T3

sYstem The standard

So how is lifc with yotrr rlew lrloke'/ : Tell me, is he bright enoughto find that memo-PaclYou call a rnirrcl?
Cllig Ritinc 'An ttttcmptat jcalousy',Riclr, l9[J4 Frou:

'rremo-pzrcl' systcmot' is its stanclarcl of PA, its moclel If M isa nonstapclarcl in M . In par ticularwe can considercom puo f se tsA g N th a t a re codecl whether or not a given to cletermine tations that consult this memo-pzld he e w e s h a l li n v e s t i g a t t i n t e g e rr z i s i n s o m e A e S S y ( M ) . f n t h i s c h a p t e r in particular we will find structure of these standard systemsfurther: them exactly'This will allow r-rs that characterize certainclosureconditions system,anclin Chapter i4 we to constructmodels with a given stanclarcl last together with the embedclingtheorems of the will use these idezrs initial segm ents' n e w inter esting c ha p te rto co n stru ct 1 3 . 1 S C O T TS E T S M FPA w e cloclels of SSy( M ) for nonstanclarm th e stru ctur e To cl e scri b e we ask for the r eader ' spatience 'but w i l l n e e <ja se ri e so f clefinitions. will be worth the effort involvecl! fro.ir" that the results of 0s and ls' That is w e d e fi n e2 -'r to b e the set of finite sequences

2 ' N : { f l f , { 0 ,1 ,

N} ' -, k - 1) { 0, l} for som e /ce

1, ' ' ' ' k- l} - - + { 0' 1} by We sh a l l o fte n w rite zr function ,f : { 0, a,:f( i) Thls 0010is the osa \h .t. . a 1 ,-'w h e re e achaiiseither 0 or I er nd and /(i ):0 for all b ly J Q ) : l , ] clefirrec furrction / : { 0 , 1 , 2 ' 3 } - - o [ 01 of consisting is the seqllence 1ti-toi l. The emptyseqLLence other arguments with the em pty func ti on i Vy A' ^*ci is identifiecl n o e n tri e s)w i l l U e ,l e n ote in the

of elements len(/),isthenumber 1}.rn" irr^i,nti1iZ.,.., f : o__,{0, :0 If /e 2"Ni'k e N nnd :4 ani ien(O) ol f ' Thus len(0010) clometin by lengthk definecl

the seqttence 8'?:* of k denotes lc then/ | 'i<k./ len(/) >-of f to k' f k is th,e,restriction SQ)":f(i) for ail lc<len(/) f re T a n c / )r e ei r ; J . i i = r ' ^ ' s u c ht h a tw h e n e v e A ( b i n u r yt thenfIkeT.Thusatreeisasetof0,lsequencestlrirtiscloseclttn t72

Scott sets

173

Fig.5

A tree.

to a tr ee in the gr aphA tre e , T , i n th is sensecor r esponcls r e s t r i c ti o n s. of 0s ancl ls by sequences t h e o r e ti czrl i n w h i ch a l l nocles ar e labellecl se n se i n 7 a n d a n e cl g e i s cl ra w nb etweentwo nocles ,f,g e 7 wheneverlen( /) : Note that twtr l e n ( g ) * 1 a n d g : f f l e n ( g ) .( S e eF i g . - 5f o r a n e x u m p l e . ) sense, in the gr aph- theor etic c l i f f e r en t tre e sZ , S c2 'N r ma y be isom or phic s i n c et he sa meg ra p h ma y b e labelledin differ entwzr ys. A l t a th P s 2 'N i s zrtre esu chthat, whenever J' ,g . P with len( /) > len( g)' br ancliing. t h e n g :/ f l e n (g ).T h u s a p a th is a tr ee witl- r - r o infinitetr ecs, i ff 7is infiniteas a set. Regar ding A t r e e Z c2 'N i s i n fi n i te w e r e ca l lth e w e l l -kn o w na n clver Y im por tzr nt L e v r v r n 1 3 .1 (l (o n i g 's l e mma) . If f is an infinite tr ee then ther e is an tr i n f i n i t ep a th P g T . T h e n e xt ste p i s to co cl eeach sequence /e 2' ' r \iby a natur itl nttur ber t , f t . N . T h e fo l l o w i n grn e th ocl cc> nvenier r t. is par ticular ly ( i f l e n ( ( / )> 0 ) I fl:

: O) (ir.f
r . l ' 2 ' : N r + Ni s c a l l e cd s e e ut o b e i t iseasily , ncl l y a d i cc o c l i n ga The tunction t' l ar e given in Table 2. of b i j e c t i o n .T h e fi rst fe w vzrl ttes 'rrt cattbe appliccl scts{ - 2 concer ning g i ve n , cl cfiniticr ls W i t h th i sco cl i n g t o s e t s R c N a n c l v i c e v c r s a . T h r - r sR q N i s a t r e e ( p u t h , e t c . ) i f t

ll rl

The stuncLurd .sy.stem

'['ablc 2 D y a c l i cc o d i n g .

.l'e2'"

Il t

a
(.) 1 00 01 I0
t 1

t)
I

2 3
tl

(XX) 001 010 011 100

:

5 6 7 8 9 10 It

er . e . , a tree Zc2'Ni is recursiu( { " f . 2 ' n t ' l t l t . R } i s a t r e e ( p a t h ,e t c . ) , a r - r d ( r . e . ,e t c . ) e t c . )i f f { ' f t l f e 7 ' } g N i s r e c u r s i v e The key notion in this chapter is that of a Scott set, a beautifr-rl cornbinationof ideasfrom recursiontheory zrndthe theory of trees that in Scott (1962).Roughly, a Scottset is a collection,%, of sets first appeared ar l d r elativer ecur sion" AcN , w h i ch i s cl o se dunder Booleanoper ations, lem m zr M . or e pr ecisely: u n d e r a fo rm o f I.,6 n i g' s and !.(.'c:f'l (N) i :; a Scottset iff f is notr - em pty De rrN l rr<rN ( a ) i f A . B e t Y t h e n s oa r eA U B , A n B , a n c lN \ A , N \ B ; ( b ) i f A e o Xa in A thenBe 2Y; , n c lB c N i s r e c u r s i v e ( c) i f T e 2 Y i sztni n fi n i tetr ee, theu ther e is an infinitepath PqT in 9 ( . (1 ) S u p p o s e9( is a Scott set, A t, 42, RE vtn n tcs. , A,,eff, and B i s A,}isrecursive Ai:{n'x*ilxe n A 1 ,A t , . . r e c u r s i vie , A , , .T ' h e ne a c h anclso A: A' ttJAi U ' ' ' U p a r t ( b) of the clefinition, nt A i " so i s i rr fl .'l -ty in A, so B is alsoin 9( . T hi s B is r ecur sive A i ,e 2 Yb y p a rt (a ). B trt clezr r ly r elativer ecur sionfor any finite number of l th trt2 I'i s cl o se c uncler sl ro rvs As , , . . . , A , , e2 Y . orelcle ' Scottset' cloes not dependotr our choiceof co di ng of (2 ) T h e d e fi n i ti o n . or in the obvioussense )F we choseit to be r ecur sive fu n cti o nt.l (p ro vi cl e cl l tf c:2 ':i \r >N i s a n y b ijection such that the r nap F: N- - - tN clefr necby ' is a Scott set in the e, %) F(n) : c(/) for the trniqLre l'withr ft : ,, is rectrrsiv , n clA e Z 'ser tisfies a b o vese n se a T : {c - | Qt) lne A} is an infinite tr ee,

Scott sets

175

then B : { tc - ' ( r , )I rn e r l } : { F - |( n ) l n e A l i s r c c ursi ve i n zl , so B e .9 f. T hus by par t ( c) of the clefinition above,ther e is C e lf such that Cc: B uncl P: {f e2' trlt e ClcT J'1 i s a n i n f i n i t ep a t h .

B u t t h e n D : { F Q ) l r t e C l e ' i L ' , b e i n gr e c t r r s i v ie n C, and D is an infinite p a t h of A i n th e se n se o f th e cocling functionc. T h e ke y re su l to f th i s se ctionis that the stanr Jar sy51s6s of countable cl the coLr ntable n o n s ta n cl zrrcl mo cl e l s o f /';1 a re exiictly Scottsets. One half of b y th e followingtheor em . t h i s r e su l ti s p ro vi cl e cl Then SSy( fu|) is a Scottset. be nonstanclar d. T r r u o rrn rr.r 1 3 .2 . L e t M F P ,z{

in the Proof. We must verify (n), (b), ancl (c) holcl for tr: S'Sy(M) clelrnition of a Scottset. (a) If A, B e SSy(M) then ,ztU B is coded arecodecl by u, b respectively, tryanyc e M realizing the recursive type
((a); p(x): i(r),+ 1)<+ # 0 y ( b ) , + 0 )|i e N ) c-r c;<i st b y T h eor er n 11.5.Similar lyN\A is codeclby any o v e r M . S r-rcl A 0 B is codedby any N} , ancl e l e m en to f M re a l i zi n g {(x),+1;< - +( a) ;:0li e l e m e n to f M re a l i zi n g + 0 . ' ( ( a ) '+ 0 n ( b ) , * 0 ) | I e N ] . [(x), and .4 is codeclby a e M. By (b) Suppose .B is recursivein .tl e SSy(tVI) 9o( A) ( which is 94 A i f for mitlasin the language , e re zrre C o r o ll a ry3 .5 '1 th a n e w unar y r elationsymbolA) q( x. y) and q( x, z) y a cl cl i n g e x p i r rrcl eb cl in the natur alway in N, l i a t, w h e n A i s i n te rp reted s r . r ct h n e B N F3 y c p ( nt,) e N Z,) FVZYr(n

ly by from (pandr/ respective for all n N. Now let $ andi1tbe obtainecl

o f A ( u ) w i t h ( a ) , , * 0 . S i n c e( u ) , , * 0 / r A 0 t h e s e e a c ho c c u r r e n c e replacing for all /? N, l'orrnulas $, ip are alstt A,,. Then we hztve,

r $ | r t ,E 1 r te I J ( + l [ e N & 1 V/eN [,1r|,(tt.t)

(+)

116

The stanclurcl systent

i n E @ , i l , r 1 , ( r , Z )e x c e p tf o r t h o s c i n v o l v e ciln t h e s i n c ea l l q u a n t i f i e r s s u b f o r m u l a( sa ) , , * 0 a r e o f t h e f o r m Q u < t ( x , y ) o i Q u ( / ( x , Z ) r e s p e c t i ve l y,w h e re/ i s a n 9 ,r-ter ntnot inuoluingu. But then tliis meansthat for a l ln e N

Z,) ) , MFY x , r , z < n ( $ ( x l,) - t 1 t ( x

s o b y o ve rsp i l th l e re i s b > N in &1suchthat

y, z < b(,i@, y) - r1t(x, z)) M FVx,

b y T h e o r e m1 1 . 5 ,t h e s e t a n c lh e n c e ,

(r,)

C : {neN IM Fn I b AAr < U,i,G, Di

f o r s o m eI e N < b , i s c o d e di n M . B u t C : 8 , f o r r f n e B t h e nM r < f i ( n , E ; i f n e C t h e n f o r e a c h/ e N M F 4 , 1 r t , ' l ) n e C ; a n cc l onversely by (-r), hence ne B by ( + ) again. b y ( r , ) ,h e n c e ,1:N --- N anclp : Nr-----o (c) First notice that there are recLlrsive fr-rnctions N su chth a t, fo r a l l /e 2 ''r !r ncl all r z< len( l' ), \t 1y: ten( l) anclp( t/t . n) : ' f I n ' . ( l n f a c t ,t o b e e x p l i c i t , l ( * ) : [ l o g 2 ( x +l ) ] a n c l

p ( x , y ) : l r ^ ,l'-. t, l
L " t in PA- by f' for m ul as they ar e r epr esentecl S i n ce ,t a n d p a re re cu rsive, ( w h i c hw e s h a l la l s ow r i t e a s , t ( x ) : y a n d p ( x , y ) : z ) , u s i n gL e m m a3 . 6 . Now supposethat T e SSy(M) is an infinite tree coded by t e tu|. By o ve rsp i l lth e rei s a ) N i n M suchthat: ( 1 ) M F V x ,y l a l J r , s ( , l ( , r ): r A p ( x , . y ) : s A y < s A t < " ) ] ; (2)MFVtt,u,tv,x,yIu u( y , u ) : x ] , , ) : y ) - - -p [ ( r ,< u A p ( w . u ) : ' I O ( r ' vo -*0--> ( 4 , , +0 ] ' ( 3 ) l V F V u ,w , x , y < u l A ( x ) : w A u < w A p ( x , u ) : y A ( r ) , are true in &1for all the formulasin squarebracketsztbove This is beczruse p s2 , ) expresses sh e f a c t t h a t , t r , a r e f L t n c t i o n ( L t ,u , w , x , | N ( ( 1 ) e x p r e s t th s ef a c t l 3)expresse t l r ei c l e n t i tfy I k : ( / | / ) | k f o r a l l / c < / < l e n ( f ) ; a n c ( ar bitr ar ilylong seclLr enc es , t ha t /co d e sa tre e .)S i n ceZis infiniteit contzr ins that is for each n e N * 0) IvlE a w 1 ctaz< a( I( w) : z A 7 > - nA ( r ) ,, , h e r ei s c , d ( n a n d b > N s u c ht h a t lgaint s o , b y o v e r s p i la

l;r+l I

Scottsets : dAd=- b A (r),* 0. (4) tvlFzt(c) Now let P be the set

F a z< d ( p ( r , z ) : r t ) ) , 1 ': { n e N | & 1

111

in l M , b y T h e o r e m 1 1 . 5 .W e c l a i m t h a t P q T i s a n i n f i n i t e so P is coclec p a t h .T o s e et h a t P c T n o t et h a t i f M F a z < d ( p ( r , z ) : n ) t h e nM r ( r ) , , * 0 by (3), thus ne T. To check that P is a path note that rf tt1,r?rN, ,hen without loss of MFp(c, zr): ntAp(r, zz): nz for some 21,2.,1(1t thatfl12zt, so z, is g e n e r a l i tw y e m a ya s s u m e z 1 { 2 . t .B r - rtth e n ( 1 ) i m p l i e s -an s t a n c l etrcl , ct(3 ) i rn p l i e sth a t M Fp( nr , z 1) n1, so N Fp( n2"z,) n, ( since r ) f n,, p in PA- ) , thus r z,is a r estr iction t l r e f o r mti a p (x,y):z re p re sents tl and so P is a path. We now aim towards proving zr converse to Theorem 13.2 that all of som e model of system as [he stanclar d c o u n t ab l e S co ttse tsa re re a l i zed but this conver se, towar cl PA . T h e n e xtth e o re mi s th e m ainstepping- stone it is of interestin its own right too; it showsthat Scottsetsform a usefullinl< If Z is a theory in a betweenrecufsiontheory and the predicatecalculr-rs. recrrrsive language I and 9(is a Scott set we write Te9( to mean that, for someaxomatizzrtion {r,l; e ru} of T, {rr,rI i e N} e Z'. Sirrilarly if p(;) is a type I e N} e 9( for some set over the theory 7 we write p(t) e 9( to mean{' rp,(X)tl to p( x) over T. W ith this notation we o f f o r mu l a s{cp ,(;) l l e N } e q u ivalent have theor y in 1 3 .3 . L e t 9 (b e a S c ottset and let Te 9( be a consistent T r r e o R e vr a recursive language9. Then T has a complete cotrsistentextensiou T'' e ff. oi T such that r7l : tf r,rli e ru}e I'roof. Let {r,li e ru} be an axiomatizaton iff ther e is no n- consistent % . S a ya fi n i te se t o f 9 -se n tences ?,1. . . ,cp,,is of p r o o f of fx_ t (* : *) fro m {r,li e N} U { p, Eii with Goclel- number t h i s p r o o f l e ssth a n n . itr Z, is r ecur sive cpp} beingr z- consistent C l e arl yth i s n o ti o n o f {rp , for given rL ancl et,...,(P* (cocled in Solrle suitable way, by r ) t h e r ei s a s la l,rr,lrp,',...,|q:* ] y ,w h e r e[ t , , , . . . , x / , ]i s a s i n C h a p t e 9 is if Er, clecicles , (Pt, (using an oraclefor rTl) tl-rat iecursiveproceclure with + ' ' ' * tp,, all pr oofsfr om T + cpr e n tttner ates n - c o n si ste no t:n e si rn p l y Ttr er ear e 1 n to se ei f a ny have3x- l ( ,r: x) asa conclltsion. G o d e l-n u mb e r o n l y f i n i te l yrn a n ysu ch p ro ofs, so they can all be founclr r singthe or acle
tT1.

f a n c lo n l y i f r h o l l c ln o t e t h a t T + r p , + ' ' ' * q 1 i s c o n s i s t e ni t T h e r e a c l es fo t r a l l r. Flowever .a set { r p,,r pt,.' . . E,,} that is r li t i s rr-co n si ste n

17f3

The .stttntlurdsystem

.f: c o n si ste nfo t r so me n n ecclr r ot be consistent i,vith t h e o n l y p r o o f so l a x l @ : x ) r n a yh a v eG o c l e l - n u m b e gr r e a t e rt l t a nn . We clcfine a t r e e S e 2 Ya s f o l l o w s .L e t { 0 , , 0 , , , 0 r . , . .l be a r ecurs i v e e nu me ra ti o n o f a l l .-? scntences. W e clefine
( / ce N , 0 i : 0 o r I f o r eachi, ancl . . 0r,_tl I ,S: \tct,,u,. is /c-corrsistent 0\"),. . ., gl;'1,,t1

{01i,,),

-10iif ta,,n1 'at,,1l cocling u : 0 . ( T h ef u n c t i o n 9 1 "i'r 0 , i f u : 1 , a n d where ' ' ' (tr-rZ:r tt with our shor - r ld not be confr ,tsecl s eq l re n ce so 1 1 cr1 r 71 in r ecur sive ,S is clear ly o f 9 .) By the r emar ks above Go cl e l -n u mb e ri n g , f [ 1 " ' r , 0 \ " ' ) , . . . , ? if s a n d h e n cS e e t r l . s i s a t r e e , s i n c e{i 0 nk ] + l-consistent, . . . ,7'i'!ttr)] is /c-consistent. then {6[1'o), 0(,u1, the tr eeS is infinite.It followsthat ffconta i ns N o w , si n ceI i s co n si stent, P c S , si nce #' is Scott.V/e defineo, to be 0( ")wher er t,: f ( i ) a n i n fi n i tep e rth [ . f l : t h e u n i c l u ee l e m e n to f P o f l e n g t h i + 1 . C l e a r l y { o , l i e N } i s for that is: it i s pr oper ties, i n P . We mu st show it has the r equir ecl r ecu rsi ve ?nB . ut T+ou+ "'*or,-, is consi:;tent a, n c le x t e n d s c o m p l e t ec , onsistent no proofof the f o r e a c hk , s i n c ef o r e a c hn ) l c ' [ l o r - F " ' 1 o , , - ' h z t s A inconsistenc yx - 1 ( x : x ) w i t h G d d e l - n u m b e r1 n , t h u s T + o r + " ' + of Z occur s r r in the axiomatization o t,-ft3 x-1 (x:x). A l so eachsentence . . . just seen"So tr ave zIS we is cor tsistent f o, B u t T -t or + a s 6 i fo r S o me 7 . i t mu st b e th e ca se th at o, is 0, ancl uot lg,. Similar ly { q,. o1,. . .} i s - 10,for n 0i. each9- sentence either 01or si n cei t co n ta ins co mp l e te A s a co ro l l a ryto T h eor em 13.3we see that ever y Scott set 2I contai ns of the the hypotheses se ts" fo r T:PA clear ly satisfies no n -re cu rsi ve theorem , so H contains er corrrpleteconsistentextension of PA. Such ca n n o t b e r ecur sive,by the Godel- Rosserincompletenes s e xte n si o n s t he o re m. T h e o re m 1 3 .3i s e xtremelypower ful.W e can inter pr etit as sayingt hat ' zr theor em' r elativizesto e oof of the com pletcness t he u su a lF l e n ki n -styl pr by the followingtheor emand its pr oof. Sco ttse t; th i s re ma rk i s explainecl tlr eo r i es axior natizecl theor er n thtr t r ecur sively R e ca l lfro m T e n n e n b a um ' s mod el s . of PA) need uot have r ecttr sive fi n i te e xtensions ( su cha s ce rtzti n theor y cotr sistent t l l su s th at it tr i:;a Scottset and T e 9( is a Th e o re m1 3 .2te ar e anclfunction s in which all r elations T h ave a moclel t he n ,n o t o n l y cl o e s by Tar ski' s clefinitiono{ tr uth) i s re l ation ( clefinecl wh o l e sa ti sfa cti o n 'ftom 91. in some orzrcle recrrrsive theor y i n a . e t ff be a Scottset, let 7 be a consistent T rre o n e vr1 3 .2 1L J4 such that 7'e 9( ancl T has no finite moclels.Then langLrage recrrrsive

the in which fromtY,butin factThasa model oracles in some recursive

Scott set,s t h e r e i s a mo cl e lMF Ir,vi th domain N suchthat t h e s e t r . ., a r ] ) l k , r i e N , cpe .9. lvl F-cp(cl)j { ( r . p ( u., . , ,. , v / . ) r , f " o .

r79

i s i n . 7 ' ( w h e r e( u , u ) i s t h e p a i r i n gf u n c t i o no n N zr ndlor , . . . ,0r ,1 is the function o r r N a s c l e s c r i b ei c nl S e c t i o n 9.1). P r o o f. D e fi n e i i se q u e n ce o f expansions of the language 9,9r , 9,. 9r , jrrst . , irsfolloi,vs. ,9. 9,n, is 9,togethel with new constantsymbols 91,is c,,, for every formr-rla cp(v) of gl,involving only one free-variable v1,. 9* is the languzige U i,s9i. 9* is a recursive language ancl has t.r r.r su chtl iat the set of Goclel- number s G o c l el -n u mb e ri rrg {'rp tlr pis ar n9- for m ula} is errecursivesubsetof {gtl0 is an 9"'-formula}, a n d s i mi l a rl yfo r 9 -te rrn s,9 - sentences, etc. ( This is expr essed by saying g. that 9't' is a recursiue extensictn of the language See Exercise13.t3.) of We let f "' be the .9"'-theorywith axiomsconsisting ( a ) a xi o mso f I, a n d + q(cq,),for every new constantc, in 58* not in 9, and (b) 3v1,9(v,) every I'r'-formlrla cp(v,,) with only v,,free. Si n c etl -re a xi o ma ti za ti o n o f Z is tn ff, T*e 9( also. By Theor em 13.3,T" has a completeconsistent S etr. extension Now let C:{ru,ct, ..}:{crlEe9*has only vs free}be a recursive enumerationof all the constants of 9* that were addeclto 9. We define o u r m ocl e lM to h a ve d o ma i n Cl- wher eci- c1) tc,:cj1e .9; - is clear ly a n e q ui va l e n ce re l a ti o nsi n c eS is com plete.W e identify Cl- with N by --+ defining/ : N C by /(0) : c1y atncl index i) strch that none of f ( n + l ) : th e fi rst c,e C ( i . e ., o f s m a l l e s t th e l o l l o w i n p li s tr tr e: c,- f( 0) , c,- J' 0) . , ci- fQt) . fr om each Thus / is a function that picks out exactly one r epr esentative in S. The mocleliVlis classof Cl , a n d m or eover /is recursive equivalence

macle into an 9-structure by defining

R(n1,

. ,nt,) { + R ( . / ( n , ) ,.

, /(rre))e S

r t,, . , l l . r r gN , z t n c l re l a ti o nsyrn b o lR of I ancleetch f o r e e rch uS F ( n , .. . . " n t , ) : n t , * f t ) F ( f ( n r.,, / ( t , ^ ) ) : f ( n x n ' )

180

The standarclsystert
, f t t r + tg N , a n d e t l s o

f or e a chfu n cti o nsymb olF of 9, and ear ch n,, n:cQf(n,):ceS

f o r e a ch co n sta n tsymbol c of ,9. These ar e all well- defined, since for example if n t , . . . , r ? 1 N , , S F J vF 1(y f ( r , ) , . . , ,f ( n ) ) : o u so

F(f("')

B u t i f ci - c,p th e n c1: c,e S, so SFf( /( n,) , . . . , f( n,,) ) : ,, henc e F(f("t) f ( n ) ) : c i e S s i n c eS i s c o m p l e t e .T h i s s h o w st h a t t h e r e i s rrLrSt n t , + r Ns u c h t h a t F ( f ( n , ) , . . . , f ( n ) ) : f ( n o * , ) i s i n S ; b u t s u c hn a 1 1 be unique since it F(f(n) showsthat for ever ycons tant f ( l)-f(" 0 *,) so l :ro *,. A sim ilarar gur nent s y m b o lc o f I t h e r ei s a u n i q u en e N s u c ht h a t M F n : c . We co mp l e te th e p ro of by showing that for any for m ulacp( vu, .. . vo)anc l a n yn o ) . , / ? p N , MFE(n,,, . . ., nn)Crp(f@i (This suffices sincethis relation is clearly recursivein S, so the set g, MrE@)] {(tE(v)t, [ d ] ) lk , c t eN , q i n S h e n cei s r n ff, and as SF.f it alsoshowsthat MFT.) Thi s i s i s re cu rsi ve p ro ve d b y i n d u cti o n o n the complexityof E.For atomic for m ulas , i t follows directly from the definitionsabove and the equality axiomsof the quantiWe prove the induction step for the existential predicatecalculus. fier. Clearly ME A xE @0 , C MF cp (n 1 y, cE(f@i, x) , nr ,, nr *t) for ' some lt7,11 N , txk,

n , . n , N. . . ., f@), f(no,')). Sforsome

B u t i f E U @ ) , . . . , f @ o * , ) ) . S , t h e nw e h a v e

. . ., ffu), x) eS, axcp(f(ns),

if and conversely

. . . 1I@o),x) eS, lxcp(f(n()),

t he n 3 v1vE( f , @1)
SO

e s, ,fQr), vu) )s , . f ( n) , c u ,e

(nr), cP(f

Scott set.s where r/., I S tlic forrlrr.ia cp(fQlt,),

1 71 71 , e N , SO

l8t

v,,), anclc',,,for s0nre ,.1(,r,,), 11) J'Qt1,

rp l J l rt1 ,) , f o r s o m e tr1 ,,,1 e, a s re q u i re cl. N

, J ( n r ,J ), U t , , * ,e ) )5 ' ,

W e no w a p p l y T h e o re m I3.3 to obtain Scott' stheor emthat the counta b l e Sco ttse tsa re e xa ctl yth e standar d system s of nonstanclarmoclels cl of PA . I n fa ct w e w i l l d o ra ther better than this in two ir npor tantways. Firstly, we will actuallyconstructrecursiuely sctturutecl mocleis MIPA with a given countable Scott set9f asSSy(&1), anclsecondly the theoremextencls t o a r b itra ryth e o ri e sZ i n a recur sive language. D p p t l trto N . If M i s a stru ctu r e for somer ecur sively satur ater Jlangvage 9, ancl2Yis a Scott set, we say MI is 9&suttu'uted iff for every cornpletetype p G , 4 o v e rM it n M. { t r p ( i , y ) 1 l r p ( t , a )p e ( i , c 1 ) } eg ( p i s r e a t i z e c

This notionis dlreto George W ilm er s ( 1975)who fir st studiedit with relzrtion to recursive saturation. LEvrvra 13.5.If tr is a Scottset and M is an ff-saturatedstructure for a recursive language 9, thenM is r ecur sively szr tur ated.
Proof. Let p(i, d) be zrrecursivetype over [Vl, but not necessarily comp l e t e . W e mu st sh o w th a t p i s r ealizedin M. A c l d co n sta n ts c, [or eachvar iable C to -9 , o n e constant x,in p( i"r 7) , anci a l s o a dd co n sta n ts n a mi n gth e par ameter s language 9' r s cl.The r esulting c l e a r l ysti l l re cu rsi vea , n d th e theor y

7 ' : { c p (.e a ) l c p ("ia ) e p ( i , a ) l U f i p ( a ) l M V 4 t ( c t ) ,a tn p 9-formula) is in Z', beingrecursive in {' rp(*)tIM t 4t(a;, tp an 9-formula}
of extension ( in fact 9' r s a r ecur sive w h i c h isi n 9 ( si n ceM i s ? Y -satur ated. theor y, the language I i n th e se n se of Exer cise13.8.) T' is a consistent s i n c ep (t,a ) i s fi n i te l ysa ti sfi ecl in fu|. But then by Theor em 13.3 T' hits zt c o r n p le te e xte n si o n S e 9 l . We clair nthat

Itiz

Thc stunrlurcLsy.s [urt

( zr r tcl hcncep) is r - e al i z ec l i s a co rn p l e te ty[)co ve r lvl, anclit r villfollor ,v that 17 clearlyq(i, d) e !,t'. in lVI.sirrce .v r y is finitelvsalisflccl that it i:; obvi ou:;l y in M. sir .r cc $ /c n e e tll rp l y sh r-rr c o m p l e t oB . u t i f c p l i , ( 1 ) , .. . , c p r ( i . t l )a r e i nc 1 $ . d ) ,t h e nl x l A f = , q , , ( i . d ) 7"' c o m p l e t e n e sz sr , n cs l o M F A I A l - , c p , ( . t , d ) ,s i n c eo t h e r w i s e i s i n r 7 ,i - r y fl w o u l cb l c inconsistent. recursively t o L e m m a 1 3 . 5 "t h a t a n y c o u n t a t r l e A partialconverse proveclin ,9f'-satr-rratecl rvill be for sorneScott sct t(, structureis s;aturatecl C l ra p te r 1 5 . N o ti ce that the pr oof of Lem nr a 13.5 shows thttt uny ty pe stnr ctur eM n o t j u rs t a com pletetype) over an .9I- satur atecl p(i .A )e !/.'(a n d nr odelof P,4 then if ,4ul is an ll- satur atecl i n M.l n p ar ticur lar i s re a l i ze cl :9(, sinceit rl =N is in 2'(then the type SSy(M) p ( x ) : { ( * ) , , * 0 |n e A \ 1 U t ( x ) , :, \ l n 4 A l l'ue IVI i n M . C o n v e r s e liy isrealized A , s o i s i n l l ' . a n c lh e n c e is recursivein th e se t A c N , then co cl e s 4:{neNl&/F(u),,*01 M is by u in M , tp,r ,( t) : { tp( x) lM r p( u) } is in .?' sinc e a n tl th e typ e re a l i ze cl So.zle2I'. This lneansthat our ThrrsA is recursivein tp,r,(cr), #-saturatecl. Scottset*lis SSv( M) for som enonth e o re m,th at any countable p ro mi se cl MF P A fo l l o wsfr or n the followingtheor em . stzrn d a rcl 1 3 .6 (Wi l mer s, 1975) .Let 2f,be a countableScott set , T 'tt T rte o n p ,vr there 9, anclsttpposcTe 2'{.'.Then language theory in a recursive consistent structureMET. is a countable9f-strturatecl Theor em I 1.4,Lr sing i s to nr imicthe pr oof of Pr oposition P ro o f. T h e i ci e a appealt o the in Theor em 13.4in placeof the clir ect a n clth e a rg g me nt 1 -1 .3 th e o re m. ( W ilmer ' s or iginal pr ooi was m uch shor te r , btr t co mp l e te n e ss her e until Chaptcr l5' ) th a t w ili not be clevelopecl u se sma ch i n e ry in the pr oof of Thcor em 13.4' Ir - r r tl- r at We sh a l l u se n o ta tionsir nilarto -9"' is the recursivelanguage larrgr:,irge particular it -V is zrny recLlrsive so that c,,e i4"' for all crl, sufficientlyrnanyconstztttts iesultingfrom aclcling of s for r nLr l as subsetof thr : Goclel- nutr berof fo rmu l a so f I A Sa re c Llr sive

t.ri the G0del-nuntbers with only v0free. \i/e regarcl cp(v,,) 9"'-forriulas

y*.

7,,, tt heorics ef consisten U s i p gT h e o r e m1 3 . 3 ,w e w i l l f i n c la s e q u e n c o i' angrrag9 eu q . l t , . 9 " , " ' s u c ht h a t f e X f o r e a c h T 1 , T z " . . i n r e c u t s i vle g i QT i *, fo r e a ch i (in fict s:,. ' *tll [' r ea r ecur siveextensiopof T l , as of 9lr ' Tr ' w e i rt E xe rci sel 3.B) ancl7,n' l-T' ftlr eachi. In the cas;e cl e fi n e cl

,lc:o77 .5'gy.y

l83

pLtt,Y.:r:,? and let f,, e ,o,l'be anvc o m p l e t ec o n s i s t e ne t x t e n s i o no f Z foLrncl u s i r - rT sh e o r e ml 3 . 3 . Let lp,(x,, x , , , , 1 . . 1 r., , .! ., , , ) el l s e t so f f ' o r m r r l a l r e N t )e n u r r e r z r ta ps, i n t l r e l i rri tcl yma n y l 're e -'ra riabrsr es r own, such thtr t{ r pr lr p u p,r ,e ,2. ( since ,9I'is c o r rn ta b l e w e ci rne n u me r' te all thescsetsin this way.) we define._g_1, i n c l r r c t i v e le ya ; c h! , , r , w i l l b e o 1 , t h e form
3i., r : ( - ( / | iU { c y . , i o . , . . . , Cj . , , . , , , 1 } ) , , ,

(8)

I o r s o n l en e w co ttsta n ts c).ri .0, . " cy.ti.,r , alr e r lot aclyin.' f,,inclexecl by some e N , s o me c.rrsta 'ts i u e .l ,(1 and ,, a' integer between 0 a' cl nr ,. g.. is lJ iur'.)5 w e e i sso th a t for ever yTe :i . a rrzrn g th N ancr ever yset{ a1;, . .' . , a,,}of constants i n 9 i , , t h e r e i s i e N s u c ht h a t n , , , . . , , , , j e - 9 , a n c lS , * i i s t h e e x p a n si o .o f !t,a s sh o w ni n (o) . we nr ayalsoassume that each s,*, is a r e c u r s ive language i n w h i ch th e for r nulas of g- l,ft- tr nts a r ecur sive subset. T h i s do rre , w e fl n clth e se q u ence 7, of the theor ies :r s tollows. As alr eacly 't.'is mentionecl g,,-theoryextencling tu'ry conipleteconsistent , Toe r. Given Tlet{.', l*, is any cornpleteconsistent g,*,-tr^reory in ff that extends z] tosether with
{cp(c1.a.l,
,0 ", . C 1 , , , . , , ,u

ancl

-{3v,,0(v , ,0 ) ( c i l 0 e9 , , , )
i f t h i s i s co n si ste n t, o r 7 l to g e therwith - - 0( c,,) 10 e g,*,} {l v,y0 (v ,,) o t h e r w i s eA . gain, Z,*,exists b y T h e o r e m1 3 . 3 . F l a v i n g fo L rn cl T , fo r a l l i i n this way, let 7".: t) iei\r Zi, let 1( FT be a r b i t r a r y, a n cll e t IV Ib e th e su b str ucturof e K consisting of all elements of K t h a t r e a li ze so meco n sta n o t f J-1.^. Then by an easyincluction on complexity o f f o r m u l tts si rn i l i tr tcl th i tt g i ve nin Theor cm l3.4, tvl< I< , anclin par ticLr lar M F T i f o r e a chi . We mu st sh o w thtr tM is jl' - satur - atecl. r f t l e M I a n cp l ( i , a ) e i [ i s a t y p e o v e rM , w e m u s ts h o wt h a t p i s r e a l i z e d
i n M . B L r t 7 r ( i ,y ) : l r , ( f , t ) for sonre/N, ancl as MFTi (where the c o n s t a n t sC : r ' i . r i . 0 , w el'c aclclec al t t h e r t h s t a g e o f t h e c o n s t r u c .c1.ti.ri r, t i o n i r si n ( @ ) a l r o v c )t h c r r

- - - 0( r ,,) 10 T ,+ p ,(e, a ) * {3v,,0( v,,) e.9in} 1 i s c o n s i s t e nh t ,e r r c e e M F c p ( A . r 7 ) r e a c hc p ( xy fo ,) e p ( i , y ) . O n t h e o t h e r lrartc i s a co rn p l cte l l- type that is r calizccl r n M, by c:elVI, say, , li t p (i , 1 7 ) t h e n r i , C (b e i n ga fi n i te se t o l constant:;) occllrir r L, fol solnele N, sct

p(i, a): {c/(j,a)lq, is ztrr .l'-furniula arrclT,t q.t(.a. t7)}.

It\2

The .rtunclttrtl .;y,tfe rrt

tsa co n tp l e te ty1 -rc ctver [vl,anclit r ,vill follow fhat 17 ( zr ncl hence 1- ris ) r e l l i z ec l in ful, sirrce clearly c1(i,a) e iI'. We n e e cl o n l y sh o r,v that t1i:;finitclysatisficcl in iVI.sinccit ir ;obv i oLr s l y conrplete B.u t i f e ( r , ( i ) , . . . , q t , ( i , r 7 ) a r e i n q ( * " r 7 ) t , h e n= l i l A r 1 = , q , ( i . r t r ) i s i n r 7 ,b y c o m p l e t e n e s s a ,n c ls o M F S x l a f - r c f , ( i " t l ) . : ; h c eo t h c r w i s e7 . , w o u l cb l e inconsistent. tr A p a r t i a l c o n v e r s et c l L e m m a 1 3 . 5 " t h a t a n y c o u n t a b l cr e c L r r s i v e l y sa tu ra te c'l stru ctu rei s /f- satur atecl fur some Scott setif, ivill be pr ov ec li n ch a p te r 1 5 . N o ti ce that the pr oof of Ler nnr a 13.5 shows that ar ty r y pe p (i . u ) e 9 ( (a n cln o t j u st a complete type) over zr n.9li- satLr r atecl str uct r ,v e A4 i s re a l i ze di n M. Irr p ar ticularif M is an Pl.:satur atecl pl nto<- lel of t6en SSy(M):9(, sinceif A c N is in t( then rhe rype p ( x ) : { ( r ) , , *0 l n e A l u { ( x ) , , : 0 l n 4 / l l is recursive in A, so is in li{'.ancl henceis realizedirr M. Converse ly if rt e M co cl e s th e se t l l c N . then 4 : { ne N l M F ( u ) , , * 0 1 a n dt h e t y p e r e a l i z e d b y u i n M , t p y ( u ) : { ' V , @ ) l M r t p ( u ) i}s i n l L ' s i n c M e is ft'-saturated. Thus A is recursive in tpy(u), so.4 ePI'.This meilnsthat our p ro mi se cl th e o re m,th at any countable Scott set2[,' is SSy( M ) for somenonsta n cl a rcl MF P A fo l l o ws fr or n the followingtheor em . T rtn o n e p t 1 3 .6 (Wi l l ner s, l9l5) . Let 2,(be a countatr leScott set , T 'a co n si ste n th t e o ryi n a recur sive language 9, anclsuppose Te 2{ ' .Then ther e i s a co u n ta b l e 9 I'-sa tur atccl str uctur e M FT. P ro o J'. T h e i d e a i s to nr imicthe pr oof of Pr opositionI 1.4,usingTheor er n 1 3 .3a n clth e a rg u me n tin Theor em13.4in placeof tl- r e dir ectappealt o the co mp l e te n e ss th e o re m. ( W ilm er ' sor iginal pr oclf wer smuch shor te r , but u se s ma ch i n e ry th a t w ill not be clevelopecl hcr c until Chapter 15.) We sh a l l u se n o ta ti or rsir nilarto ther tin the pr oof of Tht:or em 13.4.In partictrlarif I is ilny reclrrsivelangu,age ,i't"' is the recursive language resultingfrom aclcling sufficiently cq, so that c,,, e .5f"'for all many constants of # " '-fo rmu l a sE (v,,)w i th only v,,fr ee. W e r egar clthe Gdclel- nLr mbt:r s for mul as t>fI zrs a re cllr sive of of fo rrn u l a s subset of the C( iclel- nunbcr s
92't:.

theor ies7,,, of consistent U si n gT h e o re m 1 3 .3,we will find zrsccluence 7,,Tr.,...inrecursivelangLragesYr,-9,,5-)t,...sLrchthatI,eXforeac 9 ;=5 |1 r, fo r e i tch i (i n fact - 9,., wlll be a r ecur siveextensionof S) i as we d e fi n e cl i n E xe rci se1 3.8)anclT,*1Ff for eaciri. In the caseof !lr , T'u,

t83 ptrt'/1,,:'f a,cl l.l anyconrprete consistent extension of r, founcl f,,ezt'be u s i r rT gh e o r e m l3.3.
Let tp,(x,)! ,x,,,,,1o,... N ) e n r . r m e r aa ,!,,,)l;e te ll si:ts o f f c l r m u l a7 sr , t n t h c l i 'i te l y ma n y fre e -,,ra r iabt., uhn*n, suchthat { r pt Ir pup,,} ;tr . fSin.. '9[is ccrrrntirlrle we can enumerateall thesc setsin this r,vay.) we crefine J,; i n c l L r cti ve le y; a ch-l /1 , w i l l b e oi the for m ,,
(/) : / ./) ( / . i . ,| 1 . / . ;U \ C , . , i . o , ,C ,,,,I)'t' 1.,r,

,9c.oftrct.t

(@)

I o r s o nl en cw co t.tsta n().ri ti i .0, . , c1.ti.,,r ,ar r eacr in.g,.incr r lot y execr by some . r N , s o n re co n sta n tstl e-1 1 ,, ancl an integer between 0 ancl nt,. g_ is u , , r r ' 9 ,. w e a rra n g e th i sso trratfor ever yTeN ancr ever yset .' . ,,,,} of c o n s t a t r ti s n g " - t h e r e i s i e N s u c ht h ^ i ( r u " . . . , u , , e ' 3 1 { a,,, a i c rg * , i s t h e e x p a n si o to f -9 ,a s sh o w ni n (o) . we may als. assur ne gi*, tr r at eaclt is a r e c u r s i ve language i n w h i ch the for nr Lr las of Sl,for m s a r ecur sive :;r - r bset. T h i s cl o n e , w e fi n clth e se q u e nceT,of the theor ies as follows.As alr eacly mentionecl, 2,,e 2{ is any conlplete consis tentg,,-theoryextencling z. Given T , e 9 { ",lo , i s a n y co mp l ctec.nsistcnt.g,*,- theor y in ff that Jxtencr s z] t o g e t h erw i th
{cp(c,.,i.o.
, C1.,i.,,,,,06,

) ep ) , 0 , , , ) l c p (y t,

ancl

- - 0( c,) 10 {3 v,,0 ( v,,) e 9, ,,} i f t h i s i s co n si ste n t" o r Z , to g e ther with - O( c,,) 6 (v1,) i 3 v,y 0l e g, *,j o t h e r w i s eA . g a i n, 7 , . r ,e x i s t s b y T h e o r e m1 3 . 3 . H a v i ng fo u n d ? ] fo r a l l i i n this way, let 7..: tJ,.^,|,, let t( FT t:e a r b i t r a r ya , n c l e t M b e t h es u b s t r u c t u r e o f K c o n s i s t i no gt ' a l le l e m e n t s of K t h a t r e a l i ze so l n eco n sta n o t f 9 .". Then by an easyindLr ction on cor nplexity o f f o r r n u l i t si m i l a rt o t h a t g i v e ni n T h c o i e r n1 3 . . i M , < K , a n c li n p a r t i c u l a r M F T i f o r e a ch i . w e mu st sh o w that M is z' - satur atecr . It c1e M a n dp ( t _ , t t ) e g r . 'a is t y p e o v e rM , w e m u s ts h o wt h a t p i s r e a l i z e d i n f u | . B u t p ( _ ry , ):pi7"il for sor'e /N, anclits MFTI (where the ( . : c j . , . 0 r . constittrts , c 1 . , i .w ,,, rJ , l ea c l c l ea ct l the ith stege of thL copstrrrct i o n a s i n (e ) a tro vc)th e rr --u0(r,,)10 T, + p,(a, a) * {Iv,,g(v,,) e 5,.. ), i s c o n s i stcn t, h e n cee e fu l F cp( i, y) e p( i .y) . on the other E G" r7)for ezr ch harrc . fi f p (i , 1 7 ) i s a co n rp rctc l /.- typetl' r ^tis r :.uiir ..l i^ wi, by c:eM , say. t l t e r rr i , c = (b e i n ga fi n i tese t o f constar r ts) occur in Lifor sor nci e N. so 1t(i . d): {rf(t, rt)lcpis an ...4 forrnLrla ancl T,Fqt(c., tt)\1.

184

The stunclarcl system

S i n ce ? ] i s co rn p l e te the set of Goclel- numberof s for mLr las in p( x, r z ) i s recursivein T,e 2.(,zntcl henccp(t, a) e2X"since*'is closecl unclerrelative
r e c i lr ' s l o n ,

C c - r m p z r r iP ng ropositions 1 1 . 4 a r r c l1 3 . ( ro n e r n i g h t e x p e c te v e r y n o n sta n d a rd mo cl e lIV IF P A to havean SSy( M elementar y extens i on ) - satr - r r atecl M'> M. T h i s tu rn s o Llt not to be the case,since any 2ll- satur atcr mloc l el : {ol IVI MF PA must have its complete tl-reory Th( IVI) Fo. o an 9o -se n te n ce l e 9 (, b y the definitionof ff- satulation. E,xer cise 13.4 s how s th a t Z (S S y(I(.) fo r a ny com pleteextension T of PA, thus no eler ne ntar y o f l {7 ca n b e SSy( 1( r ) - satur ated. e xte n si o n 13.5supplies Exer cise neces s ar y a n d su ffi ci e n co t n d i ti ons for suchM' to exist. T h e ma te ri a l i n th i s section has a slightly com plicer tecl histor y. T he notion of a Scott set is due to Scott (1962)who proveclTheorem 13,2 an<l its converse, that every countableScott set9( is J'Sy(M) for somemoclelM pr , esented of P A . (S co tt,h o r,ve v er of s ets his r esultsin ter ms of algebr as 'b i n u me ra b l ei'n so mec omplete extension of PA, anclhe ctidnot call ther - n 'S co tt se ts'.) T h i s w or k lay unnoticeclfor some year s until Har v ey with respect to Friedman, realizingthe importance of stanclarcl systerns ( 1973) . re cl i s cover ecl it in Fr iedman illszr tir r atecl str uctur es i n i ti a l se g me n ts, rr noclels o f s et b y W ilm er s whilst studyingnonstar ncizr d w e re co n si d e re ci that any th e o ry (se e E xe rci se15.4) ; Lemr na 13.5 ancl its conseqLr ence r rlodel satLlr atec of a r ecur sively cl S co ttse t i s the stanclar system co u n ta b l e slightlylater ;this ar oseout of the wor k by W ilr ner s o f P A w e re d i sco ve red e me n ti o n e cla , nd also wor l<by Bar wise,Schlipf,anclResszl y ron a l re a ci y sa tu ra ti o rr. re cu rsi ve

Exercisesfor Section l3.l a n c lv e l i f y t h a t i f M F P A 1 3 . 1 G o t h r o u g ht h e p r o o f o f T h e o r e m1 3 . 2c a r e f u l l y then SSy(M) is a Scott set. A,1-overspill, satisfies the to require)'-overspill, borrncl (Hint: Where the proof of Theorern13.2seems p a r a n l eter n o l t s t a n d a t ' c l s i t h a s u i t a b l yc l r o s e n e l uantifierw unboundec l x i s t e n t i aq from M.) of a parts(a) and (b) of the clefinition ancl satisfy 13.2 Let 2tc.7(N) be non-empty Showthat 9' to Tlieorettr13.3. the conclusion alsotliat /i satisfres Scottset.Suppose is a Scottset. the theory (Hint: If ?e 2[ ts a tree, consider
, /< PA u {(c),,:p((c),,, l r e N } .) r) r, : r , n ) l i r e N } U { V * u 7 .r c r r ( r )(-c

FPzl antl a type 13.3 Let *l be a countableScott set. Find an ll-saturatedIVI p c a n n o tb e c o m p l c t e). in M. (Obviously p ( x ) + * ' s u c ht h a t p ( . r ) i s r e a l i z e d

Sc:ott seis 1 3 . 4 Le t T b e a co mp l e te co n s istent extension o f P r l , f + T h ( N ) , a n c lt e r

,9: {torl'l'f o, o itr-r .!.[,1,r-sentence]. Show that .9d S.l,y(1(r). (l-lint: For each g/,r-fornrula ri(x) firrcl o,,such thut : 0). P,4 f o,t*, 1x(ry(x) A (;r),,,,,,

185

G i v e n t h a t I F l l x r y $ ) , s l t o wt h a t t h e u r r i q u e ue I( l.szrtisfyin r7 ) o e sn o t c 6 c l e , g g( a d b y c o n s i d e r i no g, , . ) 1 3 . 5 L e t l v l EP A b e c o t t t t t a b l en , o r t s t a n c l a r lc lt , ) ) ( ' : , S $ ) ( l v l ):,r r r cs e luppose tliat iVI'> IVIwith M' Z.'-saturatecl. Show that for e,acl-r a e IVI e %. {,,p(a), I M r cp(tt)\ (")

Now suppose ('') holdsfor eachrTeM. Show ihzrtthere is an P.&satutatecl M' > M . (Hint: For the second pzrrt, r e p e a tt h e p r o o f o f T h e o r e r n1 3 . 6 ,b u t a t e a c hs t a g e alsoerclcl a ncw constant narning sonreelementof &/.) 13.6 Let'f be a complere exrensioo n f p A , T + ' r h ( N ) . S h o wt h a r .SSy(1(,):{ScNIS.:{rre N l T l ? ( n ) l f o r s o r n e0 e g t , r l 1 3 . 7 L e t M F P A b e n o n s t a n c l a rS c lh . o wt h a t t l r e f o l l o w i n ga r e e c l u i v a l e n t : (a) II1 - Th(N) e .s,5y(&1); -Th(N); ( b ) t h e r ei s a n o n s t a n c l a r l , , I Vs a t i s f y i n 1 Ic: g1, ( c ) A u e I V\ IN s L r c h t h a t ,f o r a l l b e A 4 F b < u , b i . sA , r - cfl ie nable in M //'b e N. 1 3 . U L e t 9 . 1b 2e a f i r s t - o r c l e t ' l a n g u i t g n ve o l v i n gc : o n s t a ns t ynrbolt s' ; ( e i I2); relation syrnbols R , o f a r i t yt n 1 ( i e - l : )a ; ncf l unction syrnbols F * o f a r i t y n 1 ( k e K 2 )L . et I,c.l,, J r e J : . ,I ( 1 = K 2a n c l e t g l b e t h e s u t r l a n g u a g oe f ,5t2involvir-tgc, I( ) i,e R , ( 7 e_ / 1a ) ncl F1,(keKt). 9r. is a recursiueexten:;ictn y of' "lf iff there is a l-l flrnction fron.r -/.i2-sylnbols to N suchthat { v ( c , l)i e 1 1 i {(r(Ri),m,)ljel} {(r(P^),n)lket(,} {"(u,) li e N} a r e a l l r e c u r s i v ea , r r crl r ( v r * ,> ) y ( v , )f o r e a c hI e N . (a) Asstrrrrc 9l ztncl lf recursive. "Vlareas above.Then clearlyltotb !1, ancl.!1are . 9 1 1 a k e ah cl ys a s u i t a b l e G d d e l - n u n r b e r i n g d e o a f in nie l seExercisI t ,cu e1 . 9 t o s h o w t h a tf o r a l l s e t s ( G o c l el-nunrbcring. T o f s t r i n go sf symbols l r o n t , f1 ,t h e s e t{ t t r l r e 7 ' } i n t h e n e w s e n s ei)s r e c u r s i vie n {rtrltef} (Goclel-nunrberir nr tg h e o l c ls e n s e ) . ( b ) S h o wt h a t a n y e x t e n s i o n of a recursive l a r r g u a g9 eb y a t r n o s tf i n i t e l yn r a n y r t e wr - t o n I o g i cs ay l nrbols is a recursive xtcnsitln. (c) Given thtrt.'y'|is !/1"' a recLrrsive languzrge, <ttThcolcrl show thirt tlie luneuage 1 3 . 4i s a l e c u r s i v e extension of 9'. $,(c)li e I7l i ( r ( R i ), m 1 ) l j e J 2 ) , n)lke I(21 {(u(r^)

186

The stuncktrcl ,system

1 3 . 2 T H E A I T I T F I M E T I Z E DC O I v I P L E ' f E , N E S1 S ' t -1 {1O RE,M The starting p o i n t f o r t h i ss e c t i ( ) n gb s e r v a t i o n . i s t h e f o l l o l v i r ro Prro p o srrl o u l 3 .l . T h e set of ur ithm etic sat.s. e N lN | 0( n) ) for som e J' o- fc- r r m ula 0( x) l {5 g N l S : {rz is a S co tt se t. Pro o f. B y T h e o re m8 .8 ther e is a pr oper conser vative extension /V />N . S 'S y(N I) i s a S co ttse t, by Theor em 13.2.ButSSy( M ) is exactlythe s et of s e t s ,s i n c ei f S : { n e N l N f 0 ( n ) } t h e r rN F 0 ( z z ) C M F g ( n ) , as arithmetic if S eSSy(M), t 1 > N , h e n c eS e S S y ( M ) b y T h e o r e m 1 1 . 5 . C o n v e r s e t y , S : { n e N l & / F ( o ) , , ; a 0s } a y ,t h e n S i s t h e i n t e r s e c t i ow nith N of a clefirrable extensionM > N i s definable N the h e n ce is in since o f M, s u b se t tr co n se rva ti ve T . h u s S i s ar ithmetic. iff T 9 ts arithrnetic We shall say that a theory 7 in a recursivelatrguage set. An N} is an ar ithmetic e N} such that e n ,li lra sa n a xi o ma ti za ti o{r { r r ,rll 9-stru cttrre M i s a ri thntetici:ff A/1=( N,R,f ,el for some r elations R , relation C on N such thiit the satisfzrction functions /, anclconstants

s-

{{'.r{u,,,

, vp)1, [41,,

'

(N . ,.,,,, , , ) J ""1)lan d. R .I . c ) F c p (.u

1, , t/4 N, , . l ? a ! ' , 1 <e N , r t 1 .

M too, to finite rnoclels is an arithmeticset. (This notion can be extenclecl = iff lvl ( A, R, i.C) for somefinitesetA c N , M i s a ri thm etic b y sa yi n gth zrt is of this for nr ever yfinite mociel because zrre u n i nter esting b g t th e seca se s beingr ecur sive.) n w i th th e sa ti sfa cti o relation ar ithm etictheor y over a r ecur s l v e C o n o l l n n y 1 3 .8 . If Z is a consistept 9, then T hiis an arithmeticr-nodel. langtrage u Proof. By Proposition13.7 anclTheorem l3.zl. theorem rs the assertionthat Corollary cornpleteness The arithmetizecl a pr o of of within PA. W e shallindicitte anclpr ovecl 1 3 .8ca n b e fo rn ra l i zecl to Theor em Pr opositon13.l without r efer ence th i s th e o rcmb y re -p roving a pr oof of the will then be able to constr ttct re zr cler 8 .8 . A n e n e rg e ti c ir r s i c l e thesear gLtmelr ts theor emby for malizing a ri th rn e ti ze co cl rn p l e teness on cotistr ai t.tts p A . (T h e fo rma l i za tion but lengthy,ar r cl is str aightfor war cl r r th eti c al th e si zeo f th i sb o o k meanthat I mustor nit it her e. I wr ite this par e tear s!) re ma rkw i th ma n y crocodile i f S g N th e rrS i s A )riff ther ear e /( x) e II,, ancl0( x) e) ,, sttchthat f or al l

The uritlurtetized contpletertes,s (l.teoren.t

t87

keN, /ce S()N F yr(/c) eN t= 0(t). Irl.particLrla ,Corollary bry 3 . 5 ,a s e t i s A l ' ii f f i t i s r e c u r s i v c ,n c l a a l s oz rs e ti s a r i t h m e ti ci fi i t i s A l ;,, [o , so mc r ue N. L r ' r r a l vr.r 1 3 .9 . F o r e ztch n 2 l , zlf) r is closedunc' ler the Booleanoper ations of c o m p l e n l e n ti,n t e r s e c t i o n , a n c lu n i o n ,a n d a l s ou n c l e r e l a t i v e recursion. ProoJ'.ali is closecl unclercomplement,sincethe negationof a r,, formulzr is 11,, anclvice versa.n) is closed uncrer n , u since both ),, ancl rr,, are c l o s e du n c l e r A, y. I f B is re cu rsi ve i n ,4 e d f\ ther e ttr eA,, for m ulase,4t in the language 9 , ' , ( A) (:9 ^ to g e th e rw i th a new unar y r er ationsymbol for A) sucSthat k e B N F3yp( r z,t) ( +N FVzr 2( n, z) . B y r e p la ci n g A (u ) i n cpa n d y; b y either the - r ,,for m ulaequivalen t r o,u e A, o r t h e r r , , f o r m u l ae c l u i v a l e n t t o ' u e A ' w e o b t a i nr f i e j , a n d r / e f 1 , ,s u c h that

keB<aNrlyp(n,t)(+NFVzA(n,z).

tr

Tttsot<ctv 1t3 . t 0 . I f r u ) 0 a n c lT c N i s A ) a n c li s a n i n f i n i t et r e e ,t h e n t h e r e i s a r r i n f i n i t ep a t h P c . T s u c ht h a t p i s A ) * , . Proof. Let T e A} be an infinite tree with 0(x) e II,, such that 7:{tceNlNF0(k)}. C n n s i d e rtl 're fo l l o w i n gfo n n r Jzt. tp( y) :

Vl > L Q ) a z1 2 ' * ' - l l l ( z ) : / A { ) ( zA ) p ( 2 ,1 ( y ) ) : y l . (Flere,t anclp are the recursive fLrnctions in the proof of Theorem13.2 'length' 'restriction' 'the representing ancl respectively.) ,p(y) represents tree7 is in{rnite above thenocle y' . e(y) is equivalent to a I1,, formula since 'are p ancl A recursive functions with ), graphs, so r/;(y)is equivalent to Y u ,u , l U > u A u : A ( y ) Au : ? t +-t | -->12/uYr, slr: 7(z)As : p(2, tr)--+ 0(z) Ar: /As : /l) arrcl the boLrnclecl clLrantifier 1z 1u can be 'pushecl insicle' the unbounclecl qttantifiers in theformula in scluare braclcets" using axioms. the collection

188

The stund.arcl system

W e c l a i mt h a t t h e f o r m u l ac p ( z ) : t1t(z) AV;, < zQ"Q): l(z) -' I ,p(,y)) is cleiir lyAlr *, sincetp is E,,,anclal s oi f d e fi n e s a n i n fi n i tep a th P gT. cp( z) Lg : ) . ( k ) ) N F 0 ( k ) , h e n c eP c , T . N F c p ( kt ) h e n N F t p ( k ) ,s o ( b y c o n s i c l e r i n t f a n yg i v e n , i n c eZ i s , a n d c o n t a i n s z r tm o s to n e e l e m e n o A l s o P i s i n f i n i t es . under r estr ictionsBut if to show that P is closeci l e n g th .T h u s i t su ffi ces x e P h a s l e n g t h/ > 0 t h e n p ( x , l 1 ) e 7 , a n d i f y i s i n P w i t h l e n g t h/ - I ther e is z e 7 w i th th e n th e tre e T i s i n fi niteabovenode;,, so in par ticular z : 2 y *1 or 2y*2, S o a b o v ez , a n d 7 : ' y 0 ' o r ' y 1 ' . 7(z):/, f infinite w h e r e a sx : 2 ' p ( x , / - 1 )+ I o r x : 2 ' p ( x , l - l . ) + 2 ' , a n c l a s s u m i n g h e a s s e r t i ot nh a t x i s t h e l e a s t p ( x , l - L ) > y t h i sg i v e s z 1 x , c o n t r a d i c t i ntg s u c ht h a t 7 ( x ) : / a n d t P @ ) .F l e n c ei n f a c t p ( x , l - 1 ) : y , s o p i s element u cl o se du n d e r re stri cton. 7 3 . l. I n f a c t w e Proposition L e m m a 1 3 . 9a n d T h e o r e m1 3 . 1 0r e - p r o v e g e t e xtra i n fo rma ti o n for our labour s. Say a theor y T in a r ecur s i v e i s A )r i ff i t h as an axiom atization language { r ,lieN} suchthat { Ir ,r li e N } i s A ), a n clsa y a mo cl elM is A) itt M =( N,R,.f,e) wher e the satis fac ti on re l a ti o nS o n (N , R ,f , c) is A) . Then we get: t ) r t h e o r yi n a r e c u r s i v e C o R o r - l n n v1 3 . 1 1 .I f n > 1 a n d T i s a c o n s i s t e nA and a A) * , A) *' extension 9 ,th e n Z has a com pleteconsistent language mo d e l . P ro o f. T h e p ro o fso f Theor em s13.3and 13.4only involveone appealto o f th e S cott set9( under Konig' s lem m a,thus ther e is onl y an th e cl o su re n of one. i n l e ve l i n th e 4) hier ar chy i n cre a se T h e re i s a l so a useful var iation of Cor ollar y 13.11 for com pl ete theoriesI. A) t heor y consistent P rro p o srrro 1 N3 .1 2 . Let n> 1 ancllet T be a complete 9. Then T has a A)r model. language in a recursive Proof. Ii the language9+ is constructed fron I as in the proof of Theorem 13.4,we constructa complete 9"'-theory T"' extending T with of the moclelanclverificationthat its stttisfaction T* e A). The construction

13.4. asin Theorem exactly is a) is thenachieved relation

t t r e e a s i n T h e o r e m1 3 ' 3 ' I f { ' p , , ' . . , c p , , ) i s a T h e i d e a i s t o c o n s t r u ca iff is "' - consistent 9' r , we szly of. fi n i tese t o f se n te n ces Qr . . . . , cp1, - t 0( t,,) lcp occur sr n ( p\, r " ' 'l cpr * { 3v,,9( u,,) T * cp + , (PrI

this the factthat 7-iscornplete, using The pointhereis thztt, is consistent.

7.lLe uritht.netizec[. cornpletertess theorenx

r89

notionis recursive in I. Ttrisis because if

c l t ( c u , ,. . . ? c o t ) , .. . , g t ( c t , , , . ,cu,)

a r e 9 * -se n te n ce si n vo l vi n g new constantsc0r , .. c:/i/ ils showr - r thcr , r , . . . , e t } i s " ' - c o r - r s i s tie {rp,, ff nt T I - - l 4 x 1 ., . . , 1 ",[Al_,cp,(x . r , ) A A j = 1 ( I v , , O , ( u_ , , )0 i e i D ] .

w h i c h ho l cl s i f a n clo n l y i f Tl a x, ,,[A ,;=,rp ,(*, _, { ) ,( x,) ) ]. x,) A A j= ( Avr 71( u,,) is any_g.,.. , Er ,- lo} is a com plete

nt I t i s a l s o o b v i o u st h a t i f ( p r , . . , ( p k , i s ' , ' - c o n s i s t ea n c lo ,,,_co' siste' t, s e n t e n ceth , e ne i th e r{cp t" . , cpk, o} is or { cp, . . "' - c o n s i ste nT t.h u s zl n y " '-co nsistent set czr nbe extencled to e x t e n si o n T* of - + ( t( c/) 10 Z + {3 v,, 0( v,,) e L*} .

Bttt I* can be taken to be A)' by taking some fixeclrecursiveenurnerzrtion o r , o r , . . . o f 9 'r'-se n te n ce sn d clefining a o ,*, r c i +_ r-f lro,.1 i f {r,,,. . . , Ti,Ti,oi+,} is ".- consistent otherwise.

So r, can be complttecl using an oracle for' (an axiornatization of ) Z, thus T ": { r i l i e N } i s re cu rsi vei n T, ancl a com plete g' ,' - extensionof the r e q u i r e dth e o ry,so Z ','eA ) b y Ler nr na13.9. tr T h i s cl i scu ssi o n ttri n g s u s bacl< to consicler ing the incom pleteness t h e o r e m (C h a p te r 3 ) a n cl Tennenbaum ' s theor em ( Sectioir I I .3) . Pr o p o s i ti o n1 3 .1 2to g e th e rw i th Tennenbaum ' s theor em can be useclto r e p r o v eth e Go cl e l -R o sse r com pletencss in theor emf <>r PA- . ( Thisjustifies t h e r e t -u trrk i n S e cti o n1 1 .3th a r Tennenbzunr t 'theor s emcan be consicler ecl
as the moclel-theoretic anzrlogue of tl're Goclel-Rosser theorem.) The

argument g o e sl i ke th i s. If T wer e arr ecur sivc cor nplete consistent extens i o n o f P A - , th e n z w o u l cl have a r ecur sivenoclel fu|, by pr oposition 1 3 . 1 2 .Si n ce MF P A - w e ma y r egar clthe stanciar cl m oclel as an initial s c g m e nt N 9 . p 1 . B u t N ca n n o tlr eclefinccl by a ) , for m ula ay7@,y , u) in ful ( w h e r e0 e A ,,,\, fo r i f Y n e tu l QteN ) M Fay) Qt,l, tt) ) . t h e n t h e tru th o f a n y ), se n tence =zV( z) ( wher eVe Ao)coulclbe r ecr .r r si-

190

The stnnclurcl,s ystent

velycleciclecl by using the r ecr r r sive satisfactior r r elation < - tf NI to ver i fy i f

M FJz,.

. , zrlAl: ,1y0(2,, AV,G)1. | , 11)

T h i s i s i mp o ssi b l esi , nce as we ha,r eseen ther e is no nnifor m r ec ur s i v e p ro ce d u re to d e ci cl e the f' sentences lSat17,( n, r n) .' fhus M is nonsta nc l ar c l a n cl h a s )'-o ve rsp i l l , so ful is non- r ecLlr ' :;ive by Tennenbaum' s the or enr (T h e o re m11 .6 ), zrco ntr acliction. In fa ct, th e a rg u mentin the last par agr aph can easilybe m oclifi ecto l sh o w th a t n o co n si stent r ecur sively axiom atizecl extensionof PA- c an d e ci d ea l l I' a n d If, sentences. SeeExer cise13.i0 for r r r or ecletails. T o re tu rnto th e a ri thm etizecl completeness theor em rsive ,let I be a r ec tr r .l, language w i th so me fi xed Gddel- number ing, such that the fr - r n c ti ons tE 1 ,ttl t1 *tE A V 1 , i ,(rp1nr ar ,cpletc.ztr e ( anc lthat clefinedby51o- for m ulas th e sefu n cti o n sa re p r ovably total in PA) . Then ther e is an - /o- for r nul a p r o o f r ( u , ,u , p )w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s ' ui1 sy t h e G o d e l - n u m b eo rf a p r o o f i n t h e p re d i ca te ca l cu l u sfo r S, of the .j4- sentence with Goclel- number u,' . ( See E xe rci se 9 .6 .) N o w sLr ppose M EPA and 0( x) is an 9n- for mula( pos s i bl y i n vo l vi n g p a ra me te rs from M ) so that - sent M F\/x( O( x) 7( x) ) 'x is the Godel-numberof a wheresentr-(.r) is some9o-formula expressing sentence of {8'. Then we defrnerhe 9o-tormula Con(0) to be tA n,- ' I r ) ) - V u- l pr oofy,( u, V w (Vi <l e n (w) O( [ur ],) w h e re rA w --+-LI denotes the Godel- number of the 9- sen tenc e ( [ r ] r A ( [ w ] , A ' ' ' A I w ] r " n r . , r - ' )' ' ' ) ) - - +r a n c lr i s s o m ec o n v e n i e ui tn c o n , chas 3vp- l( v,: v,) . si ste n 9 t -se n te n cesu with domain a subset of the Next, supposethat l/ is an 9-structr.rre domain of M. We say N is strongly interpretedin M iff there are suchthat Satr y( x,y) cl o m,y(x)valr , y@,y) :2, ancl 9 a -fo rmu l a s 1 . V x e tu l (xe N e M Fdomr y( x) ) and ol an - ?- ter r c r ', 2 . F o r a l l t,{se M, it Ar IE' lis the Godel- nr - r m ber then M F \ / i < l e n ( n )c l o r l , ( [ a ] , ) , M F 1 l z ( c l o r n("r ) A v a l r ( r , a ) : z ) . and for all z e M'. ( a ) i f l : r c l f o r s o n t ec o n s t i t t rs t y r n b o lc o l 9 1 , l v l F v a l r ( t , r t ) : z el/F z: c; (b) r"L t : v i w h e r e i e M l , t h e n & / F v a l " ( r ,c t ) : r O l v l E [ a ) , : z ;

T9I i f M F t : ' F ( . t , ,. . . , s r ) r w h e r e . i r , M, M'F,s, is the , s1 gter nt' Go cl e l -n L rmb e r o f an eachi, anclF is a /- ar y function s y m b o l o f _ y , t h e n l V I E v a l r ( ta , 1 : z e - J b r , . . , b 1 eN s . t . j- ; val,y ri,Ii-,?(r (.r,,u) : D;arrd N l= F(rr 3 . F o r a l l p , u M , i f M E ' p i s t h eG o c l e l - n J m b e r o afn - 5 4 - f o r m u lta h,e n : ( r ) i f M F p : r R ( . r , , . . . 7 s , )w g _ t e r m s t h e r eJ r , c1r z r n cR l is ,,s1 a r e l a t i o n s y n r b o lo f 9 ( p o s s i b l y : ; t l - t e nM F S a t ,( p , n ) g l b , , . . , b , eN \ V I F / 4 1 : ,v ' l 1 y ( s , : 6 , a n cN a; ) l F R ( b , ,. " .. , ' h , ) ; ( b ) i f fu lFp :t (p ,r,r') lfor sor nej4- for mula s p, Qe fu|, wher e,r- A o r V tl te n IV I F S at"( p, o) e M FSat,( r l, n) ,r ,Sat,v ( .r ,a) ; (.) if MFp-(-lql f o r s o m e _ 5 4 - f o r m u l aq e M rhen ri zl FS a t,y (p , n ) e MF I Sat,( q, n) ; ( . 1 ) i f f u l F p : t Q u , c r l f o r s o m e i e f u r a n d s o m eg - f o r m u r a q e M , w h e re Q i s V o r I, then (c)

The urithrnetized contpleteness theo rent

M E sat p(p,a)e M rea(crom"ta) (;)

(h e re ,ta ke -> i f q:V,

Satly(q, atb t iD)

and take A other wise) .

Thus M stronglyinterpretsN iff the truth of any 9-formula or value of a,ny9-term is given lry an ga-formula over M. Thus Corollary 13.8 says t h a t , i f 7 i s a n a ri th me ti c th e or yand N FCon( T) , then ther eis a model of Z that is strongly interpretecl in N. As alreaclymentioneclthe arithmetizecl c o m p l e te n e ss th e o re mi s th e for malization of this theor em ' inpA. T t t E o tre rvt 1 3 .1 3 (T h e a ri th metized completeness theor em) .Let fuIFPA,let L , 0 , pro o t'7 ,, C o n (g ) zrl l b e as above. Then if MFCon( g) ther e is an 9-structure l/ with clomain cM such that NFo for every (standarcl) 14s e n t e nceo w h e re MF ? (to 1 ), and N is str ongly inter pr etedin M.* If, m o r e o ve r, MFYa?( ttl;,) )
or

lVlEV uJw, p (Vi < Ien ( w)) (lw),)A proof 7(p, I A w --> rp,,1)) 'there are at where 'p,,is some (canonically chosen) 9-sentenceexpressing lettst a el e me n ts', th e n th e d o mainof.ful can be taken equalto the dom ain

of //.
'"

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192 Exercises J'orSection13.2

Thestunclurcl. sy.stem

1 3 . 9 S l r o wt h a t t h e r ei s a S c o t ts e t ' , {s ' Lrch t h a t a l l A e , T a r eL \ t . ( l l h i i . L c t l I ' - , 9 5 y ( / ( 1 )f o r a 3 ! i c o r n p l c t c x t c n s i r ; o nf p..1.) 1 3 . 1 0 ( a ) L e t T = P A - h a v ea r e c u r s i v a ex i o n r a t i z a t i oz ni,n c sl L r p p o s T ec l e c i c l e sl l a 1 1a n c l I l ' s e n t e n c e s S.h o wt h a t t h ep r o o fo f T h e o r e n t1 3 . 1 2 c a nb e m o c l i f i e c l grve to a r e c u r s i vM e F{oeIIrlTfo} in which : lq(t)lM Fa@), cp 2, - tpr,(ct) e Z] is recursive for eachtuple ri e M of finite length. (b) Use(a)togiveanewproofofCorollary3.Ilbas l eargurnentfoltowing oe nc th the proof of Theorern 13.12. 1 3 . 1 1 + ( a ) D e f i n ea p r o v a b l y r e c u l ' s i vfe unction i n P A , F ( n ) : ( e , , 1 ,w h o s e values 'there are at leastrr elements'. are Godel-numbers of 9*-sentences expressing (Take for rp,, the sentence
v,; , 3V1y

/X\;*r-T (u,: vr) -1 , v,,

bracketed in somecanonical way.) (b) IfproofT;(x,y)denotes'xistheGodel-numb ae prro ofo f o f y i n t h e p r e d i c a t e calculus f.or9n', show that PAFY a)p proofy,^(p, (o -- V n]), whereo is a suitable(finite)conjunction of axiomsof P A - . (c) Convince yourselfthat, wereyour life to dependon i t , y o u c o u l dg i v ea p r o o fo f with all details. T h e o r e m1 3 . 1 3 N is strongly Iv , lFPA, NFPA- and suppose I3.I2* Let M,N be 96-structures in M. Define an embedding interpreted / of M into N b y

:0"; .f(0",)
'' N f (t + ltut): f(x) + 1N. t f N. Use n M and ernbeds M o n t o a n i n i t i a ls e g m e no S h o wt h a t / i s c l e f i n a b l ie that the embedding yf t r u t h t o d e c l u c e Tarski's t h e o r e mo n t h e u n d e f i n a b i l i to / is not elementary. '1.f,,is cotrsistent'. Let fuIFPA be 1),'. FIencedefinea formula tp(a) representing with a e .421 Use Exercise 10.8 ancl overspill to find nonstanclat'cl nonstanclarcl. is strongly NF PA that proper end-extension lvlFy@). Decluce that lvl has a in M. irrterpreted
13.13 D e f i n e a f o r m u l a 0 ( * , y ) e x p r e s s i n g ' x i s t h e G o c l e l - n u r n b e r o f a n e t x i o n ro f