CZAR 2CPh Reviewer Bacteriology The Study of Bacteria Topics

Longest bacteria rods approach the size of some yeasts and human red blood cells 7microm. SIZE OF BACTERIA Unit for measurement : Micron or micrometer,m: 1m=10-3mm Size: Varies with kinds of bacteria, and also related to their age and external environment.

Bacterial Ultrastructures Biofilms Bacterial Metabolism Bacterial Sporolation Bacterial Reproduction and Growth Kinetics Bacterial Cultivation Environmental Factors of Growth Detection, Identification and Characterization

Bacterial Structures Flagella Pili Capsule Plasma Membrane Cytoplasm Cell Wall Lipopolysaccharides Teichoic Acids Inclusions Spores Shape Sperical or Ovoid single (micrococci) Pairs (diplococci) Clusters (staphylococci) Chains (streptococci) Cubical groups (sarcinae) Rod Shaped bacilli Spiral Rigid spirilla Flexible (spirochetes) Curved (vibrio) Size Bacteria range in size from about 0.2 to 5 microm. Smallest bacteria mycoplasma are about the same size as the largest viruses. (Pox virus)

Cocci: sphere, 1m Bacilli:rods , 0.5-1 m in width -3 m in length Spiral bacteria: 1~3 m in length and 0.3-0.6 m in width Ultracellular Structures

CZAR 2CPh Reviewer Bacterial Cell Wall To protect the cell against osmotic rupture and certain mechanical damages A manner of identification in terms of Shape Chemical Characteristics Antigenic Attributes Gram Positive Vs. Gram Negative Cell Wall Of Gram Positive Bacteria: 1. Peptidoglycan layer is much thicker in gram positive than in gram negative bacteria. 2. Some gram positive bacteria also have fibers of teichoic acid that protrude outside the peptidoglycan , whereas gram negative bacteria do not. 3. These fibers of glycerol phosphate or ribitol phosphate are located in the outer layer of g+ cell wall and extend from it. 4. The medical importance of teichoic acids lies in their ability to induce septic shock. Cell Wall Of Gram negative bacteria: 1) In gram-negative organism, it contains endotoxin, a lipopolysaccharide. 2) Its polysaccharides and proteins are antigens that are useful in laboratory identification. 3) Its porin proteins play a role in regulating the passage of small hydrophilic molecules into the cell. Peptidoglycan: Peptidoglycan is a complex interwoven network that surrounds the entire cell and is composed of a single covalently linked macromolecule. IT IS FOUND ONLY IN BACTERIAL CELL WALLS.

Functions: Provides rigid support for the cell, Maintain the characteristic shape of the cell, Allows the cell to withstand media of low osmotic pressure, such as water. Term peptidoglycan is derived from the peptides and sugars (glycans) LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE: The LPS is composed of three distinct units: 1) A phospholipid called lipid A, which is responsible for the toxic effects. 2) A core polysaccharide of five sugars linked through ketodeoxyoctulonate (KDO) to lipid A 3) An outer polysaccharide consisting of up to 25 repeating units of three to five sugars. This outer polymer is the important somatic, or O antigenof several gram negative bacteria that is used to identify certain organisms in the

clinical laboratory. Principle The thick peptidoglycan layer of Gram-positive organisms allows these organisms to retain the

CZAR 2CPh Reviewer crystal violet-iodine complex and stains the cells as purple. The procedure is based on the ability of microorganisms to retain color of the stains used during the gram stain reaction. Gram-negative bacteria are decolorized by the alcohol, losing the color of the primary stain, purple. Gram-positive bacteria are not decolorized by alcohol and will remain as purple. After decolorization step, a counterstain is used to impart a pink color to the decolorized gram-negative organisms. Capsule and Slimes Capsules a viscous material that essentially forms a covering layer or a sort of envelope around the cell wall Slime loose structure Salient Features These structures are not quite necessary and important for the normal growth and usual survival of the bacterial cells but their very presence grants some apparent advantages to the bacterial cells that contain these structures. A plethora of bacteria are incapable of producing either a capsule or a slime ; and those which can do so would certainly lose the ability to synthesize legitimately these two components devoid of any adverse effects. The prime interest in these amorphous organic exopolymers i.e., capsules and slimes, was to assess precisely their actual role in the pathogenicity by virtue of the fact that majority of these pathogenic microorganisms do produce either a capsule or a slime.

Functions of Capsules They may afford adequate protection against temporary drying by strategically bound to water molecules. They may cause absolute blockade of attachment to bacteriophages. They may be antiphagocytic* in nature. They may invariably promote attachment of bacteria to surfaces, such as : Streptococcus mutans a bacterium that is directly linked to causing dental caries, by means of its ability to adhere intimately onto the smooth surfaces of teeth on account of its specific secretion of a water-insoluble capsular glucan. In the event when the capsules are essentially made up of compounds bearing an electrical charge, for instance: a combination of sugaruronic acids, they may duly help in the promotion of the stability of bacterial suspension by preventing the cells from aggregating and settling out by virtue of the fact that such cells having identical charged surfaces would have a tendency to repel one another predominently. Visualization of Capsules India Ink Method Reverse Staining Flagella and Fimbria Flagellum

CZAR 2CPh Reviewer a thread like structure that provides motility to certain bacteria and protozoan surface appendages invariably found in motile bacteria, appear generally as filaments having diameter ranging between 1220 nm and length between68 m. Location: o polar monotrichous o polar or bipolar o polar peritrichousas Flagellar Apparatus : (a) filament outermost structural segment of bacteria composed of a specific protein: flagelin attached to the basal granule with the help of the hook (b) hook (c)basal granule Fimbriae or Pili Holow, non-Helical, filamentous, hair-like strutures that are apparently thinner, shorter, and more numerous than flagella between 0.5 to 2 m ; besides, an empty core of 2 to 2.5 nm. Pili Short protein appendages o smaller than flagella Adhere bacteria to surfaces o E. coli has numerous types K88, K99, F41, etc. o Antibodies to will block adherance F-pilus; used in conjugation o Exchange of genetic information Flotation; increase boyancy o Pellicle (scum on water) o More oxygen on surface Bacterial Sporulation

Salient Features of Fimbriae : (1) At least 5 to 6 fimbriae variants have been recognized besides the sex pili. (2) Type I fimbriae has been characterized completely. (3) They contain a particular protein known as pilinhaving molecular weight of 17,000 daltons. (4) The fimbriae are found to be spread over the entire cell surface. These have a diameter of 7 nm and a length ranging

Endospores Resistant structure o Heat, irradiation, cold o Boiling >1 hr still viable Takes time and energy to make spores Location important in classification o Central, Subterminal, Terminal Bacillus stearothermophilus -spores o Used for quality control of heat sterilization equipment Bacillus anthracis - spores o Used in biological warfare

CZAR 2CPh Reviewer

Cytoplasm 80% Water {20% Salts-Proteins) o Osmotic Shock important DNA is circular, Haploid o Advantages of 1N DNA over 2N DNA o More efficient; grows quicker o Mutations allow adaptation to environment quicker Plasmids; extra circular DNA o Antibiotic Resistance No organelles (Mitochondria, Golgi, etc.) Cell Membrane Bilayer Phospholipid Water can penetrate Flexible Not strong, ruptures easily o Osmotic Pressure created by cytoplasm

CZAR 2CPh Reviewer Kinematics A branch of Mechanics which describes the motion of objects using words, diagrams, numbers, graphs, and equations Study of motion of bodies without regard to the forces acting on the body. Particles Has mass, but its dimensions are negligible or unimportant in the problem being investigated Rigid body A system of particles that remain at fixed distances from each other with no relative translation or rotation among them. Distance a scalar quantity, the total path covered by an object in motion. Displacement a vector quantity, the shortest distance from the initial to the final position of an object. Speed A scalar quantity A measure of how fast an object moves Speed = distance / time Instantaneous speed the speed of an object at any one instant measured by the speedometer Average speed The measure of the total distance traveled at a given period of time.

Change its direction Change both speed and direction Constant Acceleration velocity is changing by a CONSTANT amount each second Non-constant Acceleration velocity is changing by an amount each second

Positive Acceleration Negative Acceleration Describing motion using Graphs Position vs time graph Velocity vs time graph Acceleration vs time graph

Uniformly Accelerated Motion Summary of Formulas:

v vo at 1 d vot at 2 2 2 2 v v0 2ad v f vo v 2 v vo d t 2
Free fall An object falls under the influence of gravity alone It is not affected by air resistance Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s2 Happens if the only force acting on the object is the gravitational force Free-fall equations Summary of Formulas:

Velocity A vector quantity Rate of how an object changes its position Used to describe speed and direction Acceleration A vector quantity Rate at which object changes its velocity How to accelerate an object change its speed

v vo gt 1 d vot gt 2 2 2 2 v v0 2 gd

CZAR 2CPh Reviewer How fast an object falls v = gt v = velocity g= acceleration due to gravity t = time d = (1/2) gt2 d= distance g= acceleration due to gravity t = time t= Example Average reaction time of a person = 0.16 s d = 1.5 cm or 0.015 m g = 9.8 m/s2 t= t = 0.055s

CZAR 2CPh Reviewer Problem Solving 1. What is the average speed of a cheetah that sprints 100 m in 4 s? How about if it sprints 50 m in 2 s?

8. A sprinter is able to produce an acceleration of 8.0 m/s2 for the first 0.75 s of a race. Calculate the velocity of the sprinter at the end of the first 0.75 s?

2. If a car moves with an average speed of 60 km/h for an hour, it will travel a distance of 60 km.How far would it travel if it moved at this rate for a) 4h?

9. Now suppose that the sprinter continues to run at 6.0 m/s until the end of the race. After crossing the finish line the sprinter decelerates at 2.0 m/s2. How long will it take her to stop?

b) 10h?

3. A particular car can go from rest to 90 km/h in 10 s. What is its acceleration?

4. In 2.5 s a car increases its speed from 60 km/h to 65 km/h while a bicycle goes from rest to 5 km/h. Which undergoes the greater acceleration? What is the acceleration of each vehicle?

10. If a freight train can accelerate at 0.050 m/s2, how far must it travel to increase its speed from 2.0 to 8.0 m/s? How long will it take the train to accomplish this?

5. A girl moves at a constant speed in a constant direction. Say the same sentence in fewer words.

6. The speedometer of a car moving to the east reads 100 km/h. It passes another car that moves to the west at 100 km/h. Do both cars have the same speed? Do they have the same velocity?

11. The human body can survive a negative acceleration trauma incident (sudden stop) if the magnitude of the acceleration is less than 250 m/s2. If you are in a car accident with an initial speed of 105 km/h and are stopped by an airbag that inflates from the dashboard, over what distance must the airbag stop you for you to survive the crash?

7. During a certain period of time, the speedometer of a car reads a constant 60 km/h. Does this indicate a constant speed? A constant velocity?

12. An engineer is designing the runway for an airport. Of the planes which will use the airport, the lowest acceleration rate is likely to be 3 m/s2. The takeoff speed

CZAR 2CPh Reviewer for this plane will be 65 m/s. Assuming this minimum acceleration, what is the minimum allowed length for the runway?

13. A car accelerates from 12 m/s to 25 m/s in 6s. What was its acceleration? How far did it travel in this time? Assume constant acceleration.

14. How long will it take a car to accelerate from 10m/s to 13m/s if it produces an acceleration of 3m/s2?

19. A car 3.5 in length and traveling at a constant speed of 20 m/s is approaching an intersection. The width of the intersection is 20m. The light turns yellow when the front of the car is 50m from the beginning of the intersection. If the driver steps on the brake, the car will slow at -3.8 m/s2 . If the driver instead steps on the gas pedal, the car will accelerate at 2.3m/s2. The light will be yellow for 3.0s. Ignore the reaction time of the driver. To avoid being in the intersection while the light is red, should the driver hit the brake pedal or the gas pedal?

15. How long will it take a car to cover a distance of 100 m if it accelerates from rest at a rate of 4.0 m/s2?

16. How long will it take a car to cover a distance of 250 m if it accelerates from rest at a rate of 4.0 m/s2?

20. Two cars are 20 m apart. Car 1 is initially at rest and car 2 is moving at a speed of 19m/s to the left. The first car started to accelerate at 2m/s2 to the right and car 2 continues to move at a constant velocity, when will the two cars pass each other?

17. A dolphin decelerates for 2.0 s from an initial speed of 7.5 m/s in order to take a look at a dolphin of the opposite sex. Calculate the dolphins final speed if the deceleration had a magnitude of 1.5 m/s2.

21. Two cars are 50 m apart. Car 1 is travelling at 12 m/s to the left while car 2 is travelling at 10 m/s to the right. If both cars accelerate at 2 m/s2, when will they pass each other?

18. An ice skater decelerates for 5.0 s to a final speed of 12 m/s. If the deceleration was at a rate of 1.5 m/s2. What is the skaters initial speed?

22. A cat steps off a ledge and drops to the ground in second. a. What is its speed on striking the ground?

CZAR 2CPh Reviewer b. How high is the ledge from the ground?

bottom? What is the total distance travelled?

23. What is the velocity acquired by a freely falling object 5s after being dropped from a rest position? What is it 6s after? If it has reached the ground after 10s, from what height was it dropped? What is its velocity before hitting the ground?

24. A properly motivated kangaroo can jump over an object 2.5 m high. A) Calculate its speed when it left the ground.

28. A youngster throws a rock from a bridge into the river 50 m below. The rock has a speed of 15m/s when it leaves the youngsters hand.How much later does it strike the water? Calculate the velocity of the rock when it strikes the water a) if it is thrown straight upward ;

b) if its is thrown straight downward.

B) Calculate its speed when it returns to the ground.

29.A boulder is ejected straight up out of a volcano at a speed of 80 m/s. To what maximum height will it rise above the point where it was ejected?

25. A child throws a ball straight down off the balcony of an apartment building at a speed of 7.5 m/s. a) Calculate the position and the velocity of the ball 1 and 2 s later. B) Make same calculations if the ball is thrown straight up.

30.A rock is dropped into a 60.0 m deep well. A) Neglecting air resistance, how long will it take the rock to reach the bottom?

26. A rock is thrown straight up with an initial speed of 10 m/s. a) What distance does the rock rise above its point of release? b) How long does it take the rock to reach its highest point?

B) calculate the position of the rock 1,2 and 3 s after its release.

27. A stone is thrown vertically upward with a speed of 12 m/s from the edge of a cliff 75 m high. A) How much later does it reach the bottom of the cliff? What is its speed just before hitting the

31. A rock is thrown from the rooftop 10 m from the ground. It is thrown with an initial velocity of 12m/s. How much later does it strike the water? Calculate the velocity of the rock when it strikes the water a) if it is thrown straight upward ;

CZAR 2CPh Reviewer b) if its is thrown straight downward.

32. If a rock is dropped from a high cliff, how fast will it be going when it has fallen 100m?b) How long will it take to fall this distance?

33.A rock is dropped from a sea cliff and the sound of it striking the ocean is heard 3.4 s later. If the speed of sound is 340m/s, how high is the cliff?