1

Introduction

In classical physics, the laws describing the behaviour of waves and particles are fundamentally dierent. Projectiles obey particle-type laws, such as Newtonian mechanics. Waves undergo interference and diraction, which cannot be explained by the Newtonian mechanics associated with particles. The energy carried by a particle is conned to a small region of space; a wave, on the other hand, distributes its energy throughout space in its wave fronts. In describing the behaviours of a particle we often want to specify its location, but this is not so easy to do for a wave. How would you describe the exact location of a sound wave or a water wave? In contrast to this clear distinction found in classical physics, quantum physics requires that particles sometimes obey the rules established for waves, and we shall use some of the language associated with waves to describe particles. The system of mechanics associated with quantum systems is sometimes called wave mechanics because it deals with the wavelike behaviours of particles.

1.1

Wave particle dualism

The concept of wave nature of matter arose from dual character of radiation which some time behaves as a wave and at other times particle. For example, radiation is considered as a wave in propagation experiments like interference, diraction and polarisation. These experiments rmly establish the wave nature of radiation. On the other hand the phenomena like photoelectric eect and Compton eect shows that radiation behaves as a particle-the photon. Thus radiation has a dual characteristic. However, radiation does not exhibit its wave and particle aspects simultaneously. Radiation thus behaves as a wave in transmission and as a particle when it interacts with matter.

1.2

De Broglies Hypothesis for matter waves

The relation between the energy E of a Photon and the frequency of the associated electromagnetic wave is given by the Planck-Einstein equation E = h (1.2.1)

According to the theory of relativity, the relation between the total relativistic energy E and the relativistic momentum p of a particle of rest mass m0 is given by
4 E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m2 0c

(1.2.2)

Since the photons have zero rest mass, the momentum of a photon is obtained by putting m0 = 0 in this equation. Thus, E 2 = p2 c2 (1.2.3) p= Substituting Eq(1.2.1)and c =

E c

in Eq.(1.2.3) p= h h = h p (1.2.4)

This equation represents the wave-particle relation for photons. In this equation is the wavelength of the wave associated with photons of momentum p.

In 1924, Louis de Broglie extended the wave-particle relationship for photons to all particles in motion(quantum particles like electrons, protons etc.)and put forth the following hypothesis: All particles in motion have properties characteristic of waves. The wave-length and the frequency of the wave associated with a particle in motion, are given by = h h = p mv E h (1.2.5) (1.2.6)

where, h is Plancks constant= 6.625 1034 Js v is particle velocity, E is the kinetic energy and m is the relativistic mass given by the relation: m= m0 1 v c2 1.2.1
2

de Broglie wavelength in terms of energy and temperature:

de Broglie wavelength according to relation (1.2.5) is given by = h h = p mv

If E is the kinetic energy of the moving particle, then p2 1 m2 v 2 1 = E = mv 2 = 2 2 m 2m or p = 2mE h h = (1.2.7) p 2mE According to kinetic theory of gasses, the average kinetic energy of the material particle is given by 3 1 E = mv 2 = kT 2 2 23 where k is the Boltzmanns constant= 1.38 10 JK 1 and T is the absolute temperature. Hence de Broglie wavelength = = h 2mE = h 3mkT (1.2.8)

If a charged particle carrying charge q is accelerated through a potential dierence V volts then the kinetic energy E = qV . h (1.2.9) = 2mqV

1.3
1.3.1

Velocity of De Broglie Wave

For a particle of mass m moving with velocity v , the frequency of the wave associated with the particle is related to the energy E of the particle by the equation E = h = h 2 = 2 2 (1.3.1)

where is the angular frequency of the wave. The momentum p of the particle is related to the de Broglie wavelength of the wave by p= where is the propagation constant. From these equations, we have = E , and = p (1.3.3) h 2 h = . = 2 (1.3.2)

Now the phase velocity of the associated wave is given by vp = = E E . = p p (1.3.4)

We discuss the following two cases: (1) When the velocity v of the particle is much less than that of Light: In this case the particle is said to be non-relativistic. For such a particle p2 , and p = mv E= 2m Therefore, p2 1 p mv v E . = = = vp = = p 2m p 2m 2m 2 Thus for a non-relativistic particle, the phase velocity is half the particle velocity. The Phase velocity has no physical meaning, and it cannot be measured.

(1.3.5)

(1.3.6)

(2) When the velocity v of the particle is comparable with that of light: In this case the particle is said to be relativistic. For such a particle E = mc2 and p = mv Therefore, vp = E mc2 c2 c = = = p mv v v/c

(1.3.7)

(1.3.8)

Since the term v/c in the denominator is less than unity, vp must be grater than c. But a velocity larger than c cannot be measured, because according to the postulate of the theory of relativity no signal or energy can be transmitted with a speed grater than the speed of light in free space. Therefore, the phase velocity has no physical meaning and hence a particle in motion cannot be represented by single wave. 1.3.2 Group Velocity vg

De Broglie assumed that a particle in motion is represented by a group of waves i.e. a wave packet moving with the group velocity vg which is given by: vg = Now we have = d = lim dk k 0 k E , and = p (1.3.9)

and k =

(1.3.10)

Substituting these values in Eq.(1.3.9), we get vg = lim E p = lim E dE = dp p0 p (1.3.11)

p0

Now we discuss the following two cases: (1) Non-relativistic particle: For a non-relativistic particle E = mc2 and p = mv E 2p mv = = =v p 2m m i.e, vg = v (2) Relativistic particle: For a relativistic particle, we have
4 E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m2 0 c , and p = mv

(1.3.12)

Dierentiating the rst equation with respect to p, we get 2E dE = 2pc2 dp

dE pc2 (mv )c2 = = =v dp E mc2 i.e, vg = v (1.3.13)

Eqs.(1.3.12)and (1.3.13) show that the de Broglie group of waves, i.e. wave-packet associated with a non-relativistic or relativistic particle travels with the same velocity as that of the particle.

Figure1: The wave-packet represented here by the solid curve contained in the dashed-curve envelope, propagates with the group velocity vg along the x axis; the individual waves (not drawn here), which add up to make the solid curve, move with dierent phase velocities vp .

1.4

Davisson and Germer Experiment

Experimental arrangement: shows the experimental arrangement. Electrons are produced by heating a lament (F)by a low tension battery (L.T). The electrons are then accelerated through a potential dierence V in the electron gun. This electron beam falls on a large single crystal of nickel. The electrons

1.5 1.6

Electron Microscope Bohrs Quantisation and Matter waves

In the Bohr theory of the hydrogen atom, the quantisation condition L=

for the angular momentum L of the electron, moving in a stationary circular orbit is only arbitrary. On the basis of de Broglies hypothesis this condition is easily obtained. For this purpose, the following assumptions are made: (I) The motion of the electron in a stationary circular orbit is represented by a standing matter wave of wavelength given by the de Broglie relation = h mv (1.6.1)

where m is the mass of the electron and v is the velocity in the orbit. (II) The circular orbit contains an integral number of wavelengths, i.e., 2rn = n where n = 1, 2, 3, .... and rn is the radius of the orbit. Substituting the value of in Eq.(1.6.2) 2rn = or i.e., which is the Bohrs quantisation condition. nh mv (1.6.2)

mvrn =

nh 2 nh L= 2

(1.6.3)

Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle

We know that an electron in motion is associated with a wave whose wavelength is given by the de Broglie relation, and it can be considered as a wave packet of small extension formed by the superposition of large number of waves of wavelengths slightly dierent from the wavelength of the associated wave. Since a wave-packet is of nite width, there will be an uncertainty in specifying the position of electron. At the same time the spectral distribution of the amplitude of a wave-packet covers a range of wavelengths. By the de Broglie relationship, this means that the momentum of the electron will also be uncertain. Therefore, in general, it is not possible to determine precisely and simultaneously, the position and the momentum of the electron.

2.1

Uncertainty Principle

Statement: It is impossible to determine precisely and simultaneously the values of the both the members of a pair of physical variables which describe the motion of an atomic system. Such pairs of variables are called canonically conjugate variables. Example: According to this principle, the position and momentum of a particle cannot be

determined simultaneously to any desired degree of accuracy. Taking x as the error in determining its position and px the error in determining its momentum at the same instant, these quantities are related as follows: x.px
34 Js. where = 2h = 1.054 10 If x is small, px will be large and vice versa. It means that if one quantity is measured accurately, the other quantity becomes less accurate.

In three dimensions the uncertainty relations are: x.px y.py z.pz (2.1.1) (2.1.2) (2.1.3)

Uncertainty relation for energy and time: The uncertainty relation for kinetic energy E of a particle in motion and the time t at which it is measured is E.t (2.1.4) where E is the uncertainty in the energy, and t the uncertainty in the time. NOTE: In the uncertainty relation of x and px my be dened in various ways, therefore, many expressions for the product x.px are possible. If a series of measurements of x and px are taken on many identical system, and if x and px are dened as the root mean square deviations from their mean values, it can be shown that the minimum value of the product of the uncertainties is given by 2 In solving problems in which only one set of values is involved, the minimum value of the product should be taken as x.px = This expression will give better estimate of one of the uncertainties, if the other is known. x.px =

2.2

Illustration: Gamma Ray Microscope

Suppose we try to measure the position and linear momentum of an electron using an imaginary microscope with a very high resolving power. The electron can be observed if atleast one photon is scattered by it into the microscope is given by the relation x = 2 sin

where x is the distance between two points which can be just resolved by microscope. This is the range in which the electron would be visible when disturbed by the photon. Hence x is the uncertainty involved in the position measurement of the electron. However, the incoming photon will interact with the electron through the Compton eect. To be able to see this electron, the scattered photon should enter the microscope within the angle 2 . The momentum imparted by the photon to the electron during the impact is of the h h h order of . The component of this momentum along OA is sin and that along OB is sin .

Hence the uncertainty in the momentum measurement in the x-direction is px = h h 2h sin sin = sin 2h . sin = h 2 sin

x.px =

A more sophisticated approach will show that x.px . where = 2h It is clear that the process of measurement itself perturbs the particle whose properties are being measured.

3
3.1

Schrodingers Wave Equation

Schrodingers one dimensional Time-Dependent wave equation

A plane wave moving in the positive x direction is represented in the exponential form as (3.1.1)

where is a function of position x and time t ; = 2 ( is the frequency of the wave) and k the propagation constant= 2 ( is the wavelength of the wave ) According to de Broglie relation h h 2 p= = = k 2 where =
h 2

and k =

from Einstein equation E = h = k= p h 2 = 2 and = E (3.1.2)

substituting equation (3.1.2)in (3.1.1) we have = Ae

(pxEt )

(3.1.3)

Dierentiate equation(3.1.3) partially w.r.t position x.

p2 i (xpEt ) p2 2 = Ae = 2 2 x2 2 p2 = 2 2 x Dierentiate equation(3.1.3) partially w.r.t time t . and

(3.1.4)

(3.1.5) i t Particle subject to force: When a particle is not free but is subject to a force, its total energy is the sum of its kinetic energy and potential energy. E = 7

For a particle of mass m. moving with a velocity v piloted by the wave function , the total energy in a non-relativistic case is given by 1 E = mv 2 + V 2
2 where 1 2 mv is kinetic energy and V the potential energy of the particle