CC2413 Fundamental

Psychology for Health Studies

Lecture 2 – Research Methods

( ) 研究方法
Lecturer:

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Lesson Plan
(A) The Scientific Investigation

(B) Research Methods

(C) Research Evaluation

(D) Conclusion
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(A) The Scientific Investigation:

Why is psychology a science?

Scientific method

system of gathering data so that bias and errors in
measurement are minimized.

Basic concepts

Theory – explains, organizes, & predicts observable
behaviors or events

_____________________ ( 假設) – tentative & testable

explanation of a phenomenon
• derived from observations, existing theories & hypotheses
(educated guess of possible relations)
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 Psychology is a science; steps in scientific method

The Scientific Method

(A) Steps in a Scientific Investigation

1) Perceive the question

2) Formulate a Hypothesis

3) Design a Study to test the hypothesis

4) Collect the Data

5) Analyze the Data & Draw Conclusions

6) _________________ the Findings

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(B) Research Methods ( 研究方法)

1. Descriptive Methods
觀察)
Observation (
個案研究)
Case study (
Survey (調查 )
2. Correlational research ( 相關研究)
3. Experiment ( )實驗

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 (B) 1. Descriptive Methods
Descriptive methods may lead to the
formation of testable hypotheses.

I. Observation
________________ Observation
( 自然觀察 )
 Un-intrusively (不干擾地) watching &
recording animals or humans behave in their
normal environment
Laboratory Observation
 watching & recording animals or humans
behave in a controlled laboratory setting

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(B) 1. Descriptive Methods

II. Case study ( 個案研究)
 an in-depth study of one or few individuals
or a situation

「後院培慾」
後院培慾」美魔鬼夫妻涉姦殺十人
年 月 日 星期三
2009 9 2

【明報專訊】美國加州警方在懷疑涉及連環兇殺案的「後院培慾」案疑犯加里多（加里多（Phillip
Garrido）的舊居隔鄰寓所發現懷疑人骨。加里多涉嫌嫌綁架及強姦迪加爾（Jaycee
Dugard）達18年，令她懷孕誕下兩名女兒外，還可能殺害十名妓女及綁架3女童，其妻子
南希（
南希（Nancy）亦涉助夫行兇而被捕...
加州禁室培慾女主角：「
加州禁室培慾女主角：「我與綁匪有感情
：「我與綁匪有感情，
我與綁匪有感情，但很內疚」
但很內疚」 年 月 日 星期三
2009 9 2

【明報專訊】轟動美國 的加州「禁室培慾」案中，被禁錮18年並為綁匪誕下兩女的29歲女
子迪加爾，懷疑出現「斯德哥爾摩症候群」。
斯德哥爾摩症候群」。日前她與家人團聚時承認，自己對擄走和
強姦她的加里多建立了深厚感情，「感覺好像結了婚」，但同時稱對自己有這種感覺感到
很內疚。
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(B) 1. Descriptive Methods

Survey ( 調查)
 researchers will ask a series of standardized
questions about the topic under study on a sample
of the population.
 Population - the entire group of people or animals
in which the researcher is interested
 Sample - a subset of individuals from a target
population
A representative sample ( 有代表性的樣本
)
_____________________________ ( 隨機抽樣
隨機抽樣
)

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Fig 2.17 - The relationship between the population and the sample. The process of drawing
inferences about a population based on a sample works only if the sample is reasonably
representative of the population. A sample is representative if its demographic makeup is similar to
that of the population, as shown on the left. If some groups in the population are over-represented or
underrepresented in the sample, as shown on the right, inferences about the population may be
skewed or inaccurate.
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(B) 2. Correlational research ( 相關研究)

 Describe patterns of behavior and finding
relationships or associations between two
variables ( 變項
) from a single sample
 ____________________ - anything that can
change or vary (e.g. IQ, Height)
 When two variables are related to each other,
兩個變項之間的關係，
they are correlated (
即一個變項的值隨着另一個變項改變而有規劃
地改變)
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(B) 2. Correlational research ( 相關研究)

 Correlation coefficient (r) → (相關係數)
r ranges from –1.00 to +1.00
review direction (Positive vs. Negative) &
strength of the relationship (0 vs. +/-1.00)
can make predictions

 Correlations ≠ __________________
( 相關 因果關係
≠ )

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(B) 2. Correlation scatter plots – review the strength
& direction of the correlation

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(B)2. 3 Possible Causes of Relationships

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Concept Check
Which of the following correlation
coefficient (r) indicate the strongest
relationship between two variables?
A) -0.82
B) 0.31
C) 0.58
D) -1.7

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 實驗)
實驗
(B) 3. Experiment (實驗
 The only method that allows the
determination of ___________-and-
____________ relationships

 The scientist deliberately causes changes in

one variable (called the independent
variable) and then observes and records the
resulting changes in some other variable
(called the dependent variable).
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(B) 3. Experiment ( 實驗)

操作定義
 Operational definition
( )
 definition of a variable of
Define:
Aggressive
interest that allow it to be play
directly measured and/or
observed

 Independent variable (IV) IV: Violent

 variable in an experiment that is TV
manipulated by the
experimenter

 Dependent variable (DV) DV:

 variable in an experiment that
Aggressive
represents the measurable play
response or behavior of the
subjects in the experiment.
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Concept Check
Which of the following could be the
operational definition of stress in a
scientific study?
a) one’s heart rate and blood pressure
b) any circumstances that threaten or
perceived to threaten one’s well-being
and require one’coping abilities
c) one’s feeling and thinking

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 實驗)
實驗
(B) 3. Experiment (實驗
 Experimental group (實驗組) Experimental Group:
with manipulation of IV
 Subjects in an experiment who receive
some special treatment in regard to the IV
→ Watch violent TV

 Control group ( 控制組)

 A condition identical to the experimental one,
similar subjects who do not receive the
special treatment IV (or who may receive a
placebo treatment)

隨機分派
 Randomization/Random Assignment Control Group:
( ) without manipulation of IV
→ Watch Nonviolent TV
的變項
 to _______________ extraneous (
) (any variables other than the IV
無關
2009/9/8
使混亂 干擾的
干擾的
that seem likely to influence the DV) or
confounding ( / ) variables
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(B) 3. How to Conduct an Experiment( 實驗)?

Data Collection

Data Analysis

2009/9/8
→ Draw Conclusions
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Concept Check
A health psychologist develops a new training
program to improve medical staff’s courtesy
to patients in all public clinics and hospitals.
She conducts an experiment to see whether
the new training program leads to a reduction
in the number of patients’ complaints.

1) What is the hypothesis and IV & DV of

this experiment?
(Ref: p. 43, Weiten )
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 Concept Check
Hypothesis:

Independent variable (IV)

Dependent variable (DV)

(an operational definition of ________________)

(Ref: p. 43, Weiten )
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(C) Research Evaluation –

1. Flaws in Research & Solutions
Problems Solutions
Sampling bias ( 抽樣徧
抽樣徧差) Random sampling ( 隨機抽樣)
Confounding (使混亂/干擾的) Randomization/Random
or Extraneous variables (無關 隨機分派
的變項)
Assignment ( )

**Placebo effects (安慰劑效應) Placebo treatment (安慰劑) or

Single-blind procedure (單盲法)
Social desirability bias (社會需 Single-blind procedure (單盲法)
要性偏差) Use of a Lie scale
Observer bias (觀察者徧
觀察者徧差) or Double-blind procedure ( 雙盲法)
Experimenter bias (實驗者徧
實驗者徧差)
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(C) Research Evaluation –

2. Ethical Issues
General principles of code of ethics

 Do NOT harm participants

被告知同意)
 Secure Informed Consent(

 Deception(欺騙) → Debriefing (事後解說)

 Confidentiality (保密)
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 研究：
研究：中年獨居 老年癡呆機率高近一倍
(法新社)2009年7月3日 星期五
「英國 醫學雜誌」（BritishMedical Journal）今天公佈
一份研究報告指出，人若中年獨居，老年發生認知能力
•
Can you relate this news to
what you have learnt in this 問題的機率，比結婚或有伴的人高出幾近一倍。
topic? Which research method
研究人員於1970和1980年代隨機訪問芬蘭 東部地區庫
does this study belong to?
奧皮奧（Kuopio）及卓恩索（Joensuu）共2000人，當時
•

他們的平均年齡是50.4歲。1998年，研究人員重新檢視其
中1409人的認知能力受損狀況，此時受訪者年齡介於65至
79歲。1409人中有57人被診斷出阿茲海默症和其他類型
癡呆症，82人認知能力輕微受損，其餘1270人的健康狀況
正常。
研究發現，「中年獨居的人到了老年，患有認知障礙的機
率，比其他有伴的人高出大約一倍」。研究也發現，中年
•

時即喪偶、
時即喪偶、離婚，並獨居至晚年的人，發生問題的機
率是正常的三倍。
但研究作者說明，與伴侶同居意味帶來「認知與社交上的
挑戰」，
挑戰」，以避免發生癡呆，但何以致此則尚無法解釋。
•

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(D) Conclusion

Steps & Key concepts of a scientific investigation

Research methods & its evaluation

Next Topic

Development I

Questions & Answers ( 問題及答複)

END OF LECTURE
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(D) Conclusion
References
***Ciccarelli, S. K., & White, J. N. (2009).
Psychology (International edition, 2nd ed). Upper
Saddle River, N.J. : Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Weiten, W. (2008). Psychology: Themes and variations
(Briefer version, 7th ed., Ch. 2 pp. 32-61, & Appendix
B A-11-12). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/ Thomson
Learning.
*** Assigned Readings – Ch. 1 pp. 20 – 45,
Appendix A 1 – 12
Video
Demonstration on the **Placebo effect - from the BBC
“Human Senses” (~14:30 - 18:05)

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 (D) Conclusion
Web Resources

 1) Psychologists: Careers in Psychology

- http://academic.uofs.edu/department/psych/handbook/x.html

 2) Psychologists: Careers for the 21th Century

- http://www.apa.org/students/brochure/brochurenew.pdf

 3) Major areas of psychology

- http://apa.org/about/division.html

 4) Psychological Research on the Net

- http://psych.hanover.edu/Research/exponnet.html

 5) APA Ethics Office: Ethics information

- http://www.apa.org/ethics/homepage.html

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