Daniels, M. (2001). Maslow's concept of self-actualization. Retrieved February 2004, from http://www.mdani.demon.co.uk/archive/MDMaslow.htm Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (1991). A motivational approach to self: Integration in personality. In R. Dienstbier (Ed.), Perspectives on motivation. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Franken, R. (2001). Human motivation (5th ed.).. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Institute for Management Excellence. (2001). The nine basic human needs. Online Newsletter. Retrieved February 2004, from http://www.itstime.com/print/jun97p.htm James, W. (1892/1962). Psychology: Briefer course. New York: Collier. Maslow, A. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370-396. Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper. Maslow, A. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New York: The Viking Press. Maslow, A., & Lowery, R. (Ed.). (1998). Toward a psychology of being (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley & Sons. Mathes, E. (1981, Fall). Maslow's hierarchy of needs as a guide for living. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 21, 69-72. Nohria, N., Lawrence, P., & Wilson, E. (2001). Driven: How human nature shapes our choices. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Norwood, G. (1999). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. The Truth Vectors (Part I). Retrieved May 2002, from http://www.deepermind.com/20maslow.htm
Soper, B., Milford, G., & Rosenthal, G. (1995). Belief when evidence does not support theory. Psychology & Marketing, 12(5), 415-422. Thompson, M., Grace, C., & Cohen, L. (2001). Best friends, worst enemies: Understanding the social lives of children. New York: Ballantine Books. http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0345438094/qid=1024322725/sr=21/ref=sr_2_1/103-0382559-6049463 Wahba, A., & Bridgewell, L. (1976). Maslow reconsidered: A review of research on the need hierarchy theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 15, 212-240. Waitley, D. (1996). The new dynamics of goal setting: Flextactics for a fast-changing world. New York: William Morrow.
Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and Values - A Commentary Maslow's hierarchy is easy to understand and insightful. Maslow seemed to sense, that aside from the people with emotional limitations and problems, there were times when a person was at his or her best. Although Maslow avoided the word "spiritual", he did introduce psychology to truth, goodness, beauty, unity, transcendence, aliveness, uniqueness, perfection, justice, order and simplicity. These values he called "B-values". In the late 1960's Abraham Maslow developed a hierarchical theory of human needs. Maslow was a humanistic psychologist who believed that people are not controlled by mechanical forces (the stimuli and reinforcement forces of behaviorism) or unconscious instinctual impulses of psychoanalysis alone. Maslow focused on human potential, believing that humans strive to reach the highest levels of their capabilities. Some people reach higher levels of creativity, of consciousness and wisdom. People at this level were labeled by other psychologists as "fully functioning" or possessing a "healthy personality". Maslow had a more appropriate term for these people "self-actualizing". Maslow set up a hierarchical theory of needs in which all the basic needs are at the bottom, and the needs concerned with man's highest potential are at the top. The hierarchic theory is often represented as a pyramid, with the larger, lower levels representing the lower needs, and the upper point representing the need for self-actualization. Each level of the pyramid is dependent on the previous level. For example, a person does not feel the second need until the demands of the first have been satisfied. The hierarchy of needs is as follows: Biological / Physiological Needs. These needs are biological and consists of the needs for oxygen, food, water, and a relatively constant body temperature. These needs are the strongest because if
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deprived, the person would die. q Security / Safety Needs. Adults have different security needs to children. Adults have a desire for comfort and social safety. Children often display signs of insecurity and their need to be safe. q Social (Love, Affection and Belongingness) Needs. People have needs to escape feelings of loneliness and alienation and give (and receive) love, affection and the sense of belonging. q Ego / Esteem Needs. People need a stable, firmly based, high level of self-respect, and respect from others in order to feel satisfied, self confident and valuable. If these needs are not met, the person feels inferior, weak, helpless and worthless. q Self-actualization Fulfilment. Maslow describes self-actualization as an ongoing process. Selfactualizing people are, with one single exception, involved in a cause outside their own skin. The are devoted, work at something, something very precious to them - some calling or vocation, in the old sense, the priestly sense. When you select out for careful study very fine and healthy people, strong people, creative people, saintly people, sagacious people ... you get a different view of mankind. You ask, what can a human being become? The people at each level in the hierarchy of needs seeks information on dealing with what is important to them. The sort of information sought is: Coping - seeking information when lost, out of food, or sick. q Helping - seeking information on how to be safe such as food, shelter, emergency supplies. q Enlightening - seeking information on how to have a happier marriage, more friends. q Empowering - seeking information to help the ego. q Edifying - seeking moral and spiritual upliftment such is found with scriptures, spiritual music, and paintings.
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Once a person is self actualized, one is in a position to find their calling. A musician must make music, an artist must paint, and a poet must write. If these needs are not met, the person feels restlessness, on edge, tense, and lacking something. Lower needs may also produce a restless feeling, but here is it much easier to find the cause. If a person is hungry, unsafe, not loved or accepted, or lacking self-esteem the cause is apparent. It is not always clear what a person wants when there is a need for self-actualization. Maslow believed that the only reason that people would not move through the needs to selfactualization is because of the hindrances placed in their way by society. For example, education can be a hindrance, or can promote personal growth. Maslow indicated that educational processes could take some of the steps listed below to promote personal growth: We should teach people to be authentic; to be aware of their inner selves and to hear their innerfeeling voices. q We should teach people to accept others and help him or her learn their inner nature - from real knowledge of aptitudes and limitations we can know what to build upon, what potentials are really there. q We should help people discover their vocation in life, their calling, fate or destiny. q We must teach people to be good choosers - people need practice in making choices. q We should teach people that life is precious, that there is joy to be experienced in life, and if people are open to seeing the good and joyous in all kinds of situations, it makes life worth living.
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We should refreshen consciousness, teaching the person to appreciate beauty and the other good things in nature and in living. q We should teach people to transcend their own cultural conditioning, and become world citizens. q We should teach people to transcend the trifling problems and grapple with the serious problems in life - including the problems of injustice, of pain, suffering and death. q We should teach people that habits and controls are useful and good, and complete abandon is detrimental - it takes control to improve the quality of life in all areas.
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Acknowledgments A. H. Maslow The Farther Reaches of Human Nature Esalen Books, Viking Press, 1971 ISBN 670-30853-6 hardbound ISBN 670-00360-3 softbound Abraham H. Maslow Toward a Psychology of Being D. Van Nostrand Company, 1968 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 68-30757 Endnote On June 8, 1970, A.H. Maslow passed away due to a fatal heart attack. Maslow's hierarchy was popular in the mid-70s. Based on the way the corporate work place (in America) is structured, for the most part, Maslow is ignored and employees are treated as disposable expenses (costs), easier (cheaper) to turnover and replace with new employees (especially, with the advent of ever-changing technologies and the lack of vested value for longer-term employees) than to keep happy and self-actualized. Basically, corporate values stop at level 2 these days (in all businesses ever-changing technology, pressure to meet quarters and investor expectations, and lack of pro-human corporate values makes for disposable, stressed-out, and nowhere-near self-actualized employees).
