Chapter 5: Light Form 4

CHAPTER 5: LIGHT
5.1 UNDERSTANDING REFLECTION OF LIGHT
1. Reflection of light on a Plane Mirror  Mirror works because it reflects light..
 The light ray that strikes the surface of the mirror
is called incident ray.
 The light ray that bounces off from the surface of
the mirror is called reflected ray.
 The normal is a line perpendicular to the mirror
surface where the reflection occurs.
 The angle between the incident ray and the normal
is called the angle of incidence, i
 The angle between the reflected ray and the normal
is called the angle of reflection, r.
Common terminology of reflection of light on a plane mirror
Normal : A line at right angles to the mirror’s surface.
Incident ray : A ray of light that is directed onto the mirror’s surface.
Reflected ray : A ray that is reflected by the mirror’s surface.
Angle of incidence : The angle between the incident ray and the normal
Angle of reflection : The angle between the reflected ray and the normal
2. Laws of Reflection 1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same
plane.
2. The angle of incidence, i, is equal to the angle of reflection, r.
3. Ray diagrams to show the positioning and characteristics of the image formed by a plane
mirror.

4. Describe the characteristics of the 1. laterally inverted,

image formed by reflection of light.. 2. same size as the object,
3. virtual
4. upright
5. as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
Notes:
Real image : Image that can be seen on a screen
Virtual image : Image that cannot be seen on a screen.

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Reflection of light on curved mirror

Concave mirror Convex mirror

Common terminology of curved mirrors
Centre of curvature, C The center of sphere of the mirror
Principle axis The connecting line from the centre of curvature to
point P
Radius of curvature, CP The distance between the centre of curvature and
the surface of the mirror.
Focal point, F The focal point of a concave mirror is the point on
the principle axis where all the reflected rays meet
and converge.
The focal point of convex mirror is the point on the
principle axis where all the reflected rays appear to
diverge from behind the mirror.
Focal length, f The distance between the focal point and the
surface of the mirror. (FP or ½ CP)
Object distance, u The distance between the object and the surface of
the mirror.
Image distance, v The distance between the image and the surface of
the mirror.

Differences
Concave Mirror Convex Mirror
Rays travelling parallel to the principal axis Rays travelling parallel to the principal axis
converge to a point, called the focal point appear to diverge from a point behind the mirror,
on the principal axis. called the focal point on the principal axis.
FP = focal length, f FP = focal length, f
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Construction Rules for Concave Mirror and Convex Mirror

Rule 1:
Concave Mirror

Convex Mirror
A ray parallel to the principal axis is reflected A ray parallel to the principal axis is reflected
through F. as if it comes from F

Rule 2:

Concave Mirror Convex Mirror

A ray passing through F is reflected parallel to A ray directed towards F is reflected parallel to
the principal axis the principal axis
Rule 3:

Concave Mirror Convex Mirror

A ray passing through C is reflected back A ray is directed towards C is reflected back
along the same path through C. along the same path away from C.

Differences between real and virtual image:

Real image Virtual image

Can be caught on a Cannot be caught on a
screen screen
Formed by the meeting Form at a position where
of real rays. rays appear to be
originating.

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Application of Reflection of Light

1 Anti-parallax Mirror in Ammeters or Voltmeters

 A parallax error occurs when the eye sees both

the pointer and its image.
 Our eyes are normal to the pointer when the
image of the pointer in the mirror cannot be
seen.
2. Periscope
• A periscope can be used to see over the top of high
obstacles such as a wall.
• It is also used inside a submarine to observe the
surrounding above water surface.
• The final image appears upright A periscope is a
device used to see objects over an obstacle.
• It is made up of two plane mirrors mounted in a
long tube, with both mirrors set parallel at each
corner of the tube but at an angle 45o to the
direction to be direction to be viewed.
• Light from the object is reflected at 90o by each
mirror before entering the eye of an observer.
• Periscope are often used in double-decker buses so
the driver would be able to see the situation in the
upper deck.
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3. Ambulance

 Why is the word ‘AMBULANCE’ purposely

inverted laterally on an ambulance car?
 Images seen through the rear mirror of a car is
laterally inverted

4. Make-up Mirror

 Concave mirrors with long focal lengths.

Produce virtual, magnified and upright images

5. Transmission of radio waves and signals

 A concave parabolic surface is used to focus

the radio wave signals.

5. Reflector of torchlight

 The light bulb is fixed in position at the focal

point of the concave mirror to produce a beam
of parallel light rays. The beam of parallel light
rays will maintain a uniform intensity for a
greater distance.
 Other applications are the headlight of motor
vehicles and the lamp of slide projectors.

7. Widening the field of vision

 When a convex mirror is used, the field of

vision is larger than a plane mirror
 Convex mirrors are used as rear view mirrors
in motor vehicles to give drivers a wide-angle
view of vehicles behind them.
 It is also used as shop security mirrors.

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• Meter like ammeter and voltmeter use mirror

to avoid parallax error.
• The reading is taken from a position such that
the image of the pointer is under the pointer

• The wing and rear-view mirrors of a car are

made of plane mirror.
• The two wing mirrors enable the driver to see
objects on both sides of the car.
• The rear-view mirror enables the driver to see
things behind the car.

• An astronomical telescope uses a large

parabolic mirror to gather dim light from
distant star.
• A plane mirror is used to reflect the image to
the eyepiece.

• Concave mirror are also used by dentists to

examine tooth of a patient.
• The concave mirror form a magnified image of
the tooth.

• Convex mirror used as blind corner mirrors on

the road to help drivers view traffic around
sharp corners.

• An overhead projector uses concave mirror to

reflect light from the object to the screen.

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5
.2 UNDERSTANDING REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Refraction of light Phenomena where the direction of light is changed when it
crosses the boundary between two materials of different
optical densities.
It due to the change in the velocity of light as it passes from
one medium into another.

Angle of incidence, i = the angle between

the incident ray and the normal.
Angle of refraction, r = the angle between
the refracted ray and the normal
When i > r, the ray bent towards the
normal, and the speed of light decreases.
When r < i , the ray bent away from the
normal and the speed of light increases

3 ways in which a ray of light can travel through two medium

When a light ray travels When a ray of light When light ray is incident normally on
from less dense medium to travels from denser the boundary between the two medium.
denser medium medium to less dense
medium.

The light ray is refracted The light ray is The light ray is does not bend.
towards the normal. refracted away from the
The speed of light normal.
decreases. The speed of light
increases.

The Laws of Refraction  when light travels from one medium to another medium which
Snell’s Law. has a different optical density,
1. the incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of
incidence all lie in the same plane.
2. the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence (sin i) to the sine
of the angle of refraction (sin r) is a constant.
sin i = constant = n
sin r

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Refractive Index, n
Refractive index,n is defined as,
n =
sin i

where n = Refractive index

i = the angle in medium less dense
r = the angle in denser medium

• A material with a higher refractive index has a greater bending effects and higher density.
• The value of refractive index , n ≥ 1
• The refractive index has no units.
The refrective index can be also defined as ,
n = speed of light in
vacuum (air)
speed of light in
The refraction of light is caused by the change in velocity of light when it passes from a
medium to another medium.
n= Real depth
And Apparenth
depth
 The refractive index has no units.
 It is an indication of the light-bending ability of the medium as the ray of light enters its
surface from the air.
 A material with a higher refractive index has a greater bending effect on light because
it slows light more. It causes a larger angle of deviation of the ray of light, bends the
ray of light more towards the normal.

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Real Depth and Apparent Dept

 Rays of light coming from the real fish, O travels from water (more dense) to air
(less dense)
 The rays are refracted away from the normal as they leave the water.
 When the light reaches the eye of the person, it appears to come from a virtual fish, I
which is above the real fish O.
Apparent depth, h = distance of the virtual
image, I from the surface of water.
Real depth, H = the actual distance of the
real objects, O from the surface of water.
Refractive index = n = Real depth
Apparent depth
n=H
h

5.2 UNDERSTANDING TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION OF LIGHT

Ray diagram to show how the Total Internal Reflection happen

(1) Angle of incidence ,i1 is small.

Produces a strong refracted ray and a weak reflected ray.
(2) Angle of incidence is increased as i2.
Produces a refracted ray and a reflected ray whose intensity has increased compared
to the situation in (1)
(3) The refracted ray travels along the glass-air boundary. This is the limit of the light ray
that can be refracted in air as the angle in air cannot be any larger than 90°. The angle
of incidence in the denser medium at this limit is called the critical angle, c.
(4) Angle of incidence , i3 > c.
No refraction occurs.All the light is reflected within the water .Total internal
reflection occurs.

Total internal reflection is the internal reflection of light at the surface in a medium when
the angle of incidence in the denser medium exceeds a critical angle.
The two conditions for total internal reflection to occur are:
1. light ray enters from a denser medium towards a less dense medium
2. the angle of incidence in the denser medium is greater than the critical angle of the
medium

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Natural Phenomenon involving Total Internal Reflection

1. Mirages

 Mirage is caused by refraction and

total internal reflection.
 Mirage normally occur in the
daytime when the weather is hot.
 The air above the road surface
consists of many layers.
 The layers of air nearest the road are
hot and the layers get cooler and
denser towards the upper layers.
 The refractive index of air depends
on its density. The lower or hotter layers have a lower refractive index than the layers above
them.
 As the ray passes through the lower layers, the angle of incidence increases while
 entering the next layer.
 Finally, the ray of light passes through a layer of air close to the road surface at an angle of
incidence greater then the critical angle.
 Total internal reflection occurs at this layer and the ray of light bends in an upward curve
towards the eye of the observer.
 The observer sees the image of the sky and the clouds on the surface of the road as a pool of
water.
1.
2. Rainbow

3. Sun set
 The Sun is visible above
the horizon even though
it has set below the horizon.
 Light entering the atmosphere is refracted by layers of air of different densities
 producing an apparent shift in the position of the Sun.

Application of Total Internal Reflection

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1- Prism periscope

 The periscope is built using two right –angled prisms made of glass .
 The crtical angle of the prism is 42o .
 The angle of incidence is 45o is greater than the critical angle.
 Total internal reflection occurs.
 The characteristics of the images are :
(i) Virtual (ii) Upright (iii) Same size as the object.
 Advantanges of the prism periscope compared to mirror periscope,
(a) the image is brighter because all the light energy is reflected.
(b) the image is clearer because there are no multiple images as formed in a mirror

2. Prism Binoculars
 A pair of binoculars uses two prisms which are arranged as shown in figure.
 Light rays will be totally reflected internally two times in a pair of binoculars.

 A ray light experiences two total internal reflections at each prism. The two prisms is to
invert the image (upside down and right-to-left.) But the lenses in the binoculars also invert
the image and so the the prisms put it back the right way again.
 So the final image in binoculars is upright ,not laterally inverted and magnified.
 The benefits of using prisms in binoculars:
(a) an upright image is produced.
(b) The distance between the objective lens and the eyepiece is reduced. This make the
binoculars shorter as compared to a telescope which has the same magnifying power.

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3. Optical fibers
 Fiber optics consists of a tubular rod which is made from glass and other transparent
material.
 The external wall of a fiber optic is less dense than the internal wall.
 When light rays travel from a denser internal wall to a less dense external wall at an
angle that exceeds the critical angle, total internal reflection occurs repeatedly.
 This will continue until the light rays enter the observer’s eye.
 Optical fiber is widely used in telecommunication cables to transmit signal through laser.
It can transmit signal faster and through long distance with high fidelity.
 Optical fiber is also used in an endoscope for medical emerging

 The external wall of a fibre optic is less dense than the internal wall.
 When light rays travel from a denser internal wall to aless dense external walls at an angle
that exceeds the critical angle , total internal reflection occurs.
Advantage of using optical fibres cables over copper cables:
(a) they are much thinner and lighter
(b) a large number of signals can be sent through them at one time.
(c) They transmit signals with very little loss over great distances.
(d) The signals are safe and free of electrical interference
(e) The can carry data for computer and TV programmes.
4. Fish’s Eye View
 A fish is able to see an object above the water surface because the rays of light from the
object are refracted to the eyes of the fish or diver.
 Due to total internal reflection, part of the water surface acts as a perfect mirror, which
allows the fish and diver to see objects in the water and the objects around obstacles.

A fish sees the outside world inside a 96° cone. Outside the 96°cone, total internal reflection
occurs and the fish sees light reflected from the bottom of the pond. The water surface looks like
a mirror reflecting light below the surface.
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5.4 UNDERSTANDING LENSES

1. Types of Lenses
Lenses are made of transparent material such as glass or clear plastics. They have two faces,
of which at least one is curved.

Convex lenses @ converging lenses Concave lenses @ diverging lenses

- thicker at the centre - thinner at the centre
2. Focal Point and Focal Length of a Lens
Convex Lens @
Converging Lens

Focal Point @ the A point on the principle axis to which incident rays of light traveling
principal focus, F parallel to the axis converge after refraction through a convex lens.
Focal Length, f Distance between the focal point, F and the optical centre , C
Concave lens @
Diverging lens

Focal Point @ A point on the principal axis to which incident rays of light traveling parallel to
principal focus, F the axis appear to diverge after refraction through a concave lens.
Focal Length Distance between the focal point , F and optical centre, C on the lens.
Common terminology of lenses
 Principal axis , AB : A straight line which passes through the optical centre ,P at a right
angles to the plane of the lens.
 Principal focus, F : A point on the principal axis to which incident rays of light traveling
parallel to the principal axis , converge after refraction through a convex lens. Or a point on
the principal axis from which incident rays of light traveling parallel to the principal axis
appear to diverge after refraction through a concave lens.
 Optical centre , P : A point which all rays traveling through this point pass through the lens
in a straight line.
 Focal length , f : The distance between the principal focus ,F and the optical centre ,P.
 Object distance , u : Distance of the object from the optical centre, P
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 Image distance , v : Distance of the image from the optical centre, P

Power of lenses (P)

Power of a lens = 1 . OR P = 1 @ P = 100

Focal length f (m) f( cm)

 The unit of power of a lens is Dioptre (D) or m-1

 Convex lens : the power is taken to be positive
 Concave lens : the power is taken to be negative
 The power of a lens is a measure of its ability to converge or to diverge an incident
beam of light.
 The focal length, f is measured in metre.
 The power of a lens is 10 D if its focal length is 0.10 m = 10 cm

A thin lens with a longer focal

length, f has a lower power
A thick lens with a shorter focal
length, f has a higher power.
Convex lens: A thick lens has a
stronger converging effect, i.e
Thin convex lens Thick convex lens the incident beam of light
converges nearer to the lens.

Thin concave lens Thick concave lens

A ray passing through the focus point is A ray passing the focus point is refracted
refracted parallel to the principal axis. parallel to the principle axis.

A ray passing through the optical centre

A ray passing through the optical centre travels straight on without bending.
travels straight without bending.

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The point of intersection of the rays is a point The point of intersection of the rays is a point
on the image. on the image.
Real image: the image is on the side opposite Virtual image: The image is on the same side
of the object. with the object
Characteristics of the image formed:
(a) real image / virtual image
(b) inverted / upright
(c) Magnified (bigger) / diminished (smaller) / same size

virtual image , upright image ,bigger real image ,inverted image ,smaller

Lens Formula u = object distance

1 = 1 +
1
v = image distance
f u f = focal length
Linear magnification m = Linear magnification
m = m = ho = object height
v Or hi hi = image height
u

Sign Positive Negative

value (+) (-)
u Real Virtual
image image
v Real Virtual
image image
f Convex Concave
lens lens

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Linear Size of Convex lens Concave
magnificati image lens
on,m Always + Always +
ImI =1 Image and Object is Object is
Object
object are always placed always placed
distance, u
the same to the left of to the left of
size the lens the lens
I m I >1 Enlarged + if the + if the
image image is real image is real
I m I <1 Diminished ( image is ( image is
image formed on the formed on the
right side of right side of
the lens). the lens).
Image
distance, v
- if the image - if the image
is virtual is virtual
( image is ( image is
formed on the formed on the
left side of the left side of the
lens). lens.
Focal length, Always + Always -
f
Power of Always + Always -
length, P

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Characteristic of image formed by a concave lens

The use of lenses in optical devices

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Simple Microscopes
Application : to magnified the image
Lens : a convex lens
Object distance: less than the focal length of the lens, u < f
Characteristics of image: virtual, upright, magnified
The magnifying power increases if the focal length of the lens is shorter.

Compound Microscope:
Application: to view very small objects like microorganisms
Uses 2 powerful convex lenses of short focal lengths.
- Objective lens:
- Eyepiece lens:

 Focal length fo for objective lens is shorter than the focal length for eyepiece lens, fe
 Object to observed must be placed between F0 and 2F0
 Characteristics of 1st image: real, inverted, magnified
 The eyepiece lens is used as a magnifying glass to magnify the first image formed by the
objective lens.
 The eyepiece lens must be positioned so that the first image is between the lens and Fe, the
focal point of the eyepiece lens.
 Characteristics of final image formed by the eyepiece lens: virtual, upright and magnified.
 Normal Adjustment: The distance between the lenses is greater than the sum of their
individual focal length (fo + fe)

Telescope
• Application : view very distant objects like the planets and the stars.
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• Made up of two convex lenses :Objective lens and eyepiece lens

• Focal length fo for objective lens is longer than the focal length for eyepiece lens, fe

• The objective lens converges the parallel rays from a distant object and forms a real, inverted
and diminished image at its focal point.
• The eyepiece lens is used as a magnifying glass to form a virtual, upright and magnified image.
• At normal adjustment the final image is formed at infinity.
• This is done by adjusting the position of the eyepiece lens so that the first real image becomes
the object at the focal point, Fe of the eyepiece lens.
• Normal adjustment: The distance between the lenses is f0 + fe

5. The projection lens forms the image on the

screen. It is mounted in a sliding tube. The
position on the projection lens of the
projection lens must be adjusted until a sharp
image is formed on the screen

Camera

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