GEOS 251
Physical Geology
Spring 2012
Mineral deposits and related issues
(Chapters 3, 23)
Overview
Virtually every material at the surface of the Earth is used for some human purpose from soils, to building materials, to fuels (last lecture), to sources of rarer materials that are basic to civilization Of the 90+ naturally occurring elements in the periodic table, at least 88 have some use In mineral deposits, the typical division is between metallic and non-metallic (or industrial) mineral commodities Metals include the abundant metals (iron, aluminum, manganese, titanium, etc.) and the rarer metals (copper, lead zinc, gold, silver, platinum, nickel, chromium, etc.) Non-metallic commodities include fertilizers, industrial minerals (abrasives, rare elements, chemical feedstocks, ceramics), construction materials (sand and gravel to clays to stone) Geology of mineral deposits Mineral deposits are integral parts of larger geologic systems Most represent chemical / mineralogical changes or enrichments that make materials economic to produce (cf., subeconomic and discovered vs. undiscovered; last lecture) Mineral deposits underlie only a small fraction (less than a few percent) of the Earths crust unlike many other aspects of land use (preserves, cities, agriculture, forests), they are rare and hence deserve a different perspective Understanding the geology of mineral deposits is important for their exploration and production, but also is fundamentally important for many environmental and water issues; it also gives insight into energy issues (geothermal) and a key insight into geologic processes Societal issues Usage / demand the US uses approximately 3 billion tonnes of earth materials each year (ca. 10 tonnes per person) this is equivalent to the average amount of material produced each year by global arc volcanism! What happens if the rest of the world eventually uses even 1/10 of what we use today in the US? Is this sustainable? An important question recycling, conservation and development of substitutes all have merit and are actively being pursued nonetheless, large and increasing demand for earth materials is likely to continue for the indefinite future there is probably enough but we need to make informed choices. Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. (Brundtland Commission, 1987) Societal issues with mining are many: Sources of materials (no country is self-sufficient; the US is the largest producer as well as the largest consumer; availability has had a profound effect on history) Economic development and well-being (key in many countries and regions; cf., Arizona) Alternative land use (strong pressures in developed countries) Pollution (can be very serious yet can be managed particularly with newer technologies) 24 April 2012
Lecture 26
GEOS 251
Physical Geology
Spring 2012
Geologyof mineraldeposits
Mineral deposits form in crustal geologic environments, but particularly in the upper crust They require some type of geologic process magmatic, hydrothermal, or surficial. These processes lead to the changes in composition and form that convert a geological material into something of economic interest
Types
Magmatic Form from melts for example, density separation of heavy minerals (or the molten equivalents during cooling) Ni, Cr, platinum in a handful of very large deposits around the world dominate supply (e.g., the basaltic Bushveld intrusion in South Africa supplies most of the worlds chromium, and much of its platinum and vanadium all essential metals) Also important for diamonds (transport from mantle) and many industrial materials Hydrothermal Form from hot waters these may be of many sources Most metals, sulfur and other materials (such as quartz) are highly soluble in hot water and precipitate as that water cools or interacts with chemically reactive rocks, e.g., limestone Magmatic-hydrothermal deposits: these form from waters released from silicate melts as they crystallize (the subsurface equivalent of volcanic gases) Porphyry copper (tin, molybdenum) deposits (disseminated in large volumes of subvolcanic granitic rocks; Morenci, Sierrita, Bagdad, Ray in Arizona) are the most important; but also are skarn and replacement deposits in carbonate rocks (like those on Mt. Lemmon, at Bisbee or Superior in Arizona) Vein deposits (formed in faults and fractures) can form from many fluid sources and commonly contain precious metals (gold, silver) and some base metals (zinc, lead, copper) These are commonly dominated by surface waters that are circulated by magmatic heat The hydrology is controlled by structures (Oatman, AZ; Virginia City, NV) Massive sulfide deposits are massive bodies of Fe, Cu, Zn, Pb, Ag sulfides formed at the seafloor by hydrothermal fluids circulated by magmatic heat (typically dominated by seawater); Arizona has a significant number of these deposits, for example at Jerome They can be high grade, but their sulfide-rich nature presents management issues Sediment-hosted deposits: these lead-zinc or copper-rich deposits form from brines in sedimentary basins (analogous to the brines in oil fields, which also readily dissolve metals) Surface-related Weathering and erosion: Soils, especially those due to intense weathering are important sources of materials Clay for bricks and many other applications, bauxite (Al-rich laterites) for aluminum; weathering profiles help making many sulfide deposits (e.g., porphyry Cu) economic Erosion/transport create placer deposits of gold, titanium, gems, etc. by density separation; sand and gravel is the most voluminous mineral resource used in the world Sedimentation creates an equally broad array of mineral deposits, both metallic and nonmetallic 24 April 2012
Lecture 26
GEOS 251
Physical Geology
Spring 2012
Metallic: Most iron and manganese come from sedimentary deposits, which are controlled by the oxidation state of the atmospheres or oceans (and thus reflect Earth evolution) Non-metallic: Especially chemical sediments, which include NaCl, KCl, borates, nitrates, brines, phosphorites key for fertilizers and many industrial / domestic products
Lecture 26
24 April 2012
