Basin analysis, Institute of Earth Sciences, Nat. Central Univ. Instructor: Dr. Andrew T.
Lin
Basin analysis is the integrated study of sedimentary basins as geodynamic entities. This course introduces the processes of mantle, lithosphere, oceans, atmosphere, and land surface that coupled together to shape the basin geometry and its infilled stratigraphy. The application of basin analysis to petroleum exploration will be introduced
SECTION 1 THE FOUNDATIONS OF SEDIMENTARY BASINS Chapter 1: Basins in their plate tectonic environment Chapter 2: The physical state of the lithosphere SECTION 2 THE MECHANICS OF SEDIMENTARY BASIN FORMATION Chapter 3: Basins due to lithospheric stretching Chapter 4: Basins due to flexure Chapter 5: Effects of mantle dynamics Chapter 6: Basins associated with strike-slip deformation SECTION 3 THE SEDIMENTARY BASIN-FILL Chapter 7: The sediment routing system Chapter 8: Basin stratigraphy Chapter 9: Subsidence and thermal history SECTION 5 APPLICATION TO PETROLEUM PLAY ASSESSMENT Chapter 10: The petroleum play
Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
References
Allen, P. A. & J. R. Allen, 2005, Basin analysis: principles & applications: Blackwell Science., Oxford, UK, 549 pp. Busby, C. J. & R. V. Ingersoll, 1995, Tectonics of sedimentary basins: Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK, 579 pp. Watts, A. B., 2001, Isostasy and flexure of the lithosphere: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 458 pp.
Course Schedule
Classes: 19 September ~ 7 November 2012 Midterm exam: 14 November 2012 Classes: 21 November 2012 ~9 January 2013 Final exam: 16 January 2013
Grading
Midterm exam 40% Final exam 40% Assignments 20%
Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
SECTION 1 THE FOUNDATIONS OF SEDIMENTARY BASINS Chapter 1 Basins in their plate tectonic environment 1.1 Compositional zonation of the Earth 1.1.1 Oceanic crust 1.1.2 Continental crust 1.1.3 Mantle 1.2 Rheological zonation of the Earth 1.2.1 Lithosphere 1.2.2 Sub-lithospheric mantle 1.3 Plate motion 1.4 Classification schemes of sedimentary basins 1.4.1 Basin-forming mechanisms
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
What is a sedimentary basin?
A sedimentary basin is an area where long-term basement subsidence and sediment deposition occur.
Approximately 70% of the continental crust is covered by more than 2 km of sediments. The major accumulations occur in sedimentary basins and on 4 continental shelves.
Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
1.1 Compositional zonation of the earth
(chemical) (5-15 km; ave. 7 km):(olivine ~2950 kg m-3; Vp = 2~7.6 km/s); (0-40 km; ave. 38 km): (quartz~2650-2950 kg m-3 ;Vp = 2~7 km/s) (15-40 km) 15-40~420 km420km PS(olivine, ~3250 kg m-3; mantle immediately beneath Moho @Vp = 8.1 km/s) 420-670kmMgAl2O4spinel 670-2740 km, MgSiO3-perovskite D2740-2889 km() 2889-5100 km()(Fe,Ni,O) F4570-5153 km() 5153-6371 km (Fe,Ni)
Hancock et al. (2000)
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Fig. 1.2 Depth to the Moho below sea-level from (a) Europe and (b) North America, after Allenby and Schnetzler (1983) and Meissner (1986). In Europe, thick continental crust occurs in the PyreneanAlpine-Carpathian orogenic belt and in the Scandinavian Shield. Thin continental crust occurs along the Atlantic margin and in regions of continental stretching, such as the North Sea, western Mediterranean, Pannonian Basin, and Black Sea. In North American, thick continental crust is associated with the batholiths of the Sierra Nevada region, the Appalachian orogenic belt, the American midcontinent and the Canadian-NE USA shield. Thin crust is associated with the plateau basalts of the Snake River area, sites of rifting such as the Mississippi Embayment, and along the western active continental margin, eastern passive continental margin and the Gulf of Mexico. NS, North Sea; SC, Scandinavian Shield; PY, Pyrenees; AP, Apennines; PB, Pannonian Basin; H, Hellenides; SR, Snake River; SN, Sierra Nevada; ME, Mississippi Embayment; AP, Appalachians; GM, Gulf of Mexico. 6
Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
1.2 Rheological zonation of the earth
(Physical) (lithosphere): (4~100-200 km) (essentially a rigid solid)100-200 (asthenosphere)(lithospheric mantle not upper mantle) (asthenosphere Greek meaning weak sphere) (100-200km to 670 km) (effective viscosity:1019 to 1021 Pa s (Pascal second) (Mantle as a whole is of 1021 Pa s and 1013 Pa s for water. Measurement of the viscosity of asthenosphere by the post-glacial deformation. /(plastic deformation) (isostatic) (mesosphere)(670~2889 km, )
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Thickness of the Earths crust (in km)
From USGS at : http://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/structure/crust/index.php
Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Fig. 1.1 The main compositional (a) and rheological (b) boundaries of the Earth. The most important compositional boundary is between crust, mantle and core, There are strong compositional variations within the continental crust and compositional variations caused by phase changes in the mantle. Vp is velocity of P wave. The main rheological boundary is between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere. P wave velocities increase markedly beneath the Moho, but decrease in a low velocity zone representing the weak asthenosphere. The lithosphere is rigid enough to act as a coherent plate. P wave velocity in (a) from western Europe after Hirn (1976).
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Where does the subducted lithosphere go? The upper/lower mantle boundary or The core/mantle boundary (D layer)?
Figure 4 | A cold buckled subducted slab (blue) in the lowermost mantle may account for the thermal structure that results in a step in the perovskite/post-perovskite phase transition. Hutko et al. (2006) Nature doi:10.1038/nature04757.
Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
The oceanic lithosphere sunk into the mantle and lies on top of the coremantle boundary (D layer).
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http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/06/060603092903.htm
Low velocity zone( 100-300 km) LVZ ( b) Seismic lithosphere 20 Ma10 km; 70 Ma80km
Hancock et al. (2000) p.47
Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
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Fig. 1.4 Variation of temperature with depth, or geotherm, and the solidus temperature for mantel material (peridotite). Where the solidus curve (Tm) and the geotherm become tangential, partial melting in the mantle is likely to take place, resulting in a zone of low seismic wave velocities (low velocity zone).
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Fig. 1.3 Strength profiles for the oceanic (a) and continental (b) lithosphere, based on Molnar (1988) and Sammonds (1999). The yield strength of the continental and oceanic lithosphere is plotted as a function of depth. The olivine rheology of the oceanic lithosphere provides a strong elastic core extending to depths of over 50km. The quartz or quartz-felspar rheology of the continental lithosphere causes a weak, ductile layer at equivalent depths. A second brittle-ductile transition occurs in the mantle lithosphere because of the compositional change to an olivine rheology. The elastic lithosphere is the upper portion that is able to store elastic stresses over long time periods. The base of the thermal lithosphere is a mechanical boundary 13 separating the relatively strong outer shell of the lithosphere from the very weak asthenosphere.
Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
1.3 Plate motion
Fig. 1.5 The lithosphere plates, showing mid-ocean ridges, trenches, and transform boundaries (Le Pichon et al. 1973) and absolute motion vectors from Minster and Jordan (1978). Length of arrows is proportional to the plate speed. The fastest plate motion is in the western Pacific and Indian Oceans, whereas Africa, 14 Antarctica, and Eurasia are almost stationary with respect to the mantle reference frame.
Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Fig. 1.6 The three types of plate boundary: convergent, divergent, and conservative.
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Fig. 1.7 Distribution of earthquake foci along Benioff zones, after Isacks and Barazangi (1977). NH, New Hebrides; CS, Central America; ALT, Aleutians; ALK, Alaska; M, Marianas; IB, Izu-Bonin; NZ, New Zealand; T, Tonga; KK, Kuril-Kamchatka; NC, North Chile; P, Peru. 16
Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
1.4 Classification schemes of sedimentary basins
Basin classification based on: 1.Type of basement (continental, oceanic, transitional, anomalous?) 2. Proximity to plate boundary(s) 3. Type of nearest plate boundary(s) (divergent, convergent, transform)
Classifications are theories about the basis of natural order
Sites of key basins in relation to plate boundaries, continental margins and 17 associated sources of detrital sediment (Busby & Ingersoll, 1995)
Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Fig. 1.8 The Wilson cycle of ocean formation and ocean closure. Continental extension (a) is followed by the creation of a new oceanic spreading centre (b) and ocean enlargement (c). Subduction of ocean floor (d) 18 leads to closure of the ocean basin. Subduction of the oceanic ridge (e) takes place before continentcontinent collision (f). Basin Analysis
Tectonic Activity Map of the Earth
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Divergent to intraplate settings
Terrestrial rift valleys
Busby & Ingersoll (1995)
Proto-oceanic rift troughs
Movie shows the spreading of the oceanic crust, Red Sea.
young
Continental rises and terraces
old
Passive continental margins
Continental embankment
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Passive margin: Lahave Plateau, Nova Scotia, Canada
From Dr. Gabor C. Tari at http://www.aapg.org//education/dist_lect/slides/2001_02/tari02.pdf
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Convergent setting arc-trench system Forearc basin Intra-arc basin Backarc basin
Trench-slope basin
Trench
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Diagram to explain processes associated with subduction
From: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subduction
Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
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Types of foreland basins
Peripheral foreland basin
Retroarc foreland basin
Busby & Ingersoll (1995)
Piggy-back basin
Movie shows subduction followed by continent-continent collision 24
Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Transform settings (and transcurrent-fault-related basins)
Busby & Ingersoll (1995)
Basin
Releasing Bend
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Structures developed along continental wrench faults
Transtension
Transpression
Pull-apart basin
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Fault map of California
Strike-slip faulting in west coast of N. America
from Crowell (1962) in Kearey & Vine (1996)
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Transtensional basins in the California Borderland
Allen & Allen (1990), p.256
Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
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Fig. 1.9 Classification of basins using the type of lithospheric substrate, type of plate motion, and location with respect to the plate boundary. 29
Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Fig. 1.10 Basin classification scheme based on Kingston et al. (1983a,b). Not all basin types appear in this scheme. Most notably, foreland basins are missing. 30
Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Table. 1.1 Basin classification adapted from Ingersoll and Busby (1995), modified from Dickinson (1974, 1976) and Ingersoll (1988), with modern and ancient examples.
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Table. 1.1 Continued
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
1.4.1 Basin-forming mechanism
Fig. 1.11 Fundamental mechanisms of basin formation: flexural, isostatic, and dynamic. The importance of these mechanisms in foreland, rift, postrift and passive margin, and strike-slip basins is indicated by the33 size of the boxes.
Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Basin classification: Divergent settings (e.g., continental rift basins) Intraplate settings (e.g., rifted/passive continental margins) Convergent settings (e.g., foreland basins, forearc basins) Transform settings (e.g., transtensional basins) A basin should be classified Hybrid settings (e.g., impactogens) according to its tectonic setting
at the time of deposition of a given stratigraphic interval; thus for a given area, its basin type may change through geologic time. Using the Taiwan Strait as an example, It was characterised by intra-arc basins during the Mesozoic, continental rift basins during the late Palaeocene to mid-Oligocene, passive continental margin during the mid-Oligocene to late Miocene; and peripheral foreland basin during the latest Miocene to the present day.
Lin et al. (2003)
Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
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In the Taiwan Strait, a terrestrial rift-valley phase developed during the Palaeogene.
Lin et al. (2003)
Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
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Taiwan foreland basin
Depth map of the Taiwan foreland basin Contour interval 0.5 km
Lin & Watts (2002)
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Lin & Watts (2002) 37
Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
Basin Analysis Practical 1 Basin classification (past and present), using the Taiwan region as an example
(due on October 17, 2012) A basin should be classified according to its tectonic setting at the time of deposition of a given stratigraphic interval; thus, a basin may change its tectonic setting rapidly and often. Taiwan is located at plate boundaries which we are all familiar with. Many past and present basin types exist(ed) in this region, ranging from divergent to convergent settings. Using the figures provided and published geological/geophysical information, do the following, 1. On figure 1, mark the names of major morphotectonic features around Taiwan. 2. Figures 2~4 are three cross sections (AA, BB, and CC shown in figure 1) drawn across and perpendicular to the plate boundaries around Taiwan. Also shown are the topography along these profiles. On these three sections: a. Construct the basin and crustal structures down to a depth of 60 km. b. Name the past and present basin types (e.g. rift basin, forearc basin etc.) seen in the sections that you have constructed. 3. Give a brief account (no more than 2 pages) on the basin/tectonic evolution along these three profiles. List the references that you have consulted.
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
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Basin Analysis Dept. Earth Sciences, National Central Univ. Prepared by Dr. Andrew T. Lin
