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Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308


Solar-Augment Potential of
U.S. Fossil-Fired Power Plants
Craig Turchi and Nicholas Langle
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Robin Bedilion and Cara Libby
Electric Power Research Institute

Technical Report
NREL/TP-5500-50597
February 2011
NREL is a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy
Efficiency & Renewable Energy, operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC.


National Renewable Energy Laboratory
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Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308


Solar-Augment Potential of
U.S. Fossil-Fired Power Plants
Craig Turchi and Nicholas Langle
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Robin Bedilion and Cara Libby
Electric Power Research Institute
Prepared under Task Nos. CP09.2350, SM10.1510
Technical Report
NREL/TP-5500-50597
February 2011



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1
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................................ 1
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................ 2
Background ................................................................................................................................................. 2
Objectives .................................................................................................................................................... 3
Ranking Criteria .......................................................................................................................................... 4
Age of Plant ...............................................................................................................................4
Capacity Factor ..........................................................................................................................5
Annual Average DNI .................................................................................................................5
Amount of Land Available ........................................................................................................5
Topography of the Land .............................................................................................................6
Solar Use Efficiency ..................................................................................................................6

Scoring Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 7
Estimating Solar-Augment Potential ......................................................................................................... 8
Solar-Augment Integration ........................................................................................................9
Rating the Plants ......................................................................................................................11

Results and Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 11
Capacity-Based Results ...........................................................................................................12
Energy-Based Results ..............................................................................................................13
Emission Reductions ................................................................................................................15
Deployment Impacts ................................................................................................................17

Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................... 20
References ................................................................................................................................................. 21



2
Abstract
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems utilize solar thermal energy for the generation of
electric power. This attribute makes it relatively easy to integrate CSP systems with fossil-fired
power plants. The solar-augment of fossil power plants offers a lower cost and lower risk
alternative to stand-alone solar plant construction. This study ranked the potential to add solar
thermal energy to coal-fired and natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) plants found throughout 16
states in the southeast and southwest United States. Each generating unit was ranked in six
categories to create a qualitative overall score of Excellent, Good, or Fair. Plants ranking below
fair or failing to pass other criteria were scored Not Considered. Separate analysis was performed
for parabolic trough and power tower technologies due to the difference in the steam
temperatures that each can generate. The study found a potential for over 11 GWe of parabolic
trough and over 21 GWe of power tower capacity. Power towers offer more capacity and higher
quality integration due to the greater steam temperatures that can be achieved. The best sites
were in the sunny southwest, but each of the sixteen states had at least one site that ranked Good
for augmentation.
Background
In 2009, coal and natural gas provided 2/3 of the nations electricity [1]. These fuels are domestic
and relatively inexpensive, yet they represent finite energy sources that come with environmental
liabilities. Transitioning to a lower carbon and renewable energy future will require technical
advances and time to integrate and adapt current systems to new generation sources such as wind
and solar. Of the wind and solar technologies, CSP is unique in its ability to integrate with
existing fossil generation systems. Such integration offers a low-risk opportunity to meet
renewable energy targets while promoting deployment and speeding the learning-curve growth
that helps drive down the cost of new technologies.
CSP differs from photovoltaic solar power in that CSP uses the suns heat to drive a thermal
power cycle. This reliance on thermal energy means CSP plants can be backed up with natural
gas and can supply steam to augment fossil-fired power plants. Such hybridization can allow for
more reliable and lower cost application of solar power. In 2009, the Electric Power Research
Institute (EPRI) completed studies examining the best ways to integrate CSP steam into coal-
fired and NGCC power plants [2, 3]. In this work, EPRI developed models that predicted the
performance of augmenting coal- or natural gas-fired power plants with steam from CSP
equipment. NREL assisted by providing data on solar resource and the amount of thermal energy
that can be supplied by parabolic trough and power tower (also known as central receiver) CSP
technologies.
Solar-augment of a fossil power plant offers several advantages to the developer. These
advantages include:
Pre-existing steam power block, electrical substation, and other ancillary equipment,
Pre-existing transmission and grid interconnect,
Adjacent land for solar field may already be owned by the utility,

3
Location next to an existing power plant likely minimizes environmental and view-shed
concerns,
Solar variability is mitigated by fossil fuel use.
These features combine to lower the cost and risk associated with the solar project, and also may
shorten project development timelines. As risk is reduced, indirect costs associated with
financing costs and project contingencies may also decrease.
In this follow-on study, EPRI and NREL surveyed the fossil power plants across sixteen US
states to determine their solar-augment potential. This report documents the solar capacity and
energy, as well as air emission reductions, that could be achieved by augmenting these existing
and planned fossil power stations.
Objectives
The goal of this study is to rank fossil-fired power plants for their suitability to incorporate the
addition of solar thermal energy. This ranking provides guidance to utilities regarding the
feasibility of integrating solar thermal energy into their existing fleet and allows analysts to
estimate the contribution such hybrid plants might make to the nations electricity supply. The
work was carried out through the following steps:
1. Identified all operating, under construction, and planned pulverized coal and NGCC
power plants in regions of the United States known to have good solar resource as
defined by their direct normal insolation (DNI). The study region included the western
states of California (CA), Arizona (AZ), Nevada (NV), New Mexico (NM), Utah (UT),
Colorado (CO), Texas (TX), and Oklahoma (OK), as well as eastern states of Florida
(FL), Alabama (AL), Georgia (GA), Louisiana (LA), Mississippi (MS), North Carolina
(NC), South Carolina (SC), and Tennessee (TN).
2. Created a qualitative ranking of solar-augment potential for each power plant. Ranking
was based on augmenting the unit(s) at each power station with the highest potential for
solar integration. Augment potential was evaluated for both parabolic troughs and power
tower CSP technologies. Linear Fresnel systems would also be good candidates for this
application, but performance models were not as well developed as for troughs.
3. Summarized total solar energy provided and emissions reduced by incorporating solar
thermal energy into the ranked power plants. Categorized potential by plant ranking,
geography, age, and other criteria as appropriate.
4. Estimated the benefit to the solar industry and utility sector of deploying CSP systems for
solar-augmented plants. Benefits were based on investment, manufacturing scale, and
operational learning.
5. Incorporated the ranked database of the plants into NRELs Solar Power Prospector
webtool.

4
Ranking Criteria
Six criteria were chosen for ranking the solar-augment potential of existing fossil power plants.
These criteria include:
age of the fossil plant,
average capacity factor of the fossil plant,
DNI resource available at the plant site,
amount of available land surrounding the existing plant,
topography of that land, and
solar-use efficiency that could be expected if the plant were augmented with a solar field.
A methodology was developed that weighted the importance of these criteria on the overall
solar-augment potential of the plant and each criterion was assigned a range of scores. From this,
a numeric score and qualitative ranking of all existing fossil plants was calculated to determine
those with the highest potential for solar integration. Table 1 shows the weights and ranges
assigned to the criteria, followed by a discussion of each criterion and the overall scoring
methodology.
Table 1. Ranking Criteria

Age of
Plant
(years)
Capacity
Factor
(%)
Annual
Average DNI
(kWh/m
2
/day)
Amount of
Land Available
(acres/fossil
plant MW)
Topography
of the Land
(% slope)
Solar Use
Efficiency
(%)
Score/
Weighting
5% 20% 35% 15% 15% 10%
Not Considered > 30 < 15 < 4 < 0.05 > 5 --
1 16-30 -- 4-5 0.05-0.2 3-5 < 30
2 -- 15-50 5-6 0.2-0.35 -- 30-32
3 11-15 -- 6-6.5 0.35-0.5 1.5-3 32-35
4 -- -- 6.5-7 0.5-0.65 -- 35-38
5 0-10 50 7 0.65 1.5 38

Age of Plant
The age of the plant is calculated based on the plants in-service date. For plants that are under
construction or under development, the age of the plant is considered to be zero. Plants that have
been built more recently receive a higher score because it is expected that they will have a longer
operating life, increasing the likelihood that the solar plant will be able to operate throughout its
expected life. Plants that are older than 30 years (built before 1980) are not considered based on
the assumption that these plants will be closer to retirement and likely have less sophisticated
controls than the newer plants, which may make incorporating the control logic of the solar field
integration more difficult. In addition, emissions controls may be limited at these older plants,
potentially jeopardizing the long-term operation of these plants. Overall, the age of the plant is
given a 5% weighting as it is only a minor consideration compared to other plant characteristics.

5
Capacity Factor
The capacity factor of the plant indicates how frequently the plant operates. Based on EPRIs
standard definitions, a plant with a capacity factor greater than 50% is considered a baseload
plant, between 20% and 50% is considered intermediate, and less than 20% is considered
peaking. Because solar augmentation can occur only when the fossil plant is operating, a plant
with a low capacity factor is undesirable. The infrequent operation of a plant with a low capacity
factor will result in significantly reduced megawatt-hours attributed to solar, which in turn raises
the cost of solar-generated electricity as there are fewer hours over which to reclaim capital
costs. However, it is possible that the operation of some peaking plants could correlate well with
solar resource availability if the peaking units are operated on the hottest, sunniest days to meet
air-conditioning loads. Baseload plants are most preferable and, therefore, plants with a capacity
factor of 50% or greater receive a top score. Intermediate and higher capacity peaking plants
with a capacity factor between 15% and 50% receive low points, but are still considered because
there is some potential for solar operation. Plants with a capacity factor below 15% are not
considered further. Due to the strong effect that capacity factor will have on annual megawatt-
hours generated and plant economics, it is given the second highest weighting at 20%.
Annual Average DNI
The solar resource at the plant site, measured as annual average DNI, will significantly affect the
performance of the solar-augmented fossil plant. A high average DNI will produce more steam
for augmenting the plant, increasing the number of megawatt-hours attributed to solar and
reducing fossil fuel consumption. Top points are given to a solar resource of 7 kWh/m
2
/day and
greater, with points dropping incrementally down to a resource of 4 kWh/m
2
/day. Plants in a
location with a DNI less than 4 kWh/m
2
/day are not considered further. Because the solar
resource has such a significant effect on the plant performance and economics, it is given the
highest weighting at 35%.
Amount of Land Available
The amount of land available surrounding the existing fossil plant affects the size of the solar
field that can be built, which in turn affects the amount of solar steam and solar-generated
electricity produced. Previous work has shown that existing fossil plants can accept a design-
point maximum of between 10% and 20% of their total plant output from solar steam before
reaching equipment or other design limitations. Because the amount of solar steam a plant can
accept will vary based on the plants capacity, the amount of available land criterion is calculated
as acres per fossil plant megawatt. For example, based on the assumption that 1 MWe of solar
requires 5 acres of land, a 100 MW plant could accept up to 10 to 20 MWe of solar generation,
which would require 50 to 100 acres of land or 0.5 to 1 acres per fossil plant megawatt. The
ability to produce a high percentage of the plant output from solar results in larger offsets of
fossil fuel consumption and plant emissions. Maximum points are given to a plant with enough
land available to produce roughly 13% or greater of plant output from solar, or greater than 0.65
acres per fossil plant megawatt. Plants with land available for less than 1% plant output from
solar, or less than 0.05 acres per fossil plant megawatt, are not considered further. Although
larger field sizes will benefit somewhat from economies of scale, other economic drivers likely
have a greater effect. Therefore, an intermediate weighting of 15% is given to this criterion.

6
Topography of the Land
The topography of the land surrounding the plant affects the ease of installation of the solar field
as well as its performance. Generally, land with less than 3% slope is preferred for concentrating
solar technologies. Ground slopes greater than 3% require extensive grading for parabolic trough
installations, and while the power tower technology is less sensitive to the need for flat land, it is
easier to install on a slope of less than 3%. Plants with a slope greater than 3% will require
significant regrading, which can notably affect the cost of installation and, therefore, the overall
plant economics. For this study, any plant with surrounding land that has a slope greater than 5%
is not considered, while low scores are given to those with a slope of 3% or greater. Plants with a
slope of 1.5% or less are given maximum points. Because land topography can affect both plant
performance and installation costs, it is given an intermediate weighting of 15%.
Solar Use Efficiency
Solar use efficiency is the measure of how many megawatts of solar electricity are generated per
solar thermal megawatt integrated into the fossil plant. Solar-augmented plants can have solar-
use efficiencies that exceed stand-alone solar plants; however, solar-use efficiency generally
decreases with solar contribution. Particularly for troughs, higher percentages of solar
integration have been shown to result in lower solar-use efficiencies due to the mismatch
between the solar steam temperature and that of the fossil plant steam cycle at the point of
integration, see Figure 1. This study seeks to maximize solar energy production, not solar-use
efficiency. Plants are given a high score for solar-use efficiencies that exceed values for stand-
alone solar plants, middling score for values comparable to stand-alone solar plants, and low
score if solar-use efficiency is lower. No plants are eliminated from consideration based on their
solar use efficiency. To avoid penalizing plants with large solar fields and higher percentages of
solar integration, the solar use efficiency criterion is given an intermediate weighting of 10%.

Figure 1. Solar-use efficiency generally falls with increasing solar contribution. This study seeks
to maximize solar energy, which sometimes results in lower solar-use efficiency.
Figure from EPRI [2].
25.0%
27.0%
29.0%
31.0%
33.0%
35.0%
37.0%
39.0%
41.0%
43.0%
0.0% 1.0% 2.0% 3.0% 4.0% 5.0% 6.0% 7.0% 8.0%
G
r
o
s
s

S
o
l
a
r
-
U
s
e

E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Percent of Steam Cycle's Gross Output from Solar

7
Scoring Methodology
EPRI compiled data about the fossil plant size, in-service year, and capacity factor from the SNL
database [4]. As data were entered into a scoring spreadsheet, each input was checked to see if it
met the minimum acceptance criteria. If the age of the plant (calculated by subtracting the in-
service year from the current year, 2010) or the capacity factor was below the minimum criteria
the plant scored as Not Considered and no further analysis was performed. Those plant sites that
passed this initial hurdle were analyzed by NREL to determine annual average DNI, topography
of the land, and the amount of land available. The amount of land available on an acre-per-fossil-
plant-megawatt was calculated by dividing the land amount provided by NREL by the fossil
plant capacity. Sites not meeting minimum criteria for those parameters were also classified as
Not Considered. The remaining sites were analyzed with EPRIs solar use performance models
that were developed for an earlier project [2, 3] to determine solar-use efficiency and overall
augment potential. As data were input into the spreadsheet, each site was scored based on the
criteria described above. Figure 2 shows a sample of the scoring spreadsheet.


Figure 2. Scoring sheet with examples of Not Considered rankings.


8
Estimating Solar-Augment Potential
Each plant was first screened as a full plant and then evaluated on a unit basis. On the plant level,
the in-service year of the newest unit of the plant and the highest capacity factor between 2009
and 2010 was used for the screening. All plants that passed the minimum criteria of newer than
30 years and greater than 15% capacity factor were submitted to NREL for land and solar
resource analysis.
Analysis for the physical location, topography, and average annual solar DNI value for each
considered power plant was conducted at NREL using ArcMap Geographic Information System
(GIS) software. The analysis was conducted using the following primary steps:
Verify the latitude and longitude for each proposed location.
Analyze the topography for each location and filter results based on usable land
requirements.
Calculate the average solar DNI for the plants that meet the usable land requirements.
Proposed plant locations (latitude/longitude) were cross referenced to ensure geographic
precision and the verified geographic coordinates were analyzed for the land use criteria. The
analysis was performed initially using a 3.25-km radius to ensure inclusion of all available raster
grid cells. A 3-km radius was selected based on previous EPRI studies that indicated solar fields
located further from the plant power block have significantly higher capital cost, greater thermal
losses and higher auxiliary loads associated with pumping fluid long distances. The land filtering
techniques eliminated developed land, wetlands, open water, impervious surfaces (i.e. included
buildings and structures, roadways, etc.), and areas with percent slope greater than 5% [12].
Filtered results from the 3.25 km radius were then reduced to the desired 3-km radius by
converting the raster to vector format and clipping with the more precisely defined radius. The
contiguous area was then calculated for those areas that remained. Only land parcels of 10 acres
or larger were retained for final consideration in the solar-augment modeling process.
In order to determine the solar resource for each location the filtered parcels were spatially
joined to the average solar DNI data. The statistics for each region were calculated to provide the
average annual DNI for all parcels within the 3 km radius, and the final average was used as the
proposed plant solar DNI value. Additional statistics included average slope of the region,
average contiguous land parcel size, as well as minimum and maximum contiguous land parcel
sizes.
All plants that passed these initial criteria were then further evaluated on the unit level. For the
coal plants, each steam turbine was evaluated as a separate unit. For the NGCC plants, the units
were broken into combinations of combustion turbines and steam turbines. This was done as
logically as possible based on the unit sizes and in-service years of the individual steam and
combustion turbines and should provide a representative NGCC unit value for the plants. Each
steam turbine and combustion turbine combination was then given a unique, representative name
to be used throughout the analysis; however, these are not names that are necessarily used by the
plants.

9
A key criterion for a NGCC plant to accept solar steam is spare capacity in its steam turbines to
accept additional steam without backing off the combustion turbines. The NGCC plants were
evaluated in a few different ways to determine if there was sufficient steam turbine capacity. The
EIA 860 database was consulted to determine if the plants had duct burners or not. Typically, if
a NGCC has a duct burner, there is extra capacity in the steam turbine when the duct burners are
not firing, assuming that the plant does not operate as a cogeneration unit that generates steam
not used in the steam turbine. The EIA 860 database and the SNL database were consulted to try
to determine if a unit was a cogeneration unit or not. Duct burner manufacturers were also
consulted to learn where they had installed duct burners, though their response rate was low.
Finally, the ratio of the combustion turbine capacity to the steam turbine capacity was analyzed,
with the assumption that a typical combined cycle plant without extra steam turbine capacity has
a 2:1 ratio of combustion turbine to steam turbine capacity. Based on this collection of data, each
NGCC was analyzed to determine if it likely had sufficient extra steam turbine capacity for solar
augmentation. Those that did not were not analyzed further. For 68 units, mostly in the planning
stage, ratio information was not available. These plants were identified as plants that need more
information before further analysis can be conducted. For coal plants, the EPRI model assumes
that coal-firing will be reduced in order to accommodate the solar steam. Excess capacity in the
steam turbine is not necessary.
Plants were evaluated on a unit level in the same way that they were screened on a full plant
scale, except that the individual units in-service year and capacity factor were used when
available. For plants with multiple units, each unit was initially screened with the assumption
that it could use all of the land available surrounding the plant. However, in the modeling, the
full amount of land available was divided among the units. For all plant locations, only the single
largest contiguous land parcel was used. In some cases, it could be that two or more separate
parcels could be used to add more solar to a plant, but such a piecemeal configuration could
increase costs and was not used in this analysis.
Solar-Augment Integration
Units that passed all age, capacity factor, land availability, topography, and DNI screening
criteria were then evaluated in models developed by EPRI to determine the solar-augment
potential [2, 3]. EPRI developed detailed performance models using the process simulation
software IPSEPro to examine a variety of integration points and solar steam conditions. While a
more detailed analysis would be required before any specific project is undertaken, the modeling
tool does provide an estimate of the solar-use efficiency and annual solar output of a given plant
based on its general design, the amount of solar integration assumed and the solar resource
available at its location.
Each unit was evaluated for both parabolic trough and power tower integration. The solar steam
conditions (Table 2) are selected to match the typical steam pressure conditions expected in the
fossil power plant at the point of integration. Boiler feedwater is extracted from the fossil plants
Rankine cycle and routed through a heat exchanger, where it is heated by the heat transfer fluid
(HTF) coming from the solar field before being returned to the fossil plants steam cycle at a
location that depends on the steam conditions (Figure 3). The EPRI model was developed for oil-
HTF trough and molten-salt-HTF power tower systems and assumes a heat exchanger bank is
used to generate the specified steam. Similar performance results can be expected for other
working fluids, such as steam, if the same temperatures and pressures of integrated steam are

10
achieved. However, the cost and land usage of these direct steam generation designs may differ
from the assumptions used here.
Table 2. Steam conditions and integration points for solar-augment.
Solar Technology
Fossil
Technology
Preferred Integration
point
Solar Steam
Conditions
Parabolic Trough
Coal Before superheaters 165 bar, 371 C
NGCC Before superheaters 110 bar, 371 C
Power Tower
Coal After final superheater 165 bar, 538 C
NGCC After final superheater 110 bar, 538 C

The maximum amount of solar integration possible was determined for each unit, either based on
the size of the plant and limits determined in earlier EPRI studies or the amount of land
available. Limits imposed by the fossil plant included the duct firing capacity for NGCC units
and the steam pressure limits on coal plants. For plants that were not limited by the amount of
land available, the field was sized with a solar multiple of 1.2 over the maximum amount of solar
thermal input the plant could accept. (A solar multiple of 1.0 provides the exact amount of solar
thermal energy required when running at a specified design-point insolation.) While a solar
multiple greater than one results in defocusing some mirrors during peak periods of solar
resource, it results in more hours when the plant operates near full solar capacity. For plants with
a limited amount of land, it was assumed that the newest units would receive the maximum
augmentation based on the maximum solar field achievable. Power tower plants were limited to
a maximum tower height of 300 meters based on input from Sandia National Laboratory and
NREL. For sites with multiple units, it was assumed that one central receiver could provide solar
input to multiple units if the tower was within the 300 meter limitation. For these plants, annual
solar output is reported as a single output for all units fed by the tower. In cases where there were
multiple units and enough land, it was assumed that more than one tower could be built on the
same plant site to supply the multiple units. However, it was assumed that only one tower would
feed an individual unit.
Once the maximum solar field was determined, NRELs System Advisor Model (SAM,
https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sam/ ) was run for the solar field size and plant location to
determine the hourly thermal megawatt output of the field for a full year. These data were input
into the EPRI model and the annual megawatt-hour output due to solar and the solar use
efficiency were calculated. For NGCC plants, the EPRI model is based on solar steam integration
into the high pressure stage of the heat recovery steam generator. The coal plant integration
assumes that the solar steam is integrated with the main steam flow after the boiler and either
before or after the superheater, depending on the solar technology used. The solar-use efficiency
result for each unit was input to the database scoring spreadsheet as the final piece in the ranking
criteria. Each unit was analyzed for maximum solar input based on either the land available or
the plant size. It has been found that for solar-augmented plants, especially those using parabolic
troughs, increased solar input can result in decreased solar-use efficiency. As a result, for the
plants that did not have a land limitation, solar-use efficiency may be lower than those that had a
reduced amount of solar input. However, these plants will have a higher annual solar output.


11

Figure 3. Simplified schematic of solar steam integration into a coal plant. SH = superheater; RH =
reheater.
Rating the Plants
Once the plants were fully scored, they were ranked based on total score and assigned a rating of
Excellent, Good, Fair, and Not Considered. Ratings were assigned on a 5-point scale where a
score of 4-5 is Excellent, a score of 3-4 is Good, and a score of 2-3 is Fair. Plants and units that
did not qualify for a complete evaluation are listed as Not Considered with an explanation of
which criterion the plant failed. A handful of plants passed the initial hurdle but scored less than
2 in the ratings. Although they were evaluated, they were ultimately placed in the Not
Considered category. A few plants were dropped for other reasons such as insufficient
information on duct firing or extra steam turbine capacity.
Results and Discussion
It is important to note that the augment potential was calculated separately for parabolic troughs
and power towers; thus, cumulative numbers for the two technologies should be considered
individually and not added together. Technically, power towers offer a better option for
augmentation because they can achieve higher steam temperatures than troughs and, therefore,
have greater opportunity for integration with the fossil plant. From a project perspective, this
technical advantage may be countered by the greater maturity and lower risk associated with the
use of parabolic trough solar fields.

12
Capacity-Based Results
Table 3 displays the cumulative coal and NGCC nameplate capacity for the 16 states in the
study. The numbers include existing, under construction, and planned facilities and combine for
a total fossil-generation capacity of approximately 353 GW. For comparison, total nameplate
capacity for all sources in the U.S. is 1122 GW [1]. Also shown are the augment potentials in
MWe for both parabolic trough and power tower CSP technologies. The total augment potential
for troughs comes to approximately 11 GWe, while towers offer the ability to achieve over 21
GWe. The augment potential for troughs represents roughly 3.2% of fossil capacity and for
power towers corresponds to 6.1% of total fossil capacity. Figure 4 shows the cumulative
augment potential for the two different CSP technologies in graphical form. This format
highlights the greater potential and higher-quality potential capable with the power tower
technology. All the Excellent sites are in the southwest, but every state has at least one Good site.
Table 3. Nameplate Fossil-Fired Capacity and Solar-Augment Potential by State



Figure 4. Augment potential in capacity (GWe) for either troughs (left) or power towers (right).
State
Coal
Capacity
(MW)
NGCC
Capacity
(MW) Excellent Good Fair Total Excellent Good Fair Total
AL 12,620 13,020 - 45 723 767 - 49 918 967
AZ 6,760 15,570 849 253 - 1,102 1,794 97 - 1,890
CA 220 32,880 166 339 360 866 191 702 112 1,006
CO 6,120 4,290 - 173 283 456 - 953 167 1,120
FL 10,760 33,370 - 615 415 1,030 - 1,298 464 1,762
GA 17,300 9,590 - 131 523 654 - 609 701 1,310
LA 3,800 10,310 - 76 420 496 - 484 401 885
MS 2,920 7,680 - 18 363 381 - 215 438 653
NC 14,100 5,650 - - 242 242 - 191 505 696
NM 5,880 1,780 19 322 - 341 105 502 - 607
NV 3,420 7,280 396 154 - 549 553 418 - 971
OK 5,720 10,320 - 111 698 809 - 511 1,150 1,661
SC 6,800 3,470 - 205 121 326 - 457 119 576
TN 9,990 1,840 - 40 - 40 - 45 - 45
TX 26,840 54,960 - 740 2,103 2,843 - 4,453 2,008 6,461
UT 5,090 2,570 - 328 13 341 - 1,031 - 1,031
138,340 214,580 1,430 3,550 6,264 11,244 2,643 12,015 6,982 21,640
Percentage relative to total fossil capacity = 3.2% 6.1%
Parabolic Trough (MWe) Power Tower (MWe)
Excellent
13%
Good
31%
Fair
56%
Parabolic Troughs
11.2 GWe Total
Excellent
12%
Good
56%
Fair
32%
Power Towers
21.6 GWe Total

13

Energy-Based Results
Table 4 and Figure 5 display the results on the basis of total energy produced. Once again it is
apparent that power towers provide greater options for augmentation, with slightly more than
twice the total electricity production than is possible with parabolic troughs. The average
capacity factor of the fossil systems in this study is approximately 46% for NGCC and 56% for
coal generators. These values are almost twice that expected for the CSP technologies without
storage. The corresponding solar contribution to total electricity generation is about one-third
that stated above on a capacity basis. Troughs contribute about 1% to total annual energy
generation, while power towers can contribute up to 2.2%. Adding thermal storage to the CSP
system could increase their contribution, but this option was not included in the study. One
primary benefit of solar-augment projects is their lower project risk and adding thermal storage
would negate some of that advantage.
Table 4. Fossil-Fired Electricity Generation and Solar-Augment Potential by State



Figure 5. Augment potential in energy (GWhe) for either troughs (left) or power towers (right).
State
Coal
(MWhe/yr)
NGCC
(MWhe/yr) Excellent Good Fair Total Excellent Good Fair Total
AL 60,225,000 53,370,000 - 56,371 957,685 1,014,056 - 77,454 1,399,077 1,476,531
AZ 45,433,000 58,359,000 1,886,412 573,063 - 2,459,475 4,616,796 262,916 - 4,879,711
CA 1,600,000 189,886,000 392,558 624,209 605,522 1,622,289 519,194 1,500,123 197,589 2,216,906
CO 39,717,000 21,181,000 - 280,856 505,049 785,905 - 1,841,594 429,124 2,270,719
FL 55,587,000 160,378,000 - 897,681 615,040 1,512,722 - 2,094,672 712,369 2,807,040
GA 94,778,000 44,620,000 - 178,546 784,650 963,197 - 1,034,561 1,010,809 2,045,369
LA 25,242,000 38,264,000 - 97,932 605,441 703,373 - 732,134 666,936 1,399,070
MS 14,677,000 22,433,000 - 23,332 493,457 516,789 - 362,735 698,973 1,061,708
NC 70,905,000 30,094,000 - - 318,136 318,136 - 299,961 766,319 1,066,280
NM 42,172,000 7,502,000 42,124 710,663 - 752,788 272,172 1,187,217 - 1,459,389
NV 21,340,000 40,361,000 883,838 307,079 - 1,190,918 1,439,584 910,608 - 2,350,192
OK 36,576,000 48,791,000 - 154,462 1,022,963 1,177,426 - 861,349 1,991,516 2,852,865
SC 33,055,000 13,782,000 - 295,896 164,602 460,498 - 715,880 191,485 907,365
TN 47,561,000 12,095,000 - 51,365 - 51,365 - 71,241 - 71,241
TX 182,256,000 262,224,000 - 1,107,929 3,287,412 4,395,341 - 7,611,358 3,469,448 11,080,806
UT 37,027,000 14,948,000 - 593,496 20,830 614,326 - 2,158,241 - 2,158,241
808,151,000 1,018,288,000 3,204,932 5,952,882 9,380,788 18,538,603 6,847,746 21,722,044 11,533,644 40,103,433
Percentage relative to total fossil-derived electricity = 1.0% 2.2%
Parabolic Trough (MWhe/yr) Power Tower (MWhe/yr)
Excellent
17%
Good
32%
Fair
51%
Parabolic Troughs
18,500 GWhe Total
Excellent
17%
Good
54%
Fair
29%
Power Towers
40,100 GWhe Total

14

The solar-use efficiency (Figure 6) is calculated as the net electric energy attributed to solar
divided by the solar thermal energy delivered to the power block. For comparison, the net
thermodynamic conversion efficiency at design point for a solar-only trough or power tower
system is approximately 33% or 37%, respectively. (This efficiency is calculated as the plants
net electric output divided by thermal energy delivered to the power block.) Although this was
not a goal of the study, some of the best solar augment cases exceed the efficiency of the stand-
alone solar plants. This study seeks to maximize solar contribution and, as shown in Figure 1,
greater solar contribution often leads to lower solar-use efficiency.
As shown in Figure 7, the solar-use efficiency is slightly higher for NGCC plant augmentation
than for coal plants. These different efficiencies result from what governed solar-augment
capacity. EPRI limited NGCC plants by the duct burner or extra steam turbine capacity in the
plant, while coal plants were limited by when turbine pressure limits were reached. Turbine
pressure rises as one incorporates lower quality steam and seeks to offset the steam quality by
increasing mass flow through the turbine to maintain plant output. This is most apparent for
trough-based augments. Thus, the slightly higher solar-use efficiency in NGCC plants is an
artifact of the lower solar fractions applied to the NGCC plants. EPRIs prior work indicates that
solar-use efficiencies in coal plants can be higher than NGCC facilities when the integration is
optimized for high solar-use efficiency rather than maximum solar output [2, 3].

Figure 6. Higher temperatures allow power towers to have higher solar-use efficiencies
compared to troughs.

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
S
o
l
a
r
-
a
u
g
m
e
n
t

P
l
a
n
t
s
Solar Use Efficiency (net MWhe/MWht)
Trough Tower

15

Figure 7. The higher solar-use efficiency for NGCC plants is an artifact of their typically lower
solar-augment fraction due to limiting solar integration to the plants duct firing or extra steam
turbine capacity.
Emission Reductions
Solar-augment of fossil-fired power plants results in the reduction of air emissions associated
with coal and natural gas combustion. The potential emission savings were quantified by
examining the annual solar energy contribution in MWhe and assuming fuel consumption was
diminished according to the reported heat rate for the facility in question. If heat rate was not
reported, a value of 10,000 BTU/kWh for coal and 7,500 BTU/kWh for NGCC was used.
Emission savings were calculated using EPA emission factors that are typically listed as pounds
of pollutant per ton of coal or per standard cubic foot of natural gas [5]. Values were calculated
for carbon dioxide (CO
2
), sulfur dioxide (SO
2
) and nitrogen oxides (NO
x
). Other pollutants or
by-products, for example, mercury and fly ash, could be calculated in a similar fashion but are
not included in this report. The formula used for emissions reduction for each solar augment case
took the form of:
Reduced air emissions =
(Solar Augment, kWhe/yr)*(Heat rate, BTU/kWhe)*(CO2 emission factor, lb CO2/BTU)*(metric ton/2205 lb);
(Solar Augment, kWhe/yr)*(Heat rate, BTU/kWhe)/(heat value coal, BTU/lb)*(SO2 emission factor, lb SO2/ton
coal)* (0.9072 metric ton/ton);
(Solar Augment, kWhe/yr)*(Heat rate, BTU/kWhe)/(heat value coal, BTU/lb)*(NOx emission factor, lb NOx/ton
coal)*(0.9072 metric ton/ton).

Similar expressions were used to evaluate the emissions from natural gas combustion. The
emission factors and values used for coal and natural gas properties are shown in Table 5 below.
Values representative of Powder River Basin subbituminous coal were used for all the pulverized
coal plants in the western states and an Illinois Basin coal was selected to represent coal plants in
the eastern states. Actual fuel source for the individual plants is not reported. It was assumed that
all plants utilized low-NOx burners and coal units larger than 400 MW employed some form of
SO
2
scrubbing. (According to the EPA, the average size of units with SO
2
scrubbers is slightly
over 400 MW [11].) Because of these broad assumptions the estimated air emission savings
should be considered rough approximations.
-
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
33-34% 34-36% 36-38% >38%
S
o
l
a
r
-
A
u
g
m
e
n
t

C
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

(
M
W
e
)
Solar-Use Efficiency (MWhe/MWht)
Coal NGCC

16
Table 5. Emission Factors and Fuel Properties used to Estimate Avoided Air Emissions
Parameter Value Units Source / Comments
Coal heat value (western) 8,600 BTU / lb Representative of Powder River Basin subbituminous coal
Coal heat value (eastern) 11,400 BTU / lb Representative of Illinois Basin, high-sulfur coal
Coal CO
2
emission factor 210 lb CO
2
/ MMBTU http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/coal/quarterly/co2_article/co2.html
Coal SO
2
emission factor
(western)
4.6 lb SO
2
/ ton [5], assumes 0.6% sulfur coal and 80% scrubber control
(Units smaller than 400 MW have no scrubber)
Coal SO
2
emission factor
(eastern)
11 lb SO
2
/ ton [5], assumes 2.9% sulfur coal and 90% scrubber control
(Units smaller than 400 MW have no scrubber)
Coal NOx emission factor 7.5 lb NO
2
/ ton [5], assumes low-NOx burners and subbituminous coal
NG heat value 1,000 BTU / SCF Typical value for natural gas, SCF= standard cubic foot
NG CO
2
emission factor 0.12 lb CO
2
/ SCF [5]
NG SO
2
emission factor 0.6 lb SO
2
/ 10
6
SCF [5]
NG NOx emission factor 140 lb NO
2
/ 10
6
SCF [5], assumes low-NOx burners

The annual air emission reductions by state and in total are shown in Table 6. As before, the
values shown assume solar-augmentation using either parabolic troughs or power towers. The
total solar contribution for each approach (trough or tower) is provided along with the associated
estimated air emission reductions. The trough case reduces CO
2
emissions by 11.5 million metric
tons per year and the tower case provides an annual reduction of 30 million metric tons. A check
of these total emission values is made by comparison with the emission footprint for the electric
generation industry (by NERC region) published by the Leonardo Academy [6]. Average
industry-wide emission factors for the five NERC regions relevant for this study are: 1.4 lb
CO
2
/kWh, 0.0039 lb SO
2
/kWh, and 0.0020 lb NOx/kWh. Using these values yields avoided
emission estimates for CO
2
and NOx that are 15% to 30% lower, which can be explained by
nuclear and renewable power generators, as well as post-combustion NOx controls on some
plants, lowering the industry-average emission factor. The industry-average estimate for SO
2

emissions is within 2%, but when nuclear and renewable generation are accounted for this
suggests our estimated SO
2
savings maybe too low. That is, actual SO
2
savings may be greater
than listed in Table 6.
Figure 8 highlights the fact that solar-augment of coal plants yields much greater air emission
savings than the augment of NGCC power plants. This is due to the greater emissions that result
from coal combustion compared to natural gas use. If reduction of air emissions is the primary
goal, solar-augment of coal plants is an effective pathway.

17
Table 6. Annual Air Emission Reductions Assuming Deployment of Parabolic Trough or Power
Tower Systems to Augment Fossil Generators


Figure 8. Greater air emissions savings are achieved by augmenting coal plants versus NGCC
plants. Data for power tower augment shown. SO
2
emissions from NGCC are less than 33 MT/yr.
According to the US EPA, the average coal plant emitted 3.85 million metric tons of CO
2
in
2005; therefore, the estimated CO
2
savings of 30 million metric tons per year is roughly
equivalent to elimination of 8 average-size coal power plants in the U.S. [10].
Deployment Impacts
Figure 9 shows the deployment of solar-augment systems by state for the parabolic trough and
power tower cases. Texas displays the greatest potential due to its good solar resource and
numerous fossil power plants. The sunny southwest holds the only states with opportunities that
score Excellent, but every state has at least one application that ranks Good.
State
Solar Power
Generation
(MWhe)
CO2 avoided
(metric ton)
SOx avoided
(metric ton)
NOx avoided
(metric ton)
Solar Power
Generation
(MWhe)
CO2 avoided
(metric ton)
SOx avoided
(metric ton)
NOx avoided
(metric ton)
AL 1,014,000 549,000 1,200 700 1,477,000 819,000 3,400 1,100
AZ 2,459,000 1,237,000 800 1,800 4,880,000 3,189,000 3,800 5,600
CA 1,622,000 658,000 100 800 2,217,000 925,000 500 1,100
CO 786,000 544,000 900 1,000 2,271,000 1,884,000 3,800 3,700
FL 1,513,000 1,004,000 4,500 1,400 2,807,000 2,094,000 13,500 3,100
GA 963,000 748,000 1,500 1,100 2,045,000 1,655,000 3,800 2,500
LA 703,000 511,000 900 700 1,399,000 1,144,000 2,200 1,700
MS 517,000 289,000 300 400 1,062,000 759,000 1,200 1,100
NC 318,000 250,000 1,700 400 1,066,000 959,000 7,300 1,500
NM 753,000 526,000 700 1,000 1,459,000 1,169,000 2,200 2,200
NV 1,191,000 625,000 1,100 900 2,350,000 1,588,000 5,100 2,800
OK 1,177,000 727,000 800 1,200 2,853,000 2,238,000 3,300 4,200
SC 460,000 305,000 2,100 400 907,000 657,000 7,600 1,000
TN 51,000 21,000 - - 71,000 29,000 - -
TX 4,395,000 3,014,000 3,300 5,400 11,081,000 9,058,000 12,600 17,600
UT 614,000 486,000 500 900 2,158,000 1,903,000 2,300 3,900
18,536,000 11,494,000 20,400 18,100 40,103,000 30,070,000 72,600 53,100
Parabolic Trough Augment Power Tower Augment
23,800,000 23,500,000
72,600
45,400
16,300,000
6,610,000
7,700
1.0E+03
1.0E+04
1.0E+05
1.0E+06
1.0E+07
1.0E+08
Solar Augment
(MWhe)
CO2 (MT/yr) SO2 (MT/yr) NOX (MT/yr)
E
n
e
r
g
y

G
e
n
e
r
a
t
e
d

o
r

E
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
s

A
v
o
i
d
e
d
Coal NGCC

18


Figure 9. Solar-augment capacity by state for parabolic trough (top) and power tower (bottom)
technologies. Note different y-axis scale.
The improvement of new technology cost with greater production volume is often tracked using
a progress ratio (PR), where:
_
Cost2
Cost1
] = (PR)
(numbc o] oIumc doubIngs)

Assuming a progress ratio of 0.90, as suggested by [7], and accounting for world-wide parabolic
trough capacity of ~2000 MW, the US solar-augment market alone could drive a 40% cost
reduction in parabolic trough technology due to deployment, while taking advantage of the lower
risk and cost associated with such projects.
-
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
AL AZ CA CO FL GA LA MS NC NM NV OK SC TN TX UT
S
o
l
a
r

C
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

(
M
W
e
)
Parabolic Troughs
Fair
Good
Excellent
-
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
AL AZ CA CO FL GA LA MS NC NM NV OK SC TN TX UT
S
o
l
a
r

C
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

(
M
W
e
)
Power Towers
Fair
Good
Excellent

19
At present there is only one 5-MW power tower demonstration in the US, although
BrightSources 370-MW Ivanpah project is under construction. The lower maturity of the
technology and greater size of the solar-augment market means the opportunity for cost
reductions in power towers is even greater than for troughs. Direct steam generation towers, such
as offered by BrightSource, are ideally suited for solar-augment applications because steam is the
desired final product. Steam towers are also simpler than molten salt designs, further reducing
project risk.
It is worth mentioning that several developers are investigating direct steam generation troughs.
The deployment of 500C steam troughs would improve the economics of trough augment
systems by elimination of the oil-to-steam heat exchanger bank and improve augment potential
by providing higher temperature steam than is possible with current 390C oil troughs.
If the full solar-augment capacity were developed, the estimated cost and land requirements are
listed in Table 7. The trough field is assumed to require 5 acres per MW and the tower heliostat
field is larger at 9 acre per MW. This power tower land area is based on values for large, single-
tower designs. Modular tower designs promoted by some developers are reported to have a land
use of roughly 50% smaller, i.e., comparable to the trough footprint. Investment costs are based
on current estimated costs for parabolic trough and power tower systems minus the power block,
but including costs for integration with the fossil plant. These are assumed to be approximately
$4000/kW for troughs [8] and $3400/kW for steam towers [9]. As noted above, costs are
expected to fall as deployment volume increases.
While this study seeks to identify the most favorable solar-augment sites, is does not address the
specific economics of solar-augmentation. It is important to note that EPRIs latest analyses [2,
3] indicate solar-augment of fossil power stations is not cost-effective based purely on the cost of
energy and using the current cost of parabolic trough and power tower hardware. However, the
solar-augment option is believed to be less expensive and contain less project risk than a stand-
alone solar plant. For utilities grappling with renewable portfolio standards, solar-augment of
existing assets could be a valuable component to their renewable generation mix. Furthermore,
aside from the ability to generate steam, the benefits of solar-augment projects are not tied to a
specific technology. As CSP technology costs decrease, the solar-augment option is likely to be
the first approach to achieve true cost parity with the traditional generation technologies.


20
Table 7. Estimated Solar Augment Capacity by State and the
Associated Land and Investment Requirements


Conclusions
Solar-augment of existing fossil power plants offers a lower cost and lower risk alternative to
stand-alone solar plant construction. This study ranked the potential to add solar thermal energy
to each of the coal-fired and natural gas combined cycle plants found throughout the 16 states
representing the southern half of the United States. Each generating unit was ranked on a four-
tiered scale ranging from Excellent to Not Considered. Separate analysis was performed for
parabolic trough and power tower technologies due to the difference in the steam temperatures
that each can generate. The study found a potential for over 11 GWe of parabolic trough and
over 21 GWe of power tower capacity. Power towers offer more capacity and higher quality
integration due to the greater steam temperatures that can be achieved. The best sites were in the
sunny Southwest, but all states had at least one site that ranked Good for augmentation.
The study sought to maximize solar energy generation. Even so, the solar-use efficiency for the
solar field sizes evaluated is comparable to stand-alone CSP plant designs. Smaller solar-
augment fraction may yield higher solar-use efficiencies, if that is the dominant design criterion.
The cost of technology deployment and project risk are lower than stand-alone CSP plants,
suggesting that solar-augmentation is an attractive option for near-term deployment of solar
power to meet renewable portfolio standards and reduce greenhouse gases and other air
pollutants. These studies assume solar-augment to offset fuel usage at the fossil power stations.
Accordingly, replacing fuel used for duct firing in NGCC plants will yield the best economics;
however, the reduction of air emissions is much greater when coal plants are augmented.
State
Capacity
(MWe) Land (acres)
Investment
($M)
Capacity
(MWe) Land (acres)
Investment
($M)
AL 767 3,840 3,100 967 8,700 3,300
AZ 1,102 5,510 4,400 1,890 17,010 6,400
CA 856 4,280 3,400 967 8,700 3,300
CO 456 2,280 1,800 1,120 10,080 3,800
FL 1,030 5,150 4,100 1,762 15,860 6,000
GA 654 3,270 2,600 1,310 11,790 4,500
LA 496 2,480 2,000 885 7,960 3,000
MS 381 1,910 1,500 653 5,870 2,200
NC 242 1,210 1,000 696 6,260 2,400
NM 341 1,710 1,400 607 5,460 2,100
NV 549 2,750 2,200 971 8,740 3,300
OK 809 4,050 3,200 1,661 14,950 5,600
SC 326 1,630 1,300 576 5,190 2,000
TN 40 200 200 45 400 200
TX 2,843 14,210 11,400 6,461 58,150 22,000
UT 341 1,710 1,400 1,031 9,280 3,500
11,235 56,190 45,000 21,601 194,400 73,600
Parabolic Trough Augment Power Tower Augment

21
References
1. Energy Information Administration, http://www.eia.doe.gov/
2. Solar Augmented Steam Cycles for Coal Plants: Conceptual Design Study, Report 1018648,
Project Manager: Cara Libby, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, April 2010.
3. Solar Augmented Steam Cycles for Natural Gas Plant: Conceptual Design Study, Report
1018645, Project Manager: Cara Libby, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA,
July 2009.
4. SNL Energy, http://www2.snl.com, part of SNL Financial LC, Charlottesville, VA, USA.
5. US EPA, Clearinghouse for Inventories & Emissions Factors, AP42, Fifth Edition, Volume I,
Chapter 1: External Combustion Sources, http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch01/index.html
6. Emission Factors and Energy Prices, Leonardo Academy Inc., www.leonardoacademy.org,
Madison, WI, April 21, 2009.
7. Assessment of Parabolic Trough and Power Tower Solar Technology Cost and
Performance Forecast, Sargent & Lundy LLC Consulting Group, Chicago, IL, NREL/SR-
550-34440, October 2003.
8. Turchi, C., M. Mehos, C. Ho, and G. Kolb, Current and Future Costs for Parabolic Trough
and Power Tower Systems in the US Market, NREL/CP-5500-49303, October, 2010.
9. Kolb, G., internal analysis based on costs in Power Tower Roadmap, Sandia National
Laboratories, 2010.
10. http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-resources/calculator.html
11. Steam Electric Power Generating Point Source Category: 2007/2008 Detailed Study Report
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Report 821-R-08-011, Washington, D.C., August
2008.
12. Land classification and impervious surfaces determined by Multi-Resolution Land
Characteristics Consortium using NLCD 2001 data. Percent slope is calculated using the U.S.
Geological Survey National Elevation Dataset at a 1 arc second (nominally 90 m) resolution.

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4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Solar-Augment Potential of U.S. Fossil-Fired Power Plants
5a. CONTRACT NUMBER
DE-AC36-08-GO28308
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5c. PROGRAM ELEMENT NUMBER

6. AUTHOR(S)
C. Turchi, N. Langle, R. Bedilion, and C. Libby
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14. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 Words)
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems utilize solar thermal energy for the generation of electric power. This
attribute makes it relatively easy to integrate CSP systems with fossil-fired power plants. The solar-augment of fossil
power plants offers a lower cost and lower risk alternative to stand-alone solar plant construction. This study ranked
the potential to add solar thermal energy to coal-fired and natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) plants found
throughout 16 states in the southeast and southwest United States. Each generating unit was ranked in six
categories to create an overall score ranging from Excellent to Not Considered. Separate analysis was performed for
parabolic trough and power tower technologies due to the difference in the steam temperatures that each can
generate. The study found a potential for over 11 GWe of parabolic trough and over 21 GWe of power tower
capacity. Power towers offer more capacity and higher quality integration due to the greater steam temperatures that
can be achieved. The best sites were in the sunny southwest, but all states had at least one site that ranked Good for
augmentation.
15. SUBJECT TERMS
Solar-augment; CSP; solar; hybrid
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