Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009

8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

Assignment A Title: Construction Products and Materials Production and Application

Task 1- P4.4a- Describe the main performance criteria relating to the specification of a range of vocationally relevant construction materials including, as appropriate basic details of the production and/or manufacturing processes.
1. Describe the Production/Manufacturing processes for the following materials: Crushed Aggregate Concrete Hollow Concrete Block work Limestone Block work Crushed Aggregate Crushed aggregate is a natural material, rocks from quarries, in which it undergoes a crushing process to be divided into several types varying in size. There are two types of crushed aggregate; the fine aggregate and coarse aggregate. The following table shows some of these properties of both fine and coarse aggregate: In a quarry, first and foremost the rocks are excavated and trimmed into comprehensive fragments using either a trencher or hymac. Then the comprehensive fragments of rocks are loaded on a truck and transported to the rock crushers such as a jaw crusher, hydraulic pressure cone crusher, cone crusher, impact crusher, or hammer crusher. Aggregates are a basic resource, which are used as a base material under foundations and as a basic input materials for concrete and asphalt. It is categorized of basic materials used in construction, including gravel, sand, crushed stone, slag and recycled concrete. There are listing specifications for various construction aggregate products, which by their individual design are suitable for specific construction purposes. Aggregates can either be natural or manufactured. Natural aggregates are generally extracted from larger rock formations through a quarry. The rock is exploded from the quarry walls and than reduced in size using a series of screens and crushers. Manufactured rock typically consists
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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

of industrial by products such as slag or specialty rock that is produced to have a particular physical characteristic not found in natural rock. Aggregates are used in concrete for the following reasons: They greatly reduce cost They reduce the heat output per unit volume of concrete and therefore reduce thermal stress They reduce the shrinkage of the concrete They help to produce a concrete with satisfactory plastic properties There may be other reasons for which special aggregates would be employed; for example: Low-density concrete to decrease foundation loads, increase thermal insulation and reduce thermal inertia (lightweight aggregates). High-density concrete as required, for example, for radiation shielding (barytesbarium sulphate- or iron-based aggregates). Abrasion-resistant concretes for floors (granite or carborundum aggregates) Improved fire resistance (limestone, lightweight aggregates such as expanded pulverised fuel ash) Decorative aggregates- for example, crushed granite is available in several different colours which can be revealed by use of an exposed aggregate finish. The maximum size of an aggregate should be as large as possible, consistent with minimum section size and reinforcing bar spacing.
Normal max. Size (mm) 40 20 10 5 Application Mass concrete, road construction General concrete work, including reinforced and prestressed concrete Thin sections screeds over 50mm thickness Screeds of 50mm thickness or less

The jaw crusher is used to crush any kind of mining stone and crushes the material at 320MPa at the maximum compression resistance. The motor in a jaw crusher transmits the power through a belt in which the moving jaw drifts periodically to the fixed jaw. Therefore the angle between the toggle plate and the moving jaw increases at times when the moving jaw progresses upwards. The bulky fragments of rocks will be eventually crushed by this named process. The jaw crusher is easy to maintain, has a high ratio of crushing, is simple structure machinery and is reliable in different working conditions. The resulting crushed material will be conveyed through a tunnel outlet in which the crushed aggregate is transferred into different types of layered sieves. Larger aggregates result in a lower sand requirement. This reduces the specific surface of the aggregate overall and 2 of 30

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

consequently reduces water and cement requirements. The resulting concrete should therefore be more economical and exhibit lower shrinkage for a given strength. Both crushed and uncrushed natural gravels have naturally continuous grading, but to comply with BS 882, the grading must be within certain limits. Grading is determined by passing aggregates through a set of standard sieves, the particular sieves used depending on the maximum aggregate size. The grading is then defined by the percentage of the total sample used which passes each sieve. The hydraulic pressure cone crusher follows the same process of crushing as the cone crusher, but as the name implies, the difference is that the hydraulic pressure cone crusher works with a hydraulic pressure system, which is described further on. The cone crusher is again used to crush varies types of rocks of different hardness. When comparing the jaw crusher to the cone crusher, one should note that this crusher is more stable, heading a higher efficiency and easy adjustments. The cone crusher uses a spring safety system so as to resist to overloading of the material during crushing. This cone crusher crushes the fragments of rocks by the motion of the working surfaces between the movable cone and the other cone which is fixed. The fixed cone is supported on a hanging erect shaft which is rigid in the eccentric sleeve on the stopping and pushing bearing. On the other hand, the movable cone is braced by a spherical bearing in which this cone is impelled to the erect shaft by the eccentric shaft sleeve. The wheel of the conveyor belt is dashed by the motor through the v- belts and the eccentric shaft sleeve is forced by the horizontal shaft. At the moment, the eccentric sleeve rotates, a conical surface is formed and when the movable cone comes closer to this one, the material is crushed and grinded into pieces. This type of crusher determines the size of the aggregate by ascending or descending the fixed hole. The impact crusher is used to crush different in size materials, such as stone or rocks whose side length is less than 500mm. An impact crusher can crush at 350MPa at maximum compression resistance. The motor in an impact crusher rotates the rotor motor with a high speed where the hammers are installed. The bulky fragments of rocks or stones are transferred to this area where an impact at a high speed by the hammers is established. The resulting material is propelled to another impact device above the rotor. This process leads to the recrushing of the material for a number of types depending on the size of the issued crushed aggregate.
Sieve size 10mm 5mm 2.36mm 1.18mm 600m 300m 150m Passing 150 Mass retained (g) 0 6 17 32 48 81 86 17 Cumulative mass retained (g) 0 6 23 55 103 184 270 287 Mass passing (g) 287 281 264 232 184 103 17 Percentage passing 100 98 92 81 64 36 6 -

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BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

Most natural aggregate have solid densities within quite a narrow range of values, between 2400 and 2700 kg/ . These would result in concrete having densities normally in the range 2200-2500 kg/ , slightly lower than the corresponding aggregate densities an account of the water content of the concrete. Lightweight aggregates comprise highly porous particles and are widely used in the construction industry. They have the advantages that: Fewer raw materials are used in producing the concrete. Foundation loads are reduced Thermal properties are improved. Examples of synthetic lightweight aggregates are sintered pulverised fuel ash, expanded clay, blast-furnace slag and expanded slate. Natural lightweight aggregates such as pumice may also be used. Heavyweight concretes are used only in a very specific applications when increasing the unit mass of concrete can be considered and added value which can offset the higher price of heavyweight aggregates. Normal strength heavyweight concretes are mainly used when building huge counterweights or shields for radioactive rays. Such concretes are produced by use of high-density aggregates such as: Barytes Magnetite Metallic Concrete Concrete is a composite material in which it includes; aggregate, cement, water and chemical Admixtures. Therefore one can state that concrete is a mixture of paste and aggregate, the paste being the mixture of cement, water and Admixtures. The so called paste and aggregate hardens and forms the block work, known as 'concrete' after the hydration process is sustained. The illustration shown, exhibits one typical example of concrete mixture using Portland cement. One should note that the mixture has some standard ratios so as to achieve the standard concrete grades listed such as: Grade C15, C25, and C30. The ready- mix concrete plant have different in size and type silos so as to store different materials in them such as aggregate, cement, water and admixtures Concrete is essentially a mixture of cement, aggregates and water. Other materials added at the mixer are referred to as admixtures. A conveyor belt is used to deposit and transport different materials to be mixed together. The ready mix concrete truck is first and foremost placed underneath the
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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

plant delu' and the materials, one after the other are conveyed and deposited in the drum of the ready- mix concrete truck through conveyor belts attached to the plant delu'. A water pipe is also attached to the drum and one can add an amount of water according to the weight of the material deposited in the truck drum. At this instance, the mixture starts to harden while the drum of the ready- mix concrete truck turns around and revolves so as to mix up the concrete. When the process is completed the truck moves out of the place and starts its way to transportation to the construction site. Through the journey, the drum of the ready- mix concrete truck still continue to revolve until it reaches the construction site so as to prevent from the concrete hardening to blow out of proportion. This process will result in fresh ready- mixed concrete in which progressive hardening, stiffening takes place while the concrete sets and develops in its strength. When transported to the construction site and the concrete is said to be workable and well mixed, it is placed accordingly to one's needs before the mixture stiffens. To have a good quality of concrete the correct proportion of ingredients, placement and curing are needed. Concrete has many advantages that add to its popularity. It is economical; it has long life and need low maintenance requirements which increase its economic benefits. Concrete is resistant to water, wind and also able to resist high temperatures. Despite these advantages concrete has relatively low tensile strength; low ductility and it can get cracks. There are many different types of cements to make different types of concrete. The most important are Portland cements; so named because of a similarity in appearance of concrete made with these cements to Portland stone. Portland cements are made by heating finely divided moistures of clay or shale and chalk or limestone in kin to a high temperature around 1500C, such that chemical combination occurs between them. About 5 per cent gypsum is added to the resulting clinker in order to prevent flash setting and the final stage involves grinding to fine powder. Water is the chemical means by which cement is converted from a powder into hardened material with strength and durability. It therefore needs to be of appropriate quality and two main aspects may need to be considered. Water which is in contact with organic matter such as vegetation can be contaminated by organic acids. In other way sea water, for example, may contain dissolved salts such as sulphates which can react with the hydrated cement, or chlorides which tend to accelerates hydration and increase the risk of corrosion of embedded steel. Concretes strength may also be affected by the addition of admixtures. These are substances which are added during the mixing process. Some admixtures require less water because they add fluidity to concrete. Not all type of admixtures increases concrete strength. The selection and use of admixtures are based on the need of the concrete. The workability of the concrete can be measured by the Slump test. A slump test is usually measured by filling an Abrams cone with a sample from a fresh batch of

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BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

concrete. The cone is placed with the wide end down onto a flat surface. When the cone is lifted off, the enclosed material will slump a certain amount due to gravity. Hollow Concrete Block work Concrete blocks can be used for any formal, angular pool. They may be solid or hollow. Solid blocks come in various thicknesses (10cmm/4in is commonly used for pond work) and measure about 46 23cm/18 9in; hollow ones are ususally 23cm/9in thick and measure approximately 46 23cm/18 9in. These thicker hollow blocks will form a wall more quickly than the solid ones, but the hollows have to be filled with a strong fatty mix of concrete as you build up the sides. The 10cm/4in blocks can be used singly to form a cavity wall, backfilled with concrete or side by side to form a cavity wall of any required thickness with the cavity being filled with concrete. In this method, the cavity becomes an uninterrupted wall of poured concrete, which provides greater strength than infilling hollows blocks. There are varies sizes of hollow concrete blockwork, but one can find mainly four standard sizes which are: 230mm (9 inch) Double Block 230mm (9 inch) Single Block 180mm (7 inch) Single Block 150mm (6 inch) Single Block 115mm (4 inch) Single Block The concrete hollow blockwork can be found also fairfaced and special where one can divide the concrete blockwork into two either length ways or side ways, as shown below: The hollow concrete blockwork is placed and stored accord to size in different compartments and forklifters are used to transport the cured hollow blockwork from one place to another within the factory. Block work walls can be built the day after the base and sides join or reinforce the whole structure. Once the walls have been built to the desired specification, any extra voids between these and the earth sides can be filled with a lean concrete mix. With all methods the base is made of poured concrete, and has a central hollow or sump of pumping and cleaning. The gap between the walls and the earth or polythene membrane is filled with a strong lean concrete mix, raked back at the top to allow plenty of room for a thick bed of mortar beneath the capping stones. The block work walls can be rendered in sand and cement to give a smooth finish.

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BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

Limestone Block work Use of natural limestone block work has diminished greatly during the twentieth century largely on account of increased labour costs which have made the processes of extraction and cutting/dressing of stone uneconomic. The biggest barrier to continued major use is very high labour costs in cutting or dressing the material. Stone is now mainly used as a cladding material since some types have excellent appearance and weathering properties and their use symbolises quality or prestige. Stone in this context is fixed as generally relatively thin slabs to a structural frame and therefore must be regarded as a cladding rather than the more tradional masonry form. The Coralline limestone is mainly found in barren land and so special type of holes (furnelli) are drilled within the rocks and filled with gunpowder and half height above a blasting chord is then placed. The remaining half height is then filled with clay and compacted once again. These special types of holes (furnelli) are placed at a distant away from each other and when blown- up the rock is broken down into smaller stonework of discrete sizes and shapes. Depending on the size and shape of the boulder blasted, it is either cut as slabs or limestone blockwork while the smaller pieces crushed as aggregate. Moreover, the second quality hardstone is taken to a kiln and burnt so as to produce lime. The Globigerina limestone follows a completely different way of being manufactured. First of all the topsoil found should be excavated and removed to another side to be transported for relocation. A mechanical shovel will clear away the exposed weathered layers and level the rocks to expose the Globigerina limestone. At the instant where the Globigerina limestone is found, the next process would be the cutting of limestone blockwork by means of a vertical circular saw along metal rails, at regular intervals. Then a horizontal blade cuts the blockwork and each stone is put vertically up and rolled away to be transported. The latter layers of so called 'soll' or also known as clay- impregnated stone could be found at various depths, though this layer is removed. The properties of stones vary greatly according to classification and also according to location. The performance of sandstones in particular can vary within wide limits according to the nature of the cementing material, which may be based upon calcium carbonate, iron oxide or silica. The best indication of likely performance is therefore obtained by reference to existing buildings from each specific material type and origin. Tradional stone masonry must be suitably bonded as any other form. The commonest method of construction is to construct corners from dressed stone and these are built first to define the building shape and plumb the facades.

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

Task 1- P4.5a- Identify and describe the most important features and properties of a range of construction related materials and the mechanisms by which these materials can fail in use.
2. Identify and describe the most important features and properties of the following construction materials: Reinforced Concrete Limestone Block work Waterproofing Membranes Reinforced Concrete Concrete is arguably the most important building material playing a part in all building structures. Its virtue is its versatility, i.e. its ability to be moulded to take up the shapes required for various structural forms. It is also very durable and fire resistant when specification and construction procedures are correct. The first process one should take for laying of fresh concrete is the shuttering and this process is done in order to hold still the concrete in the desired formwork until it hardens and stiffens. Therefore the shutter and formwork should be adequate and stable enough to withstand and be capable of bearing the forces and loads which are created by the fresh concrete and the vibrations and compaction due. As a matter of fact, the joints should be well fixed and durable so any leaking of concrete is avoided during vibration and curing. There are two types of shutter being steel roadform or timber shuttering, though timber shuttering is the one which is widely used. Concrete can be used for all standard buildings both single storey and multi-storey and for containment and retaining structures and bridges. Some of the common building structures are as follows: The single-storey portal supported and isolated footings The medium-rise framed structure which may be braced by shear walls or unbraced. The building may be supported on isolated footings, strip foundations or a raft. The tall multi-storey frame and core structure where the core and rigid frames together resist wind loads. The building is usually supported on a raft which in turn may bear directly on the ground or be carried on piles or caissons. These buildings usually include basement. Timber shuttering is set on site and it can be used for various forms of structural elements, varying shapes and depths. The shutter or formwork should not be removed prior to twenty- eight days from handling and placing of concrete. Next comes the placing and finishing of concrete process in which it involves other properties such as the fluidity and consistency of the concrete. The concrete should be fluid enough to pass through the reinforcement but consistent enough to stabilize itself within the formwork or shutter. In order for the concrete to be settled well in place and be stable vibration and compaction
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BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

should be adopted. The vibrations and compaction adopted should eliminate all the air particles trapped during mixing and handling of the concrete. The air particles trapped would damage the reinforcement by corrosion. Up till now the concrete is set and handled, now the next step would be curing. Consideration has already be motioned and gives to properties of cements and aggregates and it is now necessary to identify the important properties of the concrete itself in the fresh and hardened states and to examine the effect of materials types and proportions on them. The most important single term in understanding how mix parameters affect concrete properties is the water/cement ratio. The properties of concrete must be satisfactory in relation to its workability and its cohension. Workability is that property of the concrete which determines its ability to be placed, compacted and finished. The slump test is used to measure the workability. In the slump test concrete is placed into special cone in three layers of equal height, each layer being compacted in a standard manner. On removing the cone the concrete slumps, the slump being equal to difference between the height of the cone and the highest point on the concrete. When the concrete slumps evenly, a true slump is said to occur. In less cohensive concretes, collapse may occur on a inclined shear plane, producing a shear slump. A wet mix of low cohension may produce a collapse slump. The workability of concrete for a given situation should be the minimum value that will ensure full compaction with the plant available, due consideration being given to difficulties that may arise from access, congested reinforcement or depth of pour.
Workability Category Extremely low Very low Slump (mm) 0 0-10 Compacting factor 0.65-0.7 0.7-0.75 Vibe time (seconds) Over 20 12-20 Applications Less mix concrete for roads. Roads compacted by power operated machines High-quality structural concrete; mass concrete compacted by vibration Normal purposesreinforced concrete compacted by vibrating poker

Low

10-30

0.75-0.85

6-12

Medium

30-60

0.85-0.95

3-6

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BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

High

60-180

0.95-1.0

0-3

or manually Areas with congested reinforcement, concrete for placing under water

In reinforced concrete the most important properties are strength and durability. Strength is normally considered to be the most important property in relation to mature concrete. The strength of concrete is affected by the following aspects of mix materials and proportions: Free-water/cement ratio:- as the quantity of free-water in a mix increase in relation to the quantity of cement, the density and, consequently, the strength of the concrete decrease. At very low water/cement ratios a significant part of the cement never hydrates, due to inadequate space and/or inadequate water. Aggregate properties:- crushed aggregates generally result in higher strength than uncrushed aggregates, since they form a better key with hydrated cement. To obtain very high strengths the use of crushed aggregates may be essential Cement type:- where high early strength is required, the use of rapid-hardening Portland cement may be considered, though long-term strength will be similar to that of OPC. Durability is similar to those given under strength, low water/cement ratios resulting in greatest durability. To illustrate this, concretes of free water/cement ratio 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8 would result in very good, moderate and poor durability respectively in concrete subject to average exposure. Limestone Block work In the construction industry we use, only two layers which are the Globigerina limestone and the Lower Coralline limestone. The Globigerina limestone is divided into three members, where the last one, the Lower Globigerina limestone member is found into two different units; the 'Franka' stone or the 'Soll' which is also known as the clay- impregnated stone. On the other hand there is the Lower Coralline Limestone layer where this is found into two different types: the first quality hardstone and the second quality hardstone. The Lower Coralline limestone is more resistant to water and more compact. The color of the Lower Coralline limestone varies from white to grey and later on from yellow to red. The first quality hardstone is now entitled as Malta marble and being retailed to use in buildings while the second quality hardstone is burnt in kilns so as to manufacture lime. Globigerina Limestone is the main building stone of the Maltese Islands. It forms part of the geological formation composed of, from top to bottom, Upper Coralline Limestone, Greensand, Blue Clay, Globigerina Limestone and Lower Coralline Limestone.
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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

Similarly to the other rocks of the Maltese Islands, Globigerina Limestone is sedimentary in origin. It is found in three distinct layers, called Upper, Middle and Lower Globigerina Limestone, which are separated by Lower Globigerina Limestone, which are separated by phosphatic nodule beds. It is the Lower Globigerina Limestone Formation that has been widely used for construction in the past and also today, since it provides the most favoured rock layer for extraction of blocks for building. The limestone blockwork can be found either in Globigerina limestone or Lower Coralline limestone. The Coralline limestone, having a thickness of 230mm (9'') is generally used for foundation works because it is more stiff and compact. On the other hand the other Coralline limestone blocks, having thicknesses of 180mm (7'') and 150mm (6'') is used for partition walls. The Globigerina limestone blocks which form part of the top mostly pure limestone, 'Franka' stone is used either for the facade of the building or for the partition walls. One can use the clayimpregnated stone found in the Globigerina limestone for foundation works. This is so because the clay- impregnated stone can only be used where it is not exposed to air, therefore dumped in the foundation works. One should note that the clay- impregnated stone would have a thickness of 230mm (9'') since this type of stone can only be utilized in the foundation works. When it comes to stone decorating or balustrades, one would think of the Globigerina limestone blocks and the thickness of the limestone block would depend on the size of the design proposed. The limestone blockwork could also experience moisture content when it is exposed to rain water, so one would think of a cover surface such as lime or gypsum. Globigerina Limestone used for building in the Maltese Islands occurs as two types; the more durable franka limestone which usually weathers well and the soll limestone which deteriorates badly, even in the same environment. Although impossible to distinguish on fresh quarry faces or hand samples, these two types of Globigerina Limestone have found to differ in geochemical and hence mineralogical composition, as well as in physical properties. Research on both fresh and weathered samples has led to an understanding of the main differences in these two types of stone. The soll limestone is richer in the no-carbonate fraction, which occludes some of the pore space, resulting in a lower overall porosity and a higher proportion of small pores. Waterproofing membranes Waterproofing membranes, as the name implies, are used as a barrier for water, water condensation and humidity. Waterproofing membranes are therefore applied to surfaces which are exposed to water such as rain or other weather elements. Waterproofing membranes protects surface such as roofs, floors, walls, basements, pools or fountains. These waterproofing membranes are usually included in roof membranes. There are other properties of waterproofing membranes which include UV resistance, cohesion and weather elements resistance such as excessive heat temperatures. Surfaces, such as roofs, which are exposed to water such as rain, hail or snow should be protected with a surface such as a waterproofing membrane. If not so, water will penetrate through the surface
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BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

causing water condensation and this will eventually lead to corrosion of reinforcement and humidity. Waterproofing membranes will resist UV, consequently waterproofing membranes will avoid excessive heat temperatures within the building especially in Summer. It is a well known fact that our land is very humid, therefore one could apply waterproofing membranes on floors and walls so the humidity found in sedimentary areas will not be allowed to flow through the building floors. Pools and fountains are also in need of waterproofing membranes during construction due to the fact that both pools and fountains are a type of water reservoirs. Therefore one should avoid the fact that the water will be discharged from these reservoirs through penetration of the material. As a matter of fact, one should apply waterproofing membranes so as to block the water from being dispersed or find a way out of the pool or fountain. The role of waterproofing is to protect a building's visual and structural integrity. It achieves this by forming an impervious membrane that prevents water entering or escaping from wet areas to dry areas. In order to effectively fulfil this role a membrane must possess the following qualities: The membrane must be impermeable to prevent the passage of water. Flexibility - membranes need to accommodate any normal movement that may occur in building structures. The membrane must be durable; it must be able to retain its integrity over a long period of time. The membrane must lend itself to design details in a building. It must be suitable for each specific application. The membrane is useless if it cannot be applied where needed because of structural details. The membrane must be able to breathe permitting the escape of moisture vapours from building interior and substrates. The membrane must be compatible with adhesives to ensure long term adhesion where tiles are directly fixed over the membrane. User friendly, the membrane must be easy to apply, relatively lightweight, non hazardous, and environmentally safe. In exposed areas such as rooftops, the membrane should require little maintenance, and in the event of damage must be easily repairable. It should provide a continuous film, without areas of weakness such as overlaps, which could prove to be a potential source of water entry. The membrane must be suitable to withstand environmental and climatic conditions.

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BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

3. Identify and describe the mechanisms by which the following construction materials can fail in use: Reinforced Concrete Limestone Block work Waterproofing Membranes Reinforced Concrete Reinforced concrete blocks can have some failures in use like:Overloading: - When designing a structure, one takes into account some structural considerations such as the load bearing properties of the building. The building should be designed to withstand the structural loads imposed on whether live loads or dead loads. A factor of safety ratio should be established so as to rely on, though if this factor of safety is neglected and the building is overloaded, it can easily collapse. At this instant failure of concrete is present due to the fact that the loads imposed on the structure are greater and excessive when compared to those predicted. Overloading can lead to bending of the structural element, such as a beam or slabs and the reinforced concrete will fail since the overloading would be unbearable Moisture Penetration: Moisture penetration is again another feature that leads to reinforced concrete failure. Moisture penetration within a structure could occur within the faces of the structure which are exposed to weather elements and water. When water or other wet elements penetrates through the reinforced concrete, one would expect corrosion of the reinforcement due to exposition of water and therefore trapped air. Moisture penetration in a building could also lead to humidity and thereafter mold could be found on walls or other structural elements. Carbonation: The carbon dioxide found in the air particles are converted to calcium carbonate as it attacks the concrete. Carbonation is found in concrete due to the cement content found within, and then it makes a chemical reaction with the air or water induced in the concrete mixture. Though the rate of carbonation in concrete will primarily depend on the moisture content and porosity of the concrete. Expansion of reinforced concrete: Due to the cement content in the concrete one could experience expansion in any structural element. Moreover reinforced concrete could also undergo expansion due to the reinforcement bars found within since steel is a ductile material which will withstand expansion due to heating for example. Sulphate attack: Sulphate attacks are said to be unpredictable of cause, though there are possibilities that sulphate attacks are caused due to soil, ground water, sea water and atmospheric pollution. Sulphate attack therefore is caused by the water penetration through soil at the ground and one would expect cracking, expansion or loss of bond between the aggregate and cement.

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BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

Limestone Block work Limestone Block work can have some failures in use like:Water penetration Water penetration: Water penetration within a limestone blockwork wall can be experienced by the walls which are exposed to the exterior weather elements, such as the rain. Rain water will make contact with the limestone blockwork wall and as limestone is porous, the rain water penetrates the wall blockwork. This penetration could lead to a lot of moisture content within the masonry stone which could not be removed, therefore mold is caused due to condensation within the building. This is in fact the reason why it is suggested that the walls which will be exposed on the exterior will be double type with an air cavity in between so as to prevent from condensation between the two skins. DPC level excluded: The DPC (Damp proof course) level is utterly important in buildings because the damp proof course will prevent the moisture content to reach the building's ground floor. If the moisture content would be within reach to the ground floor through the walls where the damp proof course is excluded, the surrounding walls and structural elements would experience mold. Waterproofing Membranes Waterproofing Membranes can vave some failures in use like:Strong winds Torde welding Bad detailing Rotting of timber structures and finishes such as floor joints, beams, floors, studs, skirting, architraves and frames. Corrosion of metals such as steel reinforcement in concrete, steel beams, lintels, metal door frames etc. Swelling of plasterboards and the subsequent debonding of ceramic tiles. Detailing: When it comes to such substantial material one would expect extra forethought and attention to detail. Waterproofing membranes are there to avoid irreversible and difficult to avoid complications once the situation is present. Therefore one should attentively carry on with the work required to handle waterproofing membrane. The detailing one would think of when dealing with waterproofing membrane includes even the way one applies and sticks together the waterproofing membrane sheets. Torch welding : Torch welding is a way of applying waterproofing membrane to a surface. This is said to be one of the best methods one can
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BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
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use, due to the fact that by torch welding, the waterproofing membrane is glued to the surface for sure. Having that high temperature produced by the torch, the waterproofing membrane dissolves momentarily and welds up to the surface applied to. Electrical hazards causing the possible short circuit of lighting and power points. The blistering of paint. Unsightly deterioration of the building facade.

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BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

Task 2- M4.3a- Make and support valid and appropriate decisions relating to the specification of materials for a tutor specified application, using given data and using calculations where appropriate.
4. You are required to provide a list of materials required for the construction and finishing of the extension, including: Walls, roofs and staircase; provision of insulation and water proofing; finishes, including wall, floor and ceiling finishes; external and internal apertures. Refer to material/product data sheet, drawings and photographs. Materials that is required for the construction and finishing of the extension:Globigerina Limestone Emulsion paints High alumina cement 20mm aggregate Medium density aggregate Water for concrete Low/Medium workability of fresh concrete Sand High strength concrete Plasticisers Concrete tiles Ceramic tiles Safety glass Under coat plasters Reinforced steel Timber Fire rated doors Bituminous Beams 5. You are required to make and support valid decisions relating to specification of materials for those extensions overlying the existing structure. Emulsion paints These are used in interior decorating. Many types are based upon polyvinyl acetate (PVA) emulsion and are suitable for application to new cement or plaster. These paints have the advantage of being water-miscible, although, on drying out, coalescence of polymer particles occurs, resulting in a coherent film with moderate resistance to water.

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

High alumina cement It is not a Portland cement and has quite different properties. It exhibits very rapid hardening properties. In consequence, the cement has been widely used for precasting, since the turn-round time of expensive steel moulds reduced. The design of HAC concrete is in fact based on 28-day strength for OPC concrete but also in 24 hour concrete. 20mm aggregate This is used in general concrete work, including reinforced and prestressed concrete. Medium density aggregate This is used typically for high strength concrete. Water for concrete Normal water, even drinkable water is used. Low/Medium workability of fresh concrete Both of them are good to work with high-quality structural concrete and for reinforced concrete. High strength concrete Generally refers to concretes having 28-day compressive strength. Such concretes may offer the following advantages:Increased hardening rates leading to reduced construction times. Smaller section sizes for a given load, leading to economies of spaces. Greater stiffness, hardness, chemical resistance and durability. Plasticisers These are perhaps the most widely used admixtures in the concrete industry, their use in ready-mixed concrete being especially common. The main water-reducing compounds are lignosulphonates and hydrocarboxylic acids and they operate by attaching themselves to cement grains, imparting a negative charge which causes grains to disperse more effectively.

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

Concrete tiles These tiles are going to be used in the roof because they are used for external. They have good durability and dont damage when it is a bad weather. Ceramic tiles These are use in internal especially in corridors and rooms and even in stairs. Safety glass For windows, safety glass is needed in corridors and in classes. Undercoat plasters This is used in roof because there is tendency that roof absorbs more water and therefore undercoat initiates stiffening. Finish coat plasters This will be selected primarily according to the surface hardness requirements, which will in turn depend on the situation within the building and the function of the building. This is used in corridors for which hardest plasters are required. Reinforced steel In order that the steel carries stress in the completed section, loads must be transferred via concrete. Hence the requirements for reinforcing steels are: The steel must bond to the concrete The steel must be ductile to permit bending as well as to guard against brittle failure. The steel should be weld able to facilitate joining. The steel should have high yield strength. Fire rated doors These are used for safety and protection. Bituminous Used for roof to reduce the risk of water penetration. It also permits easy production of membrane of suitable total thickness.
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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

For the materials used for cast in situ concrete, for reinforced concrete structural elements, you are expected to select the materials from the following specifications. Support your answer by justification for such requirements. Concrete (Compressive Strength Class) C25/30 and Aggregate for concrete LA25 Lightweight-aggregate concrete grade LA 25 will be used for the floor slabs and normaldensity concrete grade C25/30 for the encasement of the columns and the webs of beams. This because C25/30 has a small water/cement ratio that means it is much strong than C12/15. LA 25 has a small value so the material is much stronger than LA 40. The long-term compressive strain of these concrete under permanent loads is about three times the initial elastic strain, due to creep. Quality franka stone blocks (Char. Compressive strength: 15kN/sq.m) and Hollow Concrete Block work (Char. Compressive Strength: 8kN/sq.m) The more durable franka limestone which usually weathers well and the soll limestone which deteriorates badly, even in the same environment. Although impossible to distinguish on fresh quarry faces or hand samples, these two types of Globigerina Limestone have found to differ in geochemical and hence mineralogical composition, as well as in physical properties. Research on both fresh and weathered samples has led to an understanding of the main differences in these two types of stone. The soll limestone is richer in the no-carbonate fraction, which occludes some of the pore space, resulting in a lower overall porosity and a higher proportion of small pores. Hollow concrete block work of compressive strength of 8kN/sq.m is much stronger so it is the idlest concrete. Reference is made to a precast roofing system solution. Refer to the product data for these slabs. List the main specification requirements for the; Materials used in the manufacture of the slabs, and The final precast element. The Flat Slab flooring system incorporates prestressed concrete units designed for easy and fast placement while requiring the minimum on-site work to obtain a finished floor and ceiling. The large component units are craned into position, providing an immediate working platform which, with the addition of an in situ concrete topping, gives a suspended floor with a flat, steel formed soffit. Temporary propping is required for longer spans.

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

Features Large component units are craned into place rapidly with a minimum of on-site labour. Flat steel formed soffit can be left as is, or receive minimal treatment such as paint, sprayed texture or plaster. Notches, holes for services or penetrations can be cast in at manufacture. A 4 hour fire rating can be achieved with 150 mm slabs. Product Data Application: Suitable for structural suspended floors in most buildings with short or medium spans, particularly where a flat soffit is required for the finished ceiling. Manufacture: Flat Slabs are cast to length in steel moulds and have a smooth off the steel finish on the under surface. The top surface has a broomed finish to key with the in situ topping. Fire Resistance: Flat Slab systems have a minimum of 1 hour fire rating, but 75 mm units can be designed for 1 hours, 100 mm units for up to 2 hours, and 150 mm units for up to 4 hours, without further protection.

Flat Slab Load Span Table Self Weights for Handling The self weights of 1200 mm wide units for handling are: 75 mm 220 kg/lin m 100 mm 300 kg/lin m 150 mm 440 kg/lin m Pre-stressed hollow slabs. Pre-stressed, hollow-core concrete slabs offer several advantages over in-situ floor casting, including speed of erection, lower building costs and consistent quality levels attributes not often found in one convenient package. Slabs are available in standard widths of 1
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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

200mm, in thicknesses of 120mm, 50mm, and 200mm and 250mm, and in spans of up to 11m. Non-standard widths are also available and lengths are manufactured to suit individual requirements. Cairns noted that due to the weight saving up to a third or more the use of high-strength concrete, coupled with pre-stressing means that hollow-core slabs can achieve considerably larger spans than in-situ reinforced concrete slabs of similar depths. The slabs can be used in the construction of virtually a type of building in which suspended floors or roofs are required. These include flats, hospitals, office blocks, hostels, factories, hotels, townhouses, schools, shopping malls, multi-storey car parks and culverts. The fitting of down-lights into hollow-core slabs is fast becoming the preferred lighting solution thanks to the increasing use of precast hollow-core concrete floor slabs and improved lighting technology, the latter having led to smaller lights and enhanced performance. Other factors influencing the swing to down-lighting include the recent changes to municipal requirements both for large concrete light boxes and for single transformer units. Cairns noted that compared to fitting light boxes and conduits using the more traditional in-situ floor casting method, installing down-lighting in precast hollowcore slabs offer several advantages. Light points are far simpler and easier to place then in in-situ floor construction. This now requires much larger transformer boxes to be positioned between steel reinforcement, and the boxes are also difficult to position accurately. Costs are also lower as wiring and single light transformers can be installed the day after installation. The traditional method involves fitting larger light boxes, which are no more expensive than coring costs, and placing conduits before concrete is poured. Furthermore wiring can only begin once shuttering and scaffolding have been removed some two to three weeks later. Down-light coring is simple and accurate and far more economical than the installation of light boxes. Larger holes can be factory formed subject to a maximum diameter of 560mm and any edge chipping can be easily repaired with rhinolite or a similar material. Modern lighting equipment is a lot more compact, allowing for ancillary equipment to be stored in slab cores. A 12-volt single light transformer requires a minimum core of 70mm. This allows for short cylindrical transformers to be easily removed and replaced during maintenance. Longer transformers require larger cores. Smaller cores of 50mm or less can be used for 230-volt down-lights, which do not need transformers. A scientifically monitored experiment has proved that drilling core holes through the steel reinforcement of a hollowcore slab does not adversely affect performance. During the experiment, slabs were loaded and deflections measured. A professional civil engineer assessed the results and found the slabs to be well within allowable tolerances.

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

Task 3- D4.2a- evaluate a range of preventative and remedial techniques relating to the failures of materials appropriate to the learners vocational pathway.
6. You are required to identify various existing and potential defects and failures materials in the building structure and fabric. Reference is to be made to walls and roofs and finishes. These are some photos that I took as reference took some building structure failures.

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

In these pictures we see some failures in building. These failures are: Not good waterproofing membrane The concrete used is not applicable Walls are in bad condition either caused by weather or by a bad water/cement ratio Drain pipes are not secure Wiring was made badly and is not secure Piping is made so unpleasant Roofs are in bad condition Some frost attack was made in concrete Shrinkage on walls The wall is getting mouldy Bad detailing Steel: -Failures in steel could be categorized into three, design inadequacies, which are sharp corners or abnormal stress-raisers, inadequate fasteners, wrong material or heat treatment, unforeseen conditions of service, and lack of accurate stress analysis are included. Other type of failures are processing and fabrication, which are about half of these may be due to metallurgical factors such as quench cracks, improper heat treatment, forging or casting defects, non metallic inclusions. The other half are due to misalignments, weld flaws, improper machining or assembly, grinding cracks and cold straightening. The last category is the environmental and service deterioration. These include overloads, chemical attack, wear, corrosion, diffusion and improper maintenance. A failure usually occurs as, fracture, excessive deformation and deterioration. Failures of design inadequacies result from mistakes or incompetence of the designer. Regarding failures due to flaws developed by processing and fabrication, few, if any, standard tests cover all of the possible inherent defects that may be induced by such operations as casting, forging, welding, machining, grinding, heat treating, plating, chemical diffusion or careless assembly operations. Environmental and service deterioration failures can not be predicted by standard tests that evaluate materials. In some instances unforeseen vibrations or overload conditions may develop to cause failure. In others, service induced damage may develop fatigue failure. Many service conditions involve extremely rapid rates of heating or include radiation damage, ablation, corrosion or various types of wear. Deterioration during service in an aggressive environment needs to be given special consideration.Failures in steel could be such as ductile fractures, brittle fractures, fatigue fractures and fractures resulting from the combined effects of stress and environment. Ductile fractures are characterized by tearing of metal accompanied by appreciable gross plastic deformation and expenditure of considerable energy. Ductile tensile fractures in most materials have a gray, fibrous appearance and are classified on a macroscopic scale as either flatface or shear-face fractures. Brittle fractures are characterized by rapid crack propagation with less expenditure of energy than with ductile fractures and without appreciable gross plastic deformation. Brittle tensile fractures have a bright
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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

granular appearance, are of the flat-face type and are produced under plain-strain conditions with little or no necking. Fatigue fractures result from cyclic loading and appear brittle on a macroscopic scale. They are characterized by incremental propagation of cracks until the cross section has been reduced to where it can no longer support the maximum applied load and fast fracture ensues. In the fatigue fracture the fracture surface consists of three distinct zones, a fairly smooth, multiple origin fatigue zone containing "ratchet marks", a low cycle, rougher fatigue zone and a single cycle final fracture zone. Concrete: -One of the major failures of concrete is cracking. Shrinkage cracks occur when the water exits the concrete too quickly or where there was too much water in the mix. Compaction cracks occur when the substrate below the slab is insufficient compacted and settles leaving a hollow under the slab. Stress cracks occur when there are extreme loads placed on the slab for which it is not designed for.Another failure could be crazing and map cracking. This type of failure rarely presents structural difficulties or bonding difficulties. It does not penetrate more than a few millimeters below the surface. The predominant causes are improper finishing practices and improper curing practices.Low resistance to wear could be another failure in concrete. The concretes mortar at the surface could not gain sufficie nt strength. Low cement, high water to cement ratio, overworking the surface during finishing, improper curing, carbonation and freezing prior to sufficient strength development are the primary cause of this type of failure.Another concretes failure is when breaking away of the steel reinforcement. It may be caused by moisture attack of the reinforcement steel creating build up iron oxide. This exerts pressure in the concrete, causing it to fail in tensile stress. Another mode of failure occurs when inferior concrete is subjected to compression shear or flexural stress at the joints. Blisters are failures which results of entrapped air or free bleed water being trapped beneath the top mortar on the surface of the concrete during finishing operations. The primary cause is overworking the surface and attempting to close the surface with a hard steel trowel too early. 7. You are required to evaluate preventive techniques applicable to the following: Reinforced concrete slabs Limestone masonry walls Waterproofing Reinforced concrete slabs The design professional has a responsibility to the owners to insure that there are no substitutions for specified materials in the field. Teachers and students conflicts over failures with plain concrete slabs are being reported more frequently than ever before. These reports indicate that extensive cracking develops over time and displacement is
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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

occurring. In this school there are not getting what was promised in the way of protection from wide cracks, the surface quality is poor and difficult to finish, and they do not want to incur excessive maintenance costs to repair unravel joints and cracks. They are spending a lot of money, either in tearing up and replacing with steel reinforced concrete or placing additional concrete topping to repair the poor quality surfaces. The most important reason is that the contractors are surprised when the concrete still cracks and many of the cracks are very wide. There is settlement at the cracks and joints. More intermediate cracks are occurring. These problems increase maintenance costs for the owners. In a slab on grade with one layer of reinforcement the bar mats or flat welded wire sheets should be placed on supports 1/3 the depth from the top of the slab or a minimum concrete cover of 2 in. (51 mm). Many experts believe that the steel area should be reduced or terminated with slip steel dowels used at the control and construction joints to allow for free contraction and load transfer at those locations. The steel reinforcement industry believes these are good rules to follow, especially when large concentrated loads are applied to floors. Here are the benefits of steel reinforced concrete slabs: Steel reinforcing is simple to place. Steel reinforcing reduces random cracking. Steel reinforcing reduces and controls crack width and helps maintain aggregate interlock. Displacement and curling can be minimized when steel reinforced concrete is provided. Strength is increased with steel reinforced concrete even the smallest cross sectional area of steel reinforcement will provide reserve strength of l 6 percent and more. Most importantly, steel reinforcement saves money over the life of the slab. Finally, admixtures are not an alternative to steel reinforcement; they both do different things in the concrete. Therefore, admixtures cannot be substituted for steel reinforcement. The steel reinforcement industry is dedicated to providing quality steel reinforcement to the construction industry. It is also essential that steel reinforcement be sized, spaced, and placed properly. It is vital to have a well-graded and compacted granular sub base. Limestone Masonry walls Joints, sealing and bonding are used to protect and prevent the limestone masonry wall from failures and damages. Control Joints are provided in all masonry walls in order to prevent cracks appearing. All masonry walls greater than 6m in length will require a control joint. These cracks can be caused by various movements such as: Shrinkage of concrete masonry units (or expansion of clay masonry units);
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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

Temperature movements; Differential settlement of footings. Because there is some shrinkage in a concrete masonry wall after it is constructed, it is necessary to provide control joints in concrete masonry to prevent cracking due to that shrinkage and thermal movement. Control joints are required in clay masonry to allow for the expansion of clay and they are referred to as expansion joints. It is most important that these joints be thoroughly cleaned out and be sufficient width so that they allow the bricks to move freely. Control joints should be built into unreinforced concrete masonry at all joints of potential cracking but in no case greater than 6m spacing in articulated residential construction. The location of control joints will vary however they can be positioned behind down pipes or above and below window or door openings. Natural raw materials are utilized to manufacture this product. It consists predominately of limestone and as such will behave similar to that of natural limestone. Limestone ages gracefully over time and does slightly discolour. The amount of aging and time frame will vary depending on the environment and weather conditions the block is subjected to. The block will absorb moisture and will dry out slowly. To maintain the crisp clean fresh limestone look it is recommended to seal the completed wall. To protect your investment we would recommend that masonry construction in exposure environments be sealed. Bonding is made either one third or half bond can be used. Purpose made accessory bricks are available to assist in either laying pattern. One third bond requires fewer fractions. To maintain half bond a 240mm fraction as the corner brick is required on each course. Waterproofing The role of waterproofing is to protect a building's visual and structural integrity. It achieves this by forming an impervious membrane that prevents water entering or escaping from wet areas to dry areas. In order to effectively fulfil this role a membrane must possess the following qualities: The membrane must be impermeable to prevent the passage of water. Flexibility - membranes need to accommodate any normal movement that may occur in building structures. The membrane must be durable; it must be able to retain its integrity over a long period of time. The membrane must lend itself to design details in a building. It must be suitable for each specific application. The membrane is useless if it cannot be applied where needed because of structural details. The membrane must be able to breathe permitting the escape of moisture vapours from building interior and substrates.

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

The membrane must be compatible with adhesives to ensure long term adhesion where tiles are directly fixed over the membrane. User friendly, the membrane must be easy to apply, relatively lightweight, non hazardous, and environmentally safe. In exposed areas such as rooftops, the membrane should require little maintenance, and in the event of damage must be easily repairable. It should provide a continuous film, without areas of weakness such as overlaps, which could prove to be a potential source of water entry. The membrane must be suitable to withstand environmental and climatic conditions.

8. You are required to evaluate remedial techniques applicable to the failure of the following: Reinforced concrete slabs Limestone masonry walls Waterproofing Reinforced concrete slabs. Cement-based polymer-modified or polymer-binder-based mortars are used for concrete repair and rehabilitation. The particular characteristics of such mortars are: Good workability also for overhead application, applicable by hand or machine, low shrinkage, good bond to the substrate and high long-term durability. To protect concrete from further deterioration, all-over applied protection systems are used. Such systems can consist of a water-repellent impregnation, an invisible coating or a coloured coating. Depending on condition and requirements also elastic systems can be used, able to permanently close movement cracks and thus guarantee durable protection of the structures from further deterioration. Limestone Masonry walls These are some remedial techniques applicable to the failure in limestone masonry walls: Structural Glazing Insulating Glass Weather sealing Curtain Wall Facades Fire-resistant Facades

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

Waterproofing There are generally two types of waterproofing membranes that must be used to prevent failure - sheet membranes and liquid membranes. The nature of the problem to be addressed determines which type of membrane to be used. The purpose of sheeting membrane is to completely cover any imperfections in the substrate or background. They are numerous and include: Metal sheets in the form of lead, copper or stainless steel flashing or trays. Multilayer bituminous paper system with gravel topping for protection. Butyl rubber sheeting The sheeting membranes can be applied as fully bonded to the substrate or unbonded. In both cases sheets must be overlapped about 100mm wide and bonded to each other by adhesive or by heat welding. The seams are the weakest point in the system. Sheeting membranes in general suffer from poor exposure resistance, temperature stability and little recovery from deformation. All sheet membranes require venting if the substrate is water logged, or severe bubbling will occur developing stresses onto the adhesive leading to eventual adhesion fracture. The advantages of sheeting membranes provide highly trafficable surfaces and have insulating properties. The liquid applied membrane provides a fully bonded, continuous seam-free, homogenous layer with no laps or joins which is a major advantage over sheeting membranes. Some of the liquid membranes available are: Mastic asphalt, two components polyurethane tar modified, two components tar epoxies modified, single pack moisture curing polyurethane, water based epoxy two part for hydrostatic pressure situations In general liquid applied membranes are easy to apply, seamless, semi-flexible or elastomeric, ease of detailing, ease of maintenance and repair, UV resistant and economical. One of the important characteristics of liquid membranes is its ability to breathe.

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Malta College of Arts & Science & Technology

BTEC National Diploma Level 3 2008/2009
8/6/2009 Unit 4: Science & Materials in Construction Building

References
Composite structures of steel and concrete By Roger Paul Johnson Construction codes and inspection handbook By Gil L. Taylor Heritage, Weathering and Conservation By Alvarez De Buergo Ballest Staff, Rafael Fort Reinforced concrete By Thomas Joseph MacGinley, B. S. Choo Materials in Construction G.D. Taylor Report on The Future of Quarried Stone Anthony Cassar, Saviour Scerri

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