Math 262 Equation Sheet

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INFINITE SEQUENCES

Review

Let { }
n
a be a sequence. If L a
n
n
=
+
lim then
the sequence converges.

If
n
n
a
+
lim results in either one of the following
forms:

, 1 , , 0 , ,
0
0
0 0
use
LHopitals Rule to evaluate the limit.

LHoptials Rule

) ( '
) ( '
lim
) (
) (
lim
x g
x f
x g
x f
a x a x
=


Properties of Sequences

Suppose that { }
n
a and { }
n
b be two convergent
sequences with L a
n
n
=
+
lim and
M b
n
n
=
+
lim then the following results are true

Name Property

Constant
c c
n
=
+
lim

Constant
Multiple
cL a c ca
n
n
n
n
= =
+ +
lim lim

Additive
( ) M L b a b a
n
n
n
n
n n
n
+ = + = +
+ + +
lim lim lim
Difference
( ) M L b a b a
n
n
n
n
n n
n
= =
+ + +
lim lim lim

Product
( ) LM b a b a
n
n
n
n
n n
n
= =
+ + +
lim lim lim
Quotient
M
L
b
a
bn
a
n
n
n
n n
n
= =
+
+
+
lim
lim
lim
provided that
0 M

Squeeze
Theorem
For
Sequences
Let
{ } { }, ,
n n
b a
and
{ }
n
c
be sequences such
that
{ } { } { }
n n n
b c a
. If
L a
n
n
=
+
lim

and
L b
n
n
=
+
lim

L c
n
n
=
+
lim


TESTS TO DETERMINE THE
CONVERGENCE/DIVERGENCE OF
A SERIES

Name What Does It Say
Integral Test
k
a
is a series of positive terms
and
) (x f
=
k
a . If the function is
decreasing and continuous on
[ ) + , a , then the series converges
if

+
a
dx x f ) (
is defined. The series
diverges if

+
a
dx x f ) (
=
Divergence
Test
k
a
diverges if
0 lim
+
k
k
a


Ratio Test
k
a
is a series of positive terms
with
k
k
k
a
a
p
1
lim
+
+
=


If
> 1 p
the series diverges.
If
1 < p the series converges.
If
1 = p
no conclusion.

Root Test
k
a
is a series of positive terms
with k
k
k
a p
+
= lim


If
>1 p
the series diverges.
If
1 < p the series converges.
If
1 = p
no conclusion.

Comparison
Test
Suppose that

1
k
a
and

1
k
b
are two series with positive terms
such that
k k
b a for all k .

If

1
k
b
converges, then

1
k
a

converges.
If

1
k
a
diverges, then also

1
k
b
diverges.
Limit
Comparison
Test
Suppose that

1
k
a
and

1
k
b

are two series with positive terms
with
k
k
k
b
a
p
+
= lim

If
> 0 p
either both series
converge, or both series diverge.
Name What Does It Say

Alternating
Series Test
Suppose that 0 >
k
a for
,... 3 , 2 , 1 = k
then the series has the
form of either:
4 3 2 1
a a a a +
+.
or
....
4 3 2 1
+ + a a a a
The series converges if and only if
1.
k k
a a
+1
; the series is
decreasing, and 2.
0 lim =
+
k
k
a

Ratio Test
Absolute
Convergence
k
a
is a series of nonzero terms
with
k
k
k
a
a
p
1
lim
+
+
=

If
> 1 p
the series diverges.
If
1 < p
the series converges.
If
1 = p
no conclusion.


POWER OF SERIES AND RADIUS
OF CONVERGENCE

Form Sigma
Notation
Radius of
Convergence

... . 1
1
1
4 3 2
+ + + + + =

x x x x
x

=
1
n
x

1 1 x
( )
..... 4 3 2 1
1
1
3 2
2
+ + + + =

x x x
x

=
1
1 n
nx

1 1 x

( ) ....
4 3 2
1 ln
4 3 2
+ + = +
x x x
x x

( )
n
x
n n

=
1
1

1 1 x
.
7 5 3
arctan
7 5 3
+ + =
x x x
x x

( )
1 2
1
1 2
1
+
=
+

n
x
n n

1 1 x

...
! 4 ! 3 ! 2 ! 1
1
4 3 2
+ + + + + =
x x x x
e
x

=
1
! n
x
n

( ) ,

....
! 9 ! 7 ! 5 ! 3
sin
9 7 5 3
x x x x
x x + + =

( )
( )! 1 2
1
1 2
1 +
=
+

n
x
n n

( ) ,

....
! 8 ! 6 ! 4 ! 2
1 cos
8 6 4 2
+ + =
x x x x
x

( )
( )! 2
1
2
1
n
x
n n

=

( ) ,




VECTORS AND COORDINATE
GEOMETRY

Vectors & Vector Dot Products

Let u be a vector having n components, then the
length or norm of is u defined to be

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
3
2
2
2
1
...
n
n n n n u + + + + =

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Let u and v be two vectors, then their dot product
is defined to be:

cos v u v u =


Properties

Symmetry
u v v u =

Multiplication
with a scalar
( ) ( ) v u k v u k = kR

Linearity
( ) w u v u w v u + = +

Uses of Dot Product

A. Show orthoganality:
0 = v u
v u
B. Finding the angle between two vectors:

=

v u
v u
1
cos

Unit Vectors
Suppose that u is a vector having n components,
then its unit vector is found be dividing each
component of the vector by its norm. That is,

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
u
n n n n
u
u
u
n
unit
2 2
3
2
2
2
1
...
1 1
+ + + +
= =


VECTOR VALUED FUNCTIONS

Tangent Directions

If ( ) k t z j t y i t x t r

) (

) (

) ( + + =
is a position vector
to the points on the curve ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t z t y t x , , then
we can find the following quantities

Average
Velocity
,
) ( ) (
t
t r t t r
v
avg

+
=
t =
change in time
Velocity
[ ] [ ] [ ]k t z
dt
dz
j t y
dt
dy
i t x
dt
dx
dt
dr
t r t v ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ' ) ( + + = = =

Speed
) (t v
Acceleration
[ ] [ ] [ ]k t z
dt
dz
j t y
dy
dy
i t x
dt
dx
dt
r d
t r t a ) ( ' ) ( ' ) ( ' ) ( ' ' ) (
2
2
+ + = = =


Arc length

dt t r t s s
t
t

= =
0
) ( ' ) (


Formulas for Curvature, Torsion, Radius of
Curvature

Name Formula

Unit Tangent
Vector
v
v
T =

Curvature
3
v
a v
=

Radius of
Curvature

1
=

Binormal Vector
a v
a v
B

=

Unit Normal
Vector
dt
T d
dt
T d
T B N = =

Tangential and
Normal
Components
N v T
dt
dv
a
2
+ =

Torsion
( )
2
a v
dt
da
a v

=

Frenet Serret Formulas
N
ds
T d
=

N
ds
B d
=

B T
ds
N d
+ =


PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION

Definition of Limit on a plane

( ) L y x f
b a y x
=

, lim
) , ( ) , (

Implies that
A. Every neighborhood of (a, b) contains points of
the domain of ) , ( y x f different from (a, b).
B. For every (positive) there exists a positive
such that
< L y x f ) , (
whenever (x, y) is
in the domain of f and satisfies the
inequality: ( ) ( ) < + <
2 2
0 b y a x


Definition of Continuity on a Plane

For continuity to happen, the following 2 conditions
must hold:

1.
) , ( lim
) , ( ) , (
y x f
b a y x
exists
2.
) , ( ) , ( lim
) , ( ) , (
b a f y x f
b a y x
=

Partial Derivatives

Given a function
) , ( y x f
, the partial with respect to
x , denoted as
x
f , at the point
( ) b a,
is defined to be
0
( , ) ( )
( , ) lim
x
h
f a h b f a
f a b
h

+
=


Similarly the partial with respect to y, at the point
( ) b a,
, denoted as
y
f
, is defined to be
0
( , ) ( )
lim
y
k
f a b k f b
f
k

+
=


In practice we use the following

x
f
f f
x

= =
1


differentiate the
function f with respect
to x while holding all
other variables as
constants.

y
f
f f
y

= =
2


differentiate the
function f with respect
to y while holding all
other variables as
constants.


The idea can easily be extended to functions having
more than 2 variables.

Higher Derivatives

Second derivatives for functions of 2 variables

2
2
11
x
f
f f
xx

= =
=

x
f
x

Second
derivative of f
with respect to x
2
2
22
y
f
f f
yy

= =
=

y
f
y

Second
derivative of f
with respect to y
=

= =
x y
f
f f
xy
2
12

x
f
y


Mixed partial


=

= =
y x
f
f f
yx
2
21

y
f
x

Mixed partial

Chain Rule

) , ( y x f z =
is a differentiable function of x and
y with
) (t x x =
and
) (t y y =
then

t
y
y
z
t
x
x
z
t z

= ) ( '


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Example:
( ) y x y x z sin , =
where
t
e t x = ) (
and
2
) ( t t y =


Solution:

t
y
y
z
t
x
x
z
t z

= ) ( '

t
e
t
x
=

t
t
y
2 =

y
x
z
sin =

y x
y
z
cos =

y tx y e t z
t
cos 2 sin ) ( ' + =


The chain rule can be extended to include functions
which have more than one variable.

Let z be a differentiable function of n variables,
n
x x x x ,..., , ,
3 2 1
and each
j
x is a
differentiable function of m variables,
m
t t t t ,..., , ,
3 2 1
then z is ultimately a function of
m
t t t t ,..., , ,
3 2 1
. So

m
n
n i i i
t
x
x
z
t
x
x
z
t
x
x
z
t
z

+ +

...
2
2
1
1



Tangent Planes & Gradients

Suppose that
( , ) z f x y =
has tangent planes
everywhere, then the gradient is:

( )
$
( ) ( , ) , , f x y i x y j x y
x y

= +

$

( , ) f x y
=Direction of the steepest slope upwards
in the XY plane
( , ) f x y =Direction of the steepest slope
downwards in the XY plane.
( , ) f x y
=Slope in steepest direction

$
u
D f u f =
=Directional derivative of f with
respect to
$
u

$ $
u
u kD f +
=Tangent vector with respect to
$
u
direction

$
k f
=Upward normal vector to the surface
=Perpendicular to all tangent vectors
=Normal vector to the tangent plane.


LOCAL EXTREMAS

Suppose that the surface
( , ) z f x y =
has tangent planes at every point. The points
0 0 0
( , , ) x y z on the surface where the tangent plane is horizontal
( )
0 0
,
0
x y
f =
uv
, are called critical point (local extrema).
2
p o si ti v e f o r al l n ear b y sl o p es ar e u p
su r f ac e b en d s u p
l o c al m i n i m u m
u
D f

2
negati ve f or al l nearby sl opes are dow n
surf ace bends dow n
l ocal max i mum
u
D f

2
changes sl ope nearby sl opes i s up i n some di recti ons and down i n other di recti ons
surf ace bends up and down
saddl e
u
D f

The test can be expressed in terms of the J acobian matrix

=
d c
b a
y
f
y x
f
y x
f
x
f
D
2
2 2
2
2
2

I f det(D )<0 w e have a saddl e poi nt
I f det(D )<0 and a+c>0 w e have a l ocal mi ni mum
I f det(D )<0 and a+c<0 w e have a l ocal maxi mum

Lagrange Multipliers
To find the extreme values:

1. First get it into a Lagrangian function:
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) L x y f x y g x y = +

2. Solve for the critical point by finding out when

( ) ( ) y x g y x f
x
L
x
, , 0 + =

=
,
( ) ( ) y x g y x f
y
L
y
, , 0 + =

=
,
( ) y x g
L
, 0

=

3. Once the critical points have been found, plug it back into the function and test to see which point satisfies the given criteria.