WELDING

INTRODUCTION OF WELDING

BY SNEHAL PATEL

WELDING

WELDING
Welding is a materials joining process which produces coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable temperatures with or without the application of pressure or by the application of pressure alone, and with or without the use of filler material. Welding is used for making permanent joints. It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine frames, structural works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building.

TYPES
Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding The piece of metal to be joined are heated to a plastic state and forced together by external pressure (Ex) Resistance welding Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding The material at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed to solidify (Ex) Gas welding, Arc welding

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Classification of welding processes

Arc welding Carbon arc Metal arc Metal inert gas Tungsten inert gas Plasma arc Submerged arc Electro-slag Gas Welding Oxy-acetylene Air-acetylene Oxy-hydrogen Resistance Welding Butt Spot Seam Projection Percussion

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Arc Welding
Arc welding is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create anelectric arc between an electrode and the base material to melt the metals at the welding point. They can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding region is sometimes protected by some type of inert or semiinert gas, known as a shielding gas, and/or an evaporating filler material.

The process of arc welding is widely used because of its low capital and running costs. Getting the arc started is called striking the arc. An arc may be struck by either lightly tapping the electrode against the metal or scratching the electrode against the metal at high speed.

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Equipments : A welding generator (D.C.) or Transformer (A.C.) Two cables- one for work and one for electrode Electrode holder Electrode Protective shield Gloves Wire brush Chipping hammer Goggles
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Advantages :
Most efficient way to join metals Lowest-cost joining method Affords lighter weight through better utilization of material Joins all commercial metals Provides design flexibility

Limitations :
Manually applied, therefore high labour cost. Need high energy causing danger Not convenient for disassembly. Defects are hard to detect at joints. Comparison of A.C. and D.C. arc welding. Alternating Current (from Transformer).
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1. Carbon arc welding :

Carbon Arc Welding (CAW) is a process which produces coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc between a non consumable carbon (graphite) electrode and the workpiece. It was the first arc-welding process ever developed but is not used for many applications today, having been replaced by twin carbon arc welding and other variations.

The purpose of arc welding is to form a bond between separate metals. In carbon arc welding a carbon electrode is used to produce an electric arc between the electrode and the materials being bonded. This arc produces extreme temperatures in excess of 3,000C. At this temperature the separate metals form a bond and become welded together.

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2. Metal arc welding :

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its subtypes metal inert gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG) welding, is a semiautomatic or automatic arc welding process in which a continuous and consumable wire electrode and a shielding gas are fed through a welding gun. A constant voltage, direct current power source is most commonly used with GMAW, but constant current systems, as well as alternating current, can be used. There are four primary methods of metal transfer in GMAW, called globular, shortcircuiting, spray, and pulsed-spray, each of which has distinct properties and corresponding advantages and limitations.

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3. Metal inert gas :

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its subtypes metal inert gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG) welding, is a semi-automatic or automatic arc welding process in which a continuous and consumable wire electrode and a shielding gas are fed through a welding gun. A constant voltage, direct current power source is most commonly used with GMAW, but constant current systems, as well as alternating current, can be used.

There are four primary methods of metal transfer in GMAW, called globular, short-circuiting, spray, and pulsed-spray, each of which has distinct properties and corresponding advantages and limitations.

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4. Tungsten arc welding :

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is an arc welding process that uses a non consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by a shielding gas (usually an inert gas such as argon), and a filler metal is normally used, though some welds, known as autogenous welds, do not require it.

A constant-current welding power supply produces energy which is conducted across the arc through a column of highly ionized gas and metal vapours known as a plasma.

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GAS WELDING
Gas Welding is obtained by selecting proper size of flame, filler material and method of moving torch The temperature generated during the process is 33000c When the metal is fused, oxygen from the atmosphere and the torch combines with molten metal and forms oxides, results defective weld Fluxes are added to the welded metal to remove oxides Common fluxes used are made of sodium, potassium. Lithium and borax. Flux can be applied as paste, powder,liquid.solid coating or gas. GAS WELDING EQUIPMENT : 1. Gas Cylinders Pressure Oxygen 125 kg/cm2 Acetylene 16 kg/cm2 2. Regulators Working pressure of oxygen 1 kg/cm2 Working pressure of acetylene 0.15 kg/cm2 Working pressure varies depends upon the thickness of the work pieces welded. 3. Pressure Gauges 4. Hoses 5. Welding torch 6. Check valve 7. Non return valve Oxy-Acetylene welding

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WELDING

1.Oxy-acetylene :
Oxy-fuel welding commonly called oxyacetylene welding, oxy welding, or gas welding in the U.S. and oxy-fuel cutting are processes that use fuel gases and oxygen to weld and cut metals, respectively.

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French engineers Edmond Fouch and Charles Picard became the first to develop oxygen-acetylene welding in 1903. Pure oxygen, instead of air (20% oxygen/80% nitrogen), is used to increase the flame temperature to allow localized melting of the workpiece material (e.g. steel) in a room environment. A common propane/air flame burns at about 3,630 F (2,000 C), a propane/oxygen flame burns at about 4,530 F (2,500 C), and an acetylene/oxygen flame burns at about 6,330 F (3,500 C).

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2.Oxy-hydrogen
Oxyhydrogen is a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) gases, typically in a 2:1 molar ratio, the same proportion as water. This gaseous mixture is used for torches for the processing of refractorymaterials and was the first gaseous mixture used for welding. In practice a ratio of 4:1 or 5:1 hydrogen:oxygen is required to avoid an oxidizing flame.

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Resistance Welding
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW), Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW), and Projection Welding (PW) are commonly used resistance welding processes. Resistance welding uses the application of electric current and mechanical pressure to create a weld between two pieces of metal. Weld electrodes conduct the electric current to the two pieces of metal as they are forged together.

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The welding cycle must first develop sufficient heat to raise a small volume of metal to the molten state. This metal then cools while under pressure until it has adequate strength to hold the parts together. The current density and pressure must be sufficient to produce a weld nugget, but not so high as to expel molten metal from the weld zone.

Resistance Welding Benefits :

High Speed Welding Easily automated Suitable for high rate production Economical

Resistance Welding Limitations

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WELDING
Initial equipment costs Lower tensile and fatigue strengths Lap joints add weight and material
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1.Resistance seam welding :

Resistance seam welding is a process that produces a weld at the faying surfaces of two similar metals. The seam may be a butt joint or an overlap joint and is usually an automated process. It differs from butt welding in that butt welding typically welds the entire joint at once and seam welding forms the weld progressively, starting at one end. Like spot welding, seam welding relies on two electrodes, usually made from copper, to apply pressure and current. The electrodes are disc shaped and rotate as the material passes between them.

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WELDING
This allows the electrodes to stay in constant contact with the material to make long continuous welds. The electrodes may also move or assist the movement of the material.
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2. Resistance spot welding :

Spot welding is a resistance welding method used to join two to three overlapping metal sheets, studs, projections, electrical wiring hangers, some heat exchanger fins, and some tubing. Usually power sources and welding equipment are sized, to the specific thickness and material being welded together. Thickness are limited to the output of the welding power source and equipment range due to the high current required for the application . Care is taken to eliminate, contaminates between the faying surfaces. Usually, Two copper electrodes are simultaneously used to clamp the metal sheets together and to pass current through the sheets.

There are many other types of welding , few of them are as under : Hyperbaric welding[Underwater] :
Hyperbaric welding is the process of welding at elevated pressures, normally underwater.

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WELDING
It is predominantly referred to as "hyperbaric welding" when 16 used in a dry environment, and "underwater welding" when in a wet environment. The applications of hyperbaric welding are diverse.it is often used to repair ships, offshore oil platforms, and pipelines. Dry hyperbaric welding is used in preference to wet underwater welding when high quality welds are required because of the increased control over conditions which can be exerted, such as through application of prior and post weld heat treatments.

when a very high quality weld is required, dry hyperbaric welding is normally utilized. Research into using dry hyperbaric welding at depths of up to 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) is ongoing. Underwater hyperbaric welding was invented by the Russian metallurgist Konstantin Khrenov in 1932.

Hybrid laser welding :

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The combination of laser welding with another weld process is called a "hybrid welding process". This means that a laser beam and an electrical arc act simultaneously in one welding zone, influencing and supporting each other.

For welding metallic objects, the laser beam is focused to obtain intensities of more than 1 MW/cm2. When the laser beam hits the surface of the material, this spot is heated up to vaporization temperature, and a vapor cavity is formed in the weld metal due to the escaping metal vapor. This is known as a keyhole. The extraordinary feature of the weld seam is its high depth-to-width ratio. The energy-flow density of the freely burning arc is slightly more than 100 kW/cm2. Unlike a dual process where two separate weld processes act in succession, hybrid welding may be viewed as a combination of both weld processes acting simultaneously in one and the same process zone.

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WELDING
Depending on the kind of arc or laser process used, and depending on the process parameters, the two systems will influence each other in different ways. Absorption of the laser radiation is substantially influenced by the temperature of the workpiece surface. Before the laser welding process can start, the initial reflectance must be overcome, especially on aluminum surfaces. The energy required for this is thus determined by the temperature dependent absorption and by the amount of energy lost by conduction into the rest of the workpiece. In Laser Hybrid welding, using MIG, vaporisation takes place not only from the surface of the workpiece but also from the filler wire, so that more metal vapor is available to facilitate the absorption of the laser radiation.
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Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW),

It also known as manual metal arc (MMA) welding, fluxshielded arc welding or informally as stick welding, is a manual arc welding process that uses a consumable electrode coated in flux to lay the weld. An electric current, in the form of either alternating current or direct current from a welding power supply, is used to form an electric arcbetween the electrode and

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WELDING
the metals to be joined.
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As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the electrode disintegrates, giving off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and providing a layer of slag, both of which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination. It dominates other welding processes in the maintenance and repair industry, and though flux-cored arc welding is growing in popularity, SMAW continues to be used extensively in the construction of steel structures and in industrial fabrication. The process is used primarily to weld iron and steels (including stainless steel) but aluminium, nickel and copper alloys can also be welded with this method.

Flash welding :
it is a type of resistance welding that involves pressing two ends together, while simultaneously running a current between them.

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This has the effect of forming a joint between the two metals that is free of oxides as the surfaces of the two joining parts is forced out the sides of the joint and is known as flash, hence the name. When the copper cools, the mould is either broken off or left in place. Alternatively, hand-held graphite crucibles can be used. The advantages of these crucibles include portability, lower cost (because they can be reused), and flexibility, especially in field applications.

Ultrasonic welding
It is an industrial technique whereby highfrequency ultrasonic acoustic vibrations are locally applied to
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WELDING
workpieces being held together under pressure to create a solid-state weld. It is commonly used for plastics, and especially for joining dissimilar materials. In ultrasonic welding, there are no connective bolts, nails, soldering materials, or adhesives necessary to bind the materials together.
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For joining complex injection molded thermoplastic parts, ultrasonic welding equipment can be easily customized to fit the exact specifications of the parts being welded. The parts are sandwiched between a fixed shaped nest (anvil) and asonotrode (horn) connected to a transducer, and a ~20 kHz low-amplitude acoustic vibration is emitted. ( Note: Common frequencies used in ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics are 15 kHz, 20 kHz, 30 kHz, 35 kHz, 40 kHz and 70 kHz). The ultrasonic energy melts the point contact between the parts, creating a joint. This process is a good automated alternative to glue, screws or snap-fit designs. It is typically used with small parts (e.g. cell phones, consumer electronics, disposable medical tools, toys, etc.) but it can be used on parts as large as a small automotive instrument cluster.

BY SNEHAL PATEL

WELDING
Ultrasonics can also be used to weld metals, but are typically 22 limited to small welds of thin, malleable metals, e.g. aluminum, copper, nickel. Ultrasonics would not be used in welding the chassis of an automobile or in welding pieces of a bicycle together, due to the power levels required.

TYPES OF FLAMES :
Oxygen is turned on, flame immediately changes into a long white inner area (Feather) surrounded by a transparent blue envelope is called Carburizing flame (30000c) Addition of little more oxygen give a bright whitish cone surrounded by the transparent blue envelope is called Neutral flame (It has a balance of fuel gas and oxygen) (32000c) Used for welding steels, aluminium, copper and cast iron if more oxygen is added, the cone becomes darker and more pointed, while the envelope becomes shorter and more fierce is called Oxidizing flame. Has the highest temperature about 34000c. Used for welding brass and brazing operation. Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuelgas welding and cutting operations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing flame.

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Safety Recommendations in Welding and Cutting :-

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Welding and cutting of metals involve the application of intense heat to the objects being welded or cut. This intense heat is obtained from the use of inflammable gases, (e.g., acetylene, hydrogen, etc.) or electricity. The intense welding heat and the sources employed to produce it can be potentially hazardous. Therefore, to protect persons from injury and to protect building and equipment against fire, etc., a set of recommendations concerning safety and health measures for the welders and those concerned with the safety of the equipment, etc., have been published by ISI and many other similar but International organizations. By keeping in mind these recommendations or precautions, the risks associated with welding can be largely reduced. Therefore, it is suggested that the beginner in the field of welding must go through and become familiar with these recommendations which also have been discussed below: Various aspects of welding and, cutting safety will be examined under the following headings: (a) Safety recommendations for installation and operation of Gas welding and cutting equipment. (b) Safety recommendations for installation and operation of Arc welding and cutting equipment. (c) Explosion, fire and other hazards and protection against them. (d) Protection of welders. (e) Ventilation and health protection.

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General Safety Precautions for Gas Welding Before starting gas welding or cutting remove from the neighbourhood any combustible material or anything that might be damaged by heat or sparks which are often thrown a long distance. Containers which had held combustionable or inflammable materials should be welded only after exercising proper precautions. Fire extinguishers or sand should be available at hand. Do not weld in confined spaces without adequate ventilation or individual respiratory equipment. When welding inside boilers or other confined spaces, the gas cylinders must be kept outside and the hose and its attachments thoroughly inspected for leakage. Gas flame should not be allowed to play even momentarily on the cylinders or their attachments.

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Use goggles with nonflammable lenses and frames. Never do any chipping or grinding without suitable goggles. Do not weld painted or galvanized surfaces in a badly ventilated space. Do not use matches for lighting torches. This may result in hand burns. Never attempt to relight a blow pipe that has blown out without first closing both valves and relighting in the proper manner. If welding or cutting is to be stopped temporarily, release the pressure adjusting screws of the regulators by turning them to the left. If welding or cutting is to be stopped for a long time, close the cylinder valves and then release all gas pressures from the regulators and hose by opening the torch valves momentarily. Close the torch valves and release the pressure adjusting screws. Protection of Welders Workers need to be protected from (i) The welding rays.
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(ii) Flying sparks, metal globules (spatter), hot slag particles and hot electrode stubs. (iii) Fumes and gases when welding in confined spaces, e.g., rail tank wagon. (iv) Falling when welding at a height from the ground. Protection from Welding Rays Welding are, in addition to being very bright, is a source of infrared and ultraviolet light also; consequently the operator must useeither a helmet or a hand shield fitted with a special filter glass. Exposing the eyes and face to infrared rays would lead to the face becoming uncomfortably hot and it might induce serious eye troubles. Excess ultraviolet light can cause an effect similar to sunburn on the skin. Protection of Welders from Sparks and Spatter (Protective Clothing) The welder's body and clothing are protected from radiation and burns caused by sparks and flying globules of molten metal with the help of the following: (i) Gloves protect the hands of a welder . (ii) Leather or asbestos apron is very useful to protect welder's clothes and his trunk and thighs while seated he is doing welding. (iii) For overhead welding, some form of protection for the head is required. Leather skull cap or peaked cap will do the needful. (iv) Leather jackets and leather leggings are also available as clothes for body protection. (v) If cutting or deep gouging is being carried out by metal arc processes, the amount of spatter is considerably greater than with normal arc welding and leather spats would be particularly useful to prevent burns to the ankles and feet.
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WELDING
(vi) Safety boots are necessary to protect the feet of the welder from hot slag and, in particular, from falling off cuts.
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WELDING ELECTRODES : There are many types of welding electrodes. This article will cover a "mild steel electrode." Welding electrodes are metal wires with baked on chemical coatings. The rod is used to sustain the welding arc and to provide the filler metal required for the joint to be welded. The coating protects the metal from damage, stabilizes the arc, and improves the weld. The diameter of the wire, less the coating, determines the size of the welding rod. This is expressed in fractions of an inch such as 3/32", 1/8", or 5/32." The smaller the diameter means it requires less current and it deposits a smaller amount of filler metal.

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The American Welding Society's (AWS) classification number series has been adopted by the welding industry. The electrode identification example below is for a steel arcwelding rod labeled E6010: "E" indicates "electrode" for electric arc welding The first two (or three in some cases) digits (60) indicate tensile strength in thousands of pounds per square inch The third (or fourth in some cases) digit (1) indicates the position of the weld. An "O" indicates that this classification is not used; "1" is for all positions; "2" is for flat and horizontal positions only; 3 is for flat position only The last two digits together (10) indicate the type of coating and the type of power supply required, 10 organic coating and DC current with reverse polarity. Therefore, a welding rod numbered E6010 indicates "E" an manual arc-welding electrode with (60) a minimum strength of 60,000 psi., that can be used (1) in all positions and (10) DC reverse polarity is required.

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Welding Condition
low-carbon mild steels, stainless steels,aluminum alloys and copper alloys. It is the purpose of this section to establish recommended generalwelding procedures and conditions for each material. The tables of welding conditions should serve only as a starting point when beginning new applications.They do not represent the only good way in which a certain weld can be made. Changes in the weldingconditions will most likely be caused by differences in the welders experience, the exact nature of the weldconfiguration (joint design) and the equipment in use. To obtain the optimum welding conditions that bestsatisfy the particular requirements of a new application, it is always advisable to conduct qualifying testsprior to production. However, this is the basic point set a good, stable welding condition and it can mostprobably be used for many applications.When changes to the welding conditions are required, they must be carefully made. As seen in the previoussection, each welding parameter has specific effects on the weld bead characteristics and many do overlap.All adjustments must be made one at a time and recorded for future reference. The discussion accompanying these tables will emphasize pertinent topics and establish general rules ofthumb. These rules should be adhered to regardless of the welding procedure finally chosen. Each tablelists all the conditions necessary to make a weld, based on the material thickness, joint design, and position of welding.

This section covers more specifically the actual welding of

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References :www.google.com www.scribd.com www.wikipedia.com www.asme.com/welding

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