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Abstract: Energy crops (energy plantations), are not being
used in the region & organized markets do not exist.
Consequently, quantity and price information for agriwaste
energy crops need to be designed .The analysis is also based
on the assumption that differences in soil quality, climate,
and land use across the region will create geographic
variation in the cost and potential supplies of energy crops.
Production of both energy crops and conventional crops are
prone to land quality and climate. Consequently, prices of
agriwaste should show geographic variability reflective of
that sensitivity. It is designed and modeled to capture the
effect of these three factors on energy crop price and supply.
With the fossil fuels gradually depleting and hydro sources
having reached the verge of full exploitation, we have been
compelled to think in terms of searching for and developing
alternative sources of energy. Over the recent years the
problem of environment pollution, sustainability and safety
have been added to the scene, calling for development of
power generation systems which are techno economically
viable, sustainable and safe. Several alternative sources of
energy are being thought of, including the nuclear, solar,
geothermal, wind, tidal and the biomass based. Keeping in
view the three fold objective stated above viz. Economic-
viability, sustainability and safety, biomass as a source of
energy holds a bright promise.
Key Words: Energy Plantations, Soil Quality, Yields,
griwaste, Sustainability, Economicviability.

1. Introduction
India being agriculture based economy, 65% of its GDP
comes from either agriculture or agro based industry
[61,62]. Any enhancement of income from this sector is
based upon adequate supply of basic inputs in this Sector.
Regular and adequate power supply is one such input. But
the status of power supply in our country is deteriorating
day-by-day with a major share of power produced being
sent to the industry and urban areas. Hence, there is a
perennial shortage of power in the agriculture sector.
Consequently, there is an urgent need to produce more
power, in order to fulfil the needs of agriculture sector
effectively. Energy consumption in India has gradually
increased from 65 million tones of oil equivalent (mtoe)
in 1973 to 400 mtoe by 2001, showing a growth rate of
over eight per cent during the entire period. The per
capita energy consumption has also increased from 108
kilograms of oil equivalent (kgoe) in 1970-71 to about
400 kgoe in 2000-2001, which is still very low as
compared to the global level [61,62].
India, with a total land area of 328.8 million hectares
(mha) [62] has an estimated human population of 1000
million and a live stock strength of about 500 million,
with a major percentage living in about 5, 80000
villages [62]. The annual production of food grains is 150
million metric tones (mmt) [19, 21,47,54,62,62]. Though
there is no authentic data available with regard to the
quantity of agricultural and agro-industrial residues, its
rough estimate can be put at about 350 million tones( mt)
per year [54,62]. It is also estimated that the total cattle
refuse generated is nearly 250 mt per year [62]. Further,
nearly 20% of the total land is under forest cover, which
produces approximately 50 mt [62] of fuel wood and with
associated forest waste of about 5 mt [54,62]. The total
availability of agriwaste, energy plantations and agro-
industrial waste in the country is placed around 405mt
per year [6,54, 62].
The ever increasing need and demand for energy;
especially electrical power energy: the fast pace of
depletion of fossil fuels had focussed the attention of the
world towards the non-conventional energy resources.
Biomass in general and agriwaste in particular is being
considered as the one of the alternatives with possibly the
highest potential.During the last three decades number of
researchers, academicians, experts, professionals and
administrators have researched and deliberated on the
issues concerned with this aspect and other related issues
like cost economics, efficiencies and environmental
impact etc. [3,6,19,20,21].Taking into account the
utilization of even a fraction (say 40%) [6,54,62] of
agriresidue and agro industrial waste as well as energy
plantations on one million hectare (mha) of wastelands
for power generation through bio energy technologies, a
potential of some 20,000 MW[62] of power is estimated.
Present research is on soil quality, climate, and land use
of agriwaste combustion which is focused on
improvements of existing system with respect to ease of
operation, higher efficiency, higher calorific value of
composite fuel, low cost of fuel (including transportation,
labour and maintenance cost and marketing cost) and
emission controls by designing and modeling of new
agriwaste technology which can mitigate the problems of
existing conventional combustion systems to a great
extent is fluidized bed combustion system.

1.1 Agricultural residues:
An agricultural residues survey was carried out to cover
the cotton, sugarcane maize, rice, and wheat crops, both
DESIGN OF AGRIWASTE FUEL: WAYS AND
MEANS

B.Lonia
1
, R.K.Bansal
2

1
Professor (Mechanical) J SSIET, Kauli, Patiala
2
Associate Professor (Mechanical) J SSIET, Kauli, Patiala

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for the rabi and the kharif seasons. Samples were drawn
from different areas in accordance with agro-ecological
zonation, and for different productively conditions. The
estimated quantities of crop residues and classification
based on shapes & sizes are given in Table (1.1 a & b).


Source: Biomass energy systems (1996) pp117
Table: 1.1 (b): Classification of agriwaste based on
physical shape and size and in terms of ash content
(%)
Ash
cont
ent
Powd
ery
%
age
Coarse/granul
ar material
%
age
Stalk-like
material
%
ag
e
Low
ash
Eucal
yptus
sawd
ust
Sawd
ust
(saw
mill)
0.4

1.3
Kikar
(Acacia)

Walnut shell
0.6

0.7
Grewia
optiva
(bhimal)
Elephant
grass
(Miscathus)
0.3
2

0.4
- - Labakshi 0.75 Khair wood 0.8
- - Amlaseeds 1.2 Corn cob 1.2
- - Cedar cones 1.5 Jute stick 1.2
- - Waste from
Dabur
1.5 Vitex
negundo
1.5
- - Pine needle 1.5 Carissa
carandas
1.6
- - Harid 1.6 Soyabean
stalk
1.5
- - Coffee spent 1.8 Sunflower
stalk (without
spongy part)
1.9
- - Bagassee 1.8 Adhatoda
vasica
2.0
- - Coconut shell 1.9 Mulberry
stick
2.1
- - Khandasari
bagassee
2.6 Artemisia
parviflora
2.3
- - Fibre of green
coconut
2.8 Tea bush
stem
2.5
- - Subabul leaves 3.6 Rhus cotinus
(tunga)
3.0
- - Groundnut
shell
3.6 Besaram 3.1
- - Teawaste 3.8 Jowar straw 3.1
- - - Arhar stalk 3.4
- - - Lantana
cammara
3.5
- - - Mallotus
phillippensis
3.7
- - - Thakal kanda 3.8
Med
ium
ash
- - Cherry coffee 4.0 Congress
grass
(Parthenium
4.2
hyusterophor
us)
Sunflower
branch
4.3
- - Tamarind husk 4.2 Gokhru
(Xanthium
strumarium)
4.5
- - Sweet
Sorghum
bagassee
4.2 A grade grass 5.2
- - Coffee chaff 4.6 Chirotha 5.2
- - Cotton shells 4.6 Castor stick 5.4
- - Tannin waste 4.8 Bidens 5.6
- - Waste from
Dabur (Bark)
5.1 Dry potato
waste
5.8
- - Arecanut shell 5.1 Ragi stick 7.1
- - Coconut coir 5.2 Sweet
sorghumstalk
7.4
- - Coffee husk 5.8 - -
- - Coconut waste
(top cover)
6.3 - -
- - Tealeaves 6.7 - -
- - Soyabean husk 7.2 - -
- - Sugarcane
leaves
7.7 - -
- - Bagasse pith 8.0 - -
High
ash
Indust
rial
bamb
oo
dust
9.9 Copver of
castor
- B grade grass 8.8
Tobac
co
sawdu
st
19.1 Oil seeds 9.0 Jowar stalk 9.5
Fly
dust
19.2 Sal seed husk 9.4 Ageratum
conyzoides
9.5
Jute
dust
19.9 Sunflower 10.1 C. ciliaris
grass
9.7
De-
oiled
bran
28.2 Waster
hyacinth
10.8 Banmara
weedq
10.
9
Dal
lake
weed
48.7 Mentha
piperascens
13.5 Ficus 10.
9
Tobac
co
dust
49.4 Effluent sludge 14.4 Hybrid napier
grass
11.
5
Mustard shell 15.4 Ground paddy
straw
15.
5
Sennaleaves 17.25 - -
Spearmint 18.1 - -
Sal seed leaves 19.7 - -
Decaffeinated
teawaste
19.8 - -
Rice husk 22.4 - -

Source: Biomass energy systems

2. Briquetting of Agriwaste:
2.1 Process:
Briquetting is the process of densification of agriwaste to
produce homogeneous, uniformly sized solid pieces of
high bulk density which can be conveniently used as a
fuel. The densification of the agriwaste can be achieved
by any one of the following methods:
(i) Phrolysed densification
(briquetting) using binder
(ii) Direct densification (briquetting) of
agriwaste using binder
(iii) Binder less briquetting
Except wood, all other agriwaste species have very low
bulk densities. Accordingly, these are inconvenient and
uneconomical to handle, store, and transport.
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Furthermore, the direct use of these materials for energy
is associated with inefficient conversion and widespread
combustion-related pollution. For efficient and pollution
free utilization, it is imperative to process these materials
so as to make them convenient fuels. The main feed
preparation techniques are sizing, like making chips;
densification; briquetting, pelletization and carbonization.
To carry out the above operations, it is invariably
desirable to dry the materials, either naturally in the sun
or through mechanical processing.
2.2 Drying:
While green wood contains 5055% moisture, several
agro-residues have the same or higher moisture content.
These are needed to be dried to extract maximum energy.
Table (1.4) gives the heating values of typical agriwate on
a wet and dry basis.
Firstly, agriwaste is dried in the sun up to 20 25%
moisture and later by thermal processes. While various
systems are employed for drying, the most common
practice for chips and powdery materials is to
simultaneously convey and dry the materials in entrained
bed or flash pneumatic driers.
2.3 Size reduction:
Many agirwaste residues are cut into smaller sizes for
easy handling and efficient combustion. Straw and stalk-
type materials are chopped by chaff-cutters into granular
materials, either for baling or for easy transportation.
Similarly, sticks are shredded for their efficient use in
boilers. Size reduction is needed for their use either in
fluidized or other burning applications. Though size
reduction is necessary for many operations, it is desirable
to use the materials in the original form as each
conversion operation needs energy, and their handling
results in the loss of material.

3. Factors influencing agriwaste utilization:
Several factors pertaining to material, technological,
environmental, economic, fiscal, managerial, etc.,
influence the utilization of agriwaste as source of energy,
especially for power generation.
3.1 Design and Modeling Agriwaste Fuels:
Agriwaste materials are highly volatile when compared to
coal. Over 80% of the heating value of agriwaste fuel is
obtained from its volatile matter. Specific gravity
indicates the amount of solid material in a given volume,
and is inversely correlated with moisture content.
Moisture content depends not only on natural conditions
but also the storing conditions whether stored in ponds
or on dry decks. In general, agriresidue from young
plantations contains more water than wood from an old
plantation of the same species. Water contained in the
agriwaste adds to its transportation cost. An increase in
the moisture content from 10 to 30% in straw decreases
its calorific value by 28% [Source: Biomass energy
systems]. The calorific value or heat of combustion for a
given volume of agriwaste material is primarily
determined by its chemical composition, moisture
content, and specific gravity. The prices of agri residues
are given in table (1.2) and briquettised agriwaste fuel
prices in table (1.2 a,b,c,d).

BRIQUETTISATION OF AGRIWASTE (1.2a)



1.2d FUEL BRIQUETTES PREPARED AND TESTED

Briquette size prepare d 2 x 2 x 2 =2
3
inch
3
=3 x 2
x 1 inch
3

Briquette of size 34 x 28 x 17 inch
3
which is being
used of single material. Wt. of 2 inch
3
briquette =52 g =
0.052 kg Area of room or shed =20 x 20 x 20 feet
3

=8000 cubic feet


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So that 20 x 20 x 20 room will have 1728000
Briquette size 3 x 2 x 1 Wt. 72 kg =0.072 kg
=2303994.2 briquettes
Wt. of 1728000 briquettes =1728000 x 0.052 =Wt.
of 2303994.2 briquettes =1658875.59 kg
=89856 kg =165.8875 tonnes
Similarly
12 x 6 x 6 size briquette will weight 1.750 g
feet Cubic
12
6
12
6
12
12

3
12
6
20
6
20
12
20
6
20
6
20
12
20

=
=| | 12 144 33 . 3 33 . 3 66 . 1 =
| | 12 144 66 . 1 0889 . 11 =| |1728 407574 . 18
No. of Briquettes =31808.288 Wt. of briquettes =
55664.504 kg =55.6645 tonnes.
feet Cubic
12
1
12
2
12
3

feet Cubic Size Room 20 20 20
No. of Briquettes
=
1
20
2
20
3
20
=
3
12
1
20
2
20
3
20
(

=
| |
3
12 20 10 66 . 6 =| | 12 144 33 . 1333
144
2
20
2
20
2
20
2
20
= = 144 10 10
No. of briquettes =14.400 Wt. of briquettes =14400 x
0.052
=748.8 kg =. 7488 tonnes

144
2
20
3
20
2
20
3
20
12
2
12
3
= = =6.666
x 10 x 144 No. of briquettes =9600 Wt. of briquettes =
9600 x 0.072
=691.2 kg =6912 tonnes
144
6
20
12
20
6
20
12
20
12 `
6
12
12
= = =1.66
x 3.33 x 144 No. of briquettes =796.8 Wt. of briquettes =
1394.4 kg
=1.3944 tonnes
Source: RWEDP report No. 23 : Proceedings of
International Workshop on Biomass Briquetting, New
Delhi, India (3-6 April 1995) pp. 24-30










Fig. No. 1.1

4. Technologies for combustion:
Combustion is the dominant and established technology
to harness the energy from agriwaste. Several firing
methods have been developed such as grate firing, stoker
firing, pulverized fuel firing and fluidized-bed
combustion. The selection of the most appropriate firing
method depends upon the size of the unit, fuel conditions
(moisture, feed size), and the energy product.
4.1 Energy Chart and Its Cost - Cost Analysis
Specification of binderless technology extrusion
briquettes
Calorific value: 18540 19776 kJ/kg
Diameter: 70 mm
Length: 450 mm
Weight: 5.30 kgs per meter
Moisture: 7%
Ash content: 5-7%
Sulphur & phosphorous: Nil
We can see that the fuel briquettes are the much cheaper
and most convenient energy source. The cost of coal is
almost comparable, but its availability, wagon movement,
quality and transit wastage are completey uncertain.
Cost of fuel briquettes: Rs. 1500 per ton
Cost of fire wood (15% moisture): Rs. 800 per ton
(moisture loss & cutting charges not included)
Basis: 30% moisture fire wood per ton is Rs.800 +cutting
&
Wastages Rs. 60. Thus total cost is Rs. 860.

Consumption:
15% Moist fire wood 202 kgs - Cost 202 x 0.86 =
Rs.173.70
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7% Moist briquettes 101 kgs - Cost 101 x 1.50 =Rs.
151.50
8% Moist fire wood 163 kgs - Cost 163 x 1.00 =Rs. 163
Using briquettes % of cost saving over fire wood of 15%
moisture =33
Using briquettes % of cost saving over fire wood of 8%
Moisture =29
Trials were made in a FBC system analysis as are under.
Cost of carbonized charcoal consumed: 6 kgs x
Rs. 12.00 =Rs. 72.00
Cost of fuel briquettes consumed: 11 kgs x Rs.
2.00 =Rs. 22.00
Thus percentage of saving using fuel briquettes =
40%
This cost saving is apart from the convenience of very
good combustion, temperature maintenance, time saving,
smokeless environment and clean space saving. Normally
fire wood consumption is unknown as it is brought in
bulk and consumed again in bulk. Using briquettes the
cost of energy can be calculated very easily as it is packed
in 5, 10, 15 & 25 kgs packing.

5. Major Pre-Requisites for briquetting of agriwaste
Raw Material Mix There should be a minimum
of three raw materials and none of them should
be soft with high lignin or oil content.
Raw Material Storage Stock of material should
be around 3 months of production capacity to
maintain desired mix in the lean season.
Briquetting Press Presses should be in a
position to work for 20 hours in a day and six
days a week without heating.
Pre-Processing Equipment (i) Efficient drying
is essential, (ii) Proper grinding to achieve
desired bulk density is necessary; (iii) Heating of
biomass may also increase the production and
reduce the costs of power and wear of parts.
Reliable and Adequate Power Supply
Continuous working of plant is desirable to
increase the output and reduce the wear cost.
5.1 Resources:
It is true that the traditional sources of energy are
important for rural as well as urban areas. Although no
doubt there will be shifts in the use of energy (mainly
upgrading, yet in some cases downgrading in the use of
different types of energy as well), the overall impression
appears to be that the use of traditional sources of energy
will remain important and most probably will increase in
absolute terms. The increased use of energy, be it
different sources such as oil, gas, electricity and coal or
conventional sources of energy such as wood fuels,
residues, etc. will put more pressure on the resource base.
In order to be able to judge whether an increased use of
traditional fuels will put more pressure on the resources,
an overview of the resource base is given. Research deals
only with logging residues as well as residues from wood
processing such as sawmilling and the manufacture of
plywood and particle board and wood residues generated
from crop plantation operations such as pruning,
replanting of trees, agricultural residues like rice husk &
straw, wheat straw & husk, cotton stalks, cotton pods,
sunflower stock & husk, etc.
Residues are used for many purposes and such uses often
are site specific. Besides being used as fuel, residues are
also used as Fodder, Fertilizer, Fibre, Feedstock and
further uses. Although end-uses for the first 5F's may be
obvious, the latter "F" comprises for instance residues
being used as a soil conditioner (coconut coir dust used to
retain moisture in the soil, straw as a growing medium for
mushroom, coconut husks as a growing medium for
orchids, packing material, etc. In some cases residues
may even have a multi-purpose use: rice husk can be
burnt as fuel with the ash being used by the steel industry
as a source of carbon and as an insulator. Rice straw can
be used as animal bedding and subsequently as part of
compost (fertilizer), crop waste can be used as a feedstock
for biogas generation (fuel), with the sludge being used as
fertilizer, etc.
6. Amount of residues consumed:
As it is clear, very little is known about the amounts of
residues consumed for various purposes possibly with the
exception of the sugar industry. This lack of knowledge is
thought to be due to the scattered nature of the residue
generation, its seasonality and differences in local
situation both with regard to the production and use of
residues, competing uses which may have a very localized
influence on the availability and price of residues,
7. Constraints:
Residues have many uses in the villages of developing
countries, both agricultural and non-agricultural, which
would be potentially threatened if residues were diverted
to use as a briquetting feedstock. The uses are as
fertilizer, fodder, fuel, fibre and feedstock for chemicals
(sometimes known as the "5Fs - see Fig.1.3. Many of the
uses are site specific and are difficult to identify from
aggregated statistics. Residues are used in rural industries
as well as for domestic and farm uses.
Crop residues are generally scattered and would require
considerable effort to collect. Unless farmers are all
compensated for their efforts they will place a low priority
on collection especially since this activity would compete
with other post-harvest activities. Mechanisation would
improve the efficiency of collection but, in addition to the
technical constraints, mechanisation, if available, would
add to the farmer's costs. Agri-processing residues do not
suffer from this collection problem since they are
generated at a central location. Annexation of a
briquetting plant to an agro-processing industry with a
residue disposal problem, for example rice mills, has a
significant advantage for cost savings.
7.1 Technical Constraints:
There are two specific areas where technical constraints
hinder the exploitation of agricultural residues as a
briquetting feedstock. The first is for those field residues
which have no competing uses, collection would at
present rely on hand gathering since mechanised methods
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ether do not exist or are not available at a size appropriate
to fields in developing countries.
7.2 Financial Constraints:
It is difficult to give general advice on the financial
performance of briquetting plants since the data is highly
site specific. The handling, transport and storage costs are
high and can form a significant part of the fuel
production costs. In India, a study by TERI (1995) shows
that transport and residue costs can make up more than
50% of total costs. However, an earlier study in Malaysia
identified cost of energy, availability of labour and a
steady supply of raw materials as most significant
influences on manufacturing cost.
Where possible a residue should be selected which
requires minimal pre-treatment, for example, paddy husk
requires no drying. Storage of seasonally produced
residues will be required for continuous use throughout
the year to maximize the capacity utilization factor or a
mixture of feedstocks can be used but it is important to
check if any variations in briquette composition affects
quality and match users specifications. Continuity of
supply to a user is essential if briquettes are to complete
with other fuels such as fuel wood or coal.
Paints (tar)

Fig: -1.3 the 5 fs of agricultural residue utilization.

7.3 Manpower Constraints:
Collection of field residues competes with post-harvest
processing and farmers will be reluctant to be diverted
from their traditional tasks unless well compensated. This
reduces the attractiveness of unutilized crop residues.In
many developing countries there is a shortage of skilled
manpower trained in the operation and maintenance of
briquetting. The lack of after sales service by
manufacturers and suppliers of imported technologies
have been the reasons why a number of briquetting plants
have failed. There is also a shortage of research and
development personnel who can adapt the technologies to
match local resources and needs, for example, tractors
and bailers appropriately sized for small fields. This
hampers the exploitation of unutilized crop residues.


7.4 Institutional Constraints:
A lack of an indigenous briquetting press manufacturer
also means that the commissioning, maintenance, spare
parts and back-up facilities, infrastructure is weak and
has been heavily reliant on imported technology and
expertise. Briquettes are a new product and the market
does not perceive the advantages of briquettes over
fuelwood. Marketing strategies are lacking.
7.5 Environmental Constraints:
These may not be as great a barrier as might at first be
envisaged. Not all residues make good fertilziers and
farmers already actively select those residues best suited
to this purpose. The response of crops to organic manures
is extremely varied, some crops show dramatic increase
while others show little effect. What is apparent is that
the effect on the crop depends upon the type of soil and
the preparation and method of application of the compost.
Probably of much greater significance is the effect of
residue removal on erosion both from the wind and water.
Some residues make reasonable substitutes for fuelwood
and are utilized as such. Traditional farmers also remove
field residues for a number of sound agricultural reasons;
different composting abilities, disease prevention; ease of
planting succeeding crops.
The most significant environmental problem in the
briquetting plant is likely to be dust and fumes which can
be overcome by suitable extraction equipment. This
should be constructed in such a way so as not to cause a
nuisance to people living in the vicinity of the plant.
Preventative action naturally adds to costs.
8. Conclusions and Recommendation:
Agriwaste production and conversion has attracted
attention from the scientists and technologists only
recently. The earlier lack of attention was mainly due to
the following reasons.
- Cheap availability of fossil fuels.
- Agriwaste is considered to be inconvenient to
handle and process.
- Agriwaste energy sources require flexible
management.
The most important factors in promoting AGRIWASTE
RESEARCH are:
- Increasing prices of fossil fuels.
- Foreseeable depletion of fossil fuels, particularly
oil.
- Pollution from use of fossil fuels specially
greenhouse gases.s
- Agriwaste is renewable.
- Agriwaste contains negligible sulphur.
- The efficiency of conversion of agriwaste can be
sufficiently enhanced with the application of
appropriate and advanced technologies.
- Direct combustion is the dominant technology
utilized for harvesting energy from agirwaste but
it is characterized by low efficiencies.
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- Several firing methods exist for the direct
combustion of agriwaste: grate firing, suspension
firing, and fluidized-bed combustion. The
selection of the most appropriate firing method
depends upon the size of unit, condition of the
fuel, and the energy product (steam). The grate-
fired systems have been mostly used because of
their flexibility. Fluidized bed combustion,
because of the technical merits, is emerging as
an alternative to grate-fired combustion.
- Finally, harvesting, collection, transport, and
material processing affect agirwaste utilization
technically and economically. Therefore, R & D
in these areas is to be continued together with
the conversion technologies.
REFERENCES
[1] Amur, Ghulam Qambar, Bhattacharya, S.C., Study
of agriwaste as a source of energy in Pakistan,
RERIC International Energy Journal, V21 n1, 1999,
pp.25-26.
[2] Backman, R., Melting Behavior of salt mixtures in
the sytem (Na,K) (SO
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