MARINE BIODIVERSITY IN INDIA

MARINE BIODIVERSITY IN INDIA

Zoological Survey of India

CITATION Venkataraman K, Raghunathan C, Raghuraman R, Sreeraj CR; 2012. Marine Biodiversity : 1-164 (Published by the Director, Zool. Surv. India, Kolkata) Published : May, 2012 ISBN 978-81-8171-307-0

Govt. of India, 2012

Printing of Publication Supported by NBA

Published at the Publication Division by the Director, Zoological Survey of India, M-Block, New Alipore, Kolkata-700 053 Printed at Calcutta Repro Graphics, Kolkata-700 006.

NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY AUTHORITY

ht[eg siJ rJrJ";t tr"fUhK

ygG Dr. Balakrishna Pisupati

ztp. cttf]UK rvmwvtxe

FOREWORD

The marine ecosystem is home to the richest and most diverse faunal and floral communities. India has a coastline of 8,118 km, with an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of 2.02 million sq km and a continental shelf area of 468,000 sq km, spread across 10 coastal States and seven Union Territories, including the islands of Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep. Indian coastal waters are extremely diverse attributing to the geomorphologic and climatic variations along the coast. The coastal and marine habitat includes near shore, gulf waters, creeks, tidal flats, mud flats, coastal dunes, mangroves, marshes, wetlands, seaweed and seagrass beds, deltaic plains, estuaries, lagoons and coral reefs. There are four major coral reef areas in India-along the coasts of the Andaman and Nicobar group of islands, the Lakshadweep group of islands, the Gulf of Mannar and the Gulf of Kachchh . The Andaman and Nicobar group is the richest in terms of diversity. Mangrove ecosystems are found along both the east and west coasts of India, covering an estimated area of 4,120 sq km. Important mangrove areas are in the Sundarbans, Bhitarkanika, Krishna and Godavari delta of Andhra Pradesh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Kachchh, and the Pichavaram-Vedaranyam area of Tamil Nadu coast. Seagrass beds are found along the coasts of Tamil Nadu, Lakshadweep islands, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the Sundarbans. Eight hundred and forty four species of seaweeds are found in shallow waters all along the Indian coast, particularly in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Goa, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep. The biodiversity of marine habitats is under threat around the world oceans. Although , seas cover majority of our planet's surface, far less is known about the marine biodiversity than the terrestrial systems. Conservation of marine biodiversity has become an international issue since the extinction of the Steller's sea cow in 1868. Until we have complete information about the diversity of marine habitats and the impact of human activities etc. on them , the conservation of marine biodiversity remains a distant dream. Considering the significance of marine biodiversity conservation, the Zoological Survey of India has brought out this book on "Marine Biodiversity in India" as an informal and non-technical prose depicting illustration of marine biotic communities in Indian seas, towards the understanding and benefit of the general public. This book brings together the representative of most of the faunal groups including few floral communities of marine realm. Real life pictures of underwater creatures taken by the authors, presented in this book, would definitely form a source of invaluable source of awareness. More and more knowledge about the seas of India would evolve with time as new generations of people interact with the seas around . Humans are continuously and rapidly reducing the number of marine species resulting in depletion of their habitats and communities, leading to the destruction of the marine ecosystem. In this milieu , I appreciate Drs K Venkataraman, Director and C. Raghunathan, Scientist C, Zoological Survey of India, in bringing out this valuable source of information on Marine Biodiversity to public domain. I sincerely hope that this effort succeeds in creating an awareness to conserve the marine ecosystem for the future generation of India.

April 30, 2012

(Balakrishna Pisupati) Chairman, National Biodiversity Authority

Government of India Ministry of Environment and Forests

Dr. K. VENKATARAMAN Director

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA

PREFACE
Homo sapiens have a very biased view of planet Earth; its proper name should be Oceanus or Water (J.Hope and M. Zacharias, 2011). The oceans are the dominant feature of our planet covering nearly 71 per cent of its surface. The oceans are responsible for the regulatory control of conditions on land; the oceans modulate and moderate the terrestrial climate. It is no exaggeration that life in the oceans are self sustainable and not dependent on land of our dear planet. The oceanic realm is an inexhaustible cornucopia for the humankind. Oceans provide great wealth and diversity of food, medicines and raw materials. Oceanic resources like fish, seaweed and other organisms serve as an important means of livelihood to millions of people. Marine ecosystem encompasses coastal areas, sea and thousands of diverse living organisms, which are interdependent. In the three dimensional classification of water and seabed, the water mass is technically called the pelagic zone consisting of the neritic and the oceanic provinces. The marine environment, as a whole, comprises of living and non-living resources, which are presently being exploited by maritime nations. Out of the total 32 animal phyla, 15 are represented by the taxa covering 12856 species in marine ecosystem of India. They may constitute either migratory or resident species. The migratory organisms include pelagic crustaceans, coelenterates, cephalopods, fishes, reptiles, birds and mammals. The benthic macro fauna comprises resident species of polychaetes, bivalves, gastropods, sipunculates and mud burrowing fishes. Free swimmers or nekton are important components of marine biodiversity. Out of the total 22,000 described finfish species, about 4000 species occur in the Indian Ocean, of which 1800 species are reported in Indian seas. There are potentially many ways to collate and discuss threats to marine biodiversity, but threats can be broadly categorized as a result of over harvesting, pollution, habitat loss, introduced species and global climate change. Many marine areas have a range of biota rivaling or exceeding that of tropical forests. However, the diversity of life in our oceans is now being drastically altered by increasing irreversible anthropogenic activities. Humanity's response to our deteriorating marine environment has been predictably slow, reactive and piecemeal. Delays in responding to this environmental crisis are exacerbated due to the fact that most marine environments area still viewed as a global common resource, where there is little incentive to any one nation to address these issues, and those problems must be solved at an international level. Amidst the burgeoning threats, it is mandatory to understand our own marine bio-resources at layman level. Hence it is aimed at bringing out this book on Marine Biodiversity with the pictures of undersea life for the benefit of commons. I hope this book will be useful for students and general public to understand our marine wealth.

May, 2012

(K. Venkataraman)

CONTENTS
Introdcution 1-3 Sea fans 19-25 Hard corals 38-51 Ribbon worms 64-65

Zooplankton 4

Sea pens 26-27

Black corals 52-54

Segmented worms 66-71

Sponges 5-11

Sea anemones 28-32

Jelly fish 55-56

Peanut worms 72

Hydroids 12-13

Tube Anemones 33

Siphonophores 57

Chitons 73-74

Hydrocorals 14

Zooanthids 34-35

Comb jellies 58

Snails 75-84

Soft corals 15-18

Corallimorpharians 36-37

Flat worms 59-63

Bivalves 85-89

CONTENTS
Sea slugs 90-99 Hermit crabs 113 Sea urchins 126-129 Phytoplankton 162

Cephalopods 100-102

Lobsters 114

Sea cucumbers 130-134

Sea grasses 163

Barnacles 103-104

Feather stars 115-120

Sea squirts 135-137

Sea weeds 164-165

Mantis shrimps 105

Sea stars 121-123

Fishes 138-156

Mangroves 166-168

Shrimps 106-108

Brittle stars 124

Marine Reptiles 157-159

Crabs 109-112

Sand dollars 125

Marine Mammals 160-161

Introduction | 1

Introduction

rom bacteria to baleen whales, our planet is home to tens of millions of different life forms at least; biologists can only guess at the true number of species. Everywhere you look in the ocean there are living things. How many and what kind of organisms there are depend on where you gothat is, on the specific nature of the habitat. Every habitat has distinct characteristics that determine which organisms live there and which do not. The amount of light, for example, determines whether algae and plants can grow. The type of bottom, the temperature and salinity of the water, waves, tides, currents, and many other aspects of the environment profoundly affect marine life.

2 | Introduction

There are so many different living things in the sea that it almost boggles the mind. From microscopic bacteria to gigantic whales, marine organisms come in all shapes, sizes, and colors. The ways in which they live are just as varied. Making sense of all this diversity might seem a hopeless task. Fortunately, there is a unifying concept that helps make the bewildering diversity of life comprehensible. This concept is the theory of evolution. Remember that scientists do not use the term theory lightly. Evolution, the gradual alteration of a species' genetic makeup, is supported by a vast body of evidence. It is as well established as the theory of gravity. The way in which evolution occurs, on the other hand, never ceases to fascinate biologists. In most simple form marine biodiversity is 'Life on Earth', including plants, animals and microorganisms, the genes that they contain and the ecosystems that they form.

Accelerated loss of coastal and marine biodiversity components over the last few decades has been of great concern. Environmental changes, over exploitation and habitat loss are among the major causes of species loss that, according to certain estimates, is of the order of a species a day. Equally important as knowledge of what lives in the seas, is a prediction of what would live there in the future. This is especially true of regions where rapid loss of habitats and decline in water quality could be drastically altering the species diversity. Marine biologists are often frustrated by how hard it is to actually see what is going on in the ocean. They can collect samples with nets and dredges, make measurements with automated instruments, and do experiments in the laboratory, and in these ways have learned a great deal about marine life.

Introduction | 3

We humans are visual creatures, though, and no amount of sampling, measurement, or experimentation can completely substitute for actually watching organisms in their natural habitats. One solution is to enter the ocean and observe with our own eyes. Scuba and research submersibles have tremendously aided the study of the ocean, allowing us not only to see the organisms we study, but also to conduct experiments in the natural environment. These methods have

their limitations, though. Scuba divers can penetrate only the shallowest parts of the ocean, and then only for short periods on the order of a few hours. Even though SCUBA diving has dramatically expanded the possibilities for the study of the sub tidal environment by marine biologists. The present booklet elucidate the few examples of marine biodiversity of India attempted by the researchers of Zoological Survey of India.

4 | Zooplankton

Zooplankton
Plankton (Singular plankter) literally mean animals which cannot swim against water currents. They keep drifting in the aquatic environment in the direction of the wind or water current. Zooplankton are the heterotropic component of the plankton community, which range from microscopic to few feet in size. Even though there are many permanent members, much of its composition is made by the juveniles of some animal groups. They form an important link in the aquatic food chain as 'secondary producers' accumulating the carbon for transferring to the other level of food chain, the consumers. Interestingly many large animals like some whales are exclusively dependent on this group of animals for their sustenance.

Microsettela norvegica

Acartia sp.

Sponges | 5

Sponges
Phylum : Porifera The animal consists of jelly-like matrix sandwiched between two thin layers of cells. Sponges do not have nervous, digestive or circulatory systems. All are sessile aquatic animals. More commonly, the mesohyl is stiffened by mineral spicules, by spongin fibers or both. Demosponges use spongin, and in many species, silica spicules and in some species, calcium carbonate exoskeletons.

Clathria mima | Fire sponge One of the common encrusting sponges seen throughout the IndoPacific region. The species is easily recognized by the white veined pattern branching from the oscula (opening).

6 | Sponges
Seen in wave-exposed or shaded, vertical and overhanging locations, the species is sheet-like, although a bushy form occurs in protected or deeper environments.

There is one large osculum (opening) and many smaller ostia (pores). The ring of branched papillations around the orifice gives the appearance of octopus suckers.

Monanchora arbuscula | Red encrusting sponge

Crella cyathophora | Honey comb sponge

Sponges | 7

Haliclona fascigera | Pink tube sponge

This is almost exclusively finding on corals, and is great competitor for the corals. This species kills the coral colony in due course of time. Chalinula nematifera | Coral encrusting sponge

8 | Sponges

Colonies of this species form yellow puffy balls with large craters on the surface.

Paratetilla bacca | Golf ball sponge

Acanthella klethra | Orange ball sponge

Sponges | 9

Stylissa massa | Mango sponge A tough leathery sponge, it grows in a plate like, laminar shape or crescent shaped form.

The exterior surface is smooth and fleshy resulting from the lack of large spicules.

Plakortis simplex | Chicken liver sponge

Carteriospongia foliascens | Fan sponge

10 | Sponges

Colonies are solitary black ball with a large central cavity. Outer surface often heavily encrusted with epizoic organisms.

Ircinia strobilina | Black ball sponge

Sponges | 11

This is one of the largest and easily recognized sponges. Attains the height of more than a meter. Xestospongia testudinaria | Barrel sponge

12 | Hydroids

Eudendrium sp. | Funnel hydroid

Phylum : Cnidaria Class : Hydrozoa Hydroids are mostly benthic feather like colonies, in which the polypoid generation predominates. Many species have a jelly fish like sexual stage known as hydromedusa.

The polyps are trumpet shaped or funnel shaped each with one whorl of narrow tentacles. The aeolid nudibranch Flabellina rubrolineata feeds on this hydroid.

Hydroids

Hydroids | 13

Macrorhynchia philippina | Fire or stinging hydroid

14 | Hydrocorals

Hydrocorals
Phylum : Cnidaria Hydrocorals are common constituents of coral reefs. The fire corals are often associated with reef flats while the lace corals are mostly restricted to caves and vertical walls.
A copiously branched stylasterid with slender ultimate branches. Commonly encountered in shaded locations. Due to toxins injected by the stinging cells, this species is capable of inflicting very irritating stings to scantily dressed divers. Frequently encountered in caves and shaded vertical surfaces.

Distichopora sp. | Lace coral

Stylaster sp. | Lace coral

Millepora sp. | Branching fire coral

Soft corals | 15

Soft corals
Phylum : Cnidaria Class : Anthozoa Subclass : Octocorallia Order : Alcyonacea The soft corals are an order of cnidarians which do not produce calcium carbonate skeletons and so are neither reef-building corals nor do they lay new foundations for future corals. Instead they contain minute, spiny skeletal elements called sclerites. Aside from their scientific utility in species identification, sclerites give these corals some degree of support and give their flesh a spiky, grainy texture that deters predators.

The polyp bearing capitulum arising from a smooth basal stalk. When the larger polyps are retracted, the colony takes on a very smooth leathery appearance. Sarcophyton sp. | Mushroom leather coral

16 | Soft corals

Dendronephthya sp. | Divaricate tree coral

Soft corals | 17

In this species each polyp is incapable of totally withdrawing into the branches of the coral. The colonies have a prickly appearance due to sharp supporting bundles of sclerites on each polyp.

18 | Soft corals
The upper surface is mostly lobed, the lobes being rounded or finger type. The polyps can retract completely into the body of the coral. Very common in the reef areas.

Lobophytum sp. | Lobed leather coral

The upper surface is bumpy or has many round fingers like lobes.

Cladiella australis | Knobby leather coral

Sea fans | 19

Order : Gorgonacea A sea fan, also know as gorgonian, is an order of sessile colonial cnidarian found throughout the oceans of the world, especially tropics and subtropics. Gorgonians are similar to the sea pen, another soft coral. Individual tiny polyps form colonies that are normally erect, flattened, branching, and reminiscent of a fan. They may be brightly coloured, often purple, red or yellow.

Sea fans
Verrucella sp.

20 | Sea fans

Mopsilla sp.

Sea fans | 21

Large colorful and picturesque sea fan up to one meter or more in height. This is perhaps the most well know species of sea fan.

Melithaea ochracea | Neon coral sea fan

22 | Sea fans

Nicella flabellata

Sea fans | 23

Echinogorgia flora

24 | Sea fans

Verucella sp.

Sea fans | 25

Isis hippuris | Golden sea fan This is a species of sea fan found in the IndoWest Pacific region. It produces hippuristanol, a molecule with apparent anti-cancer functions.

26 | Sea pens

Sea pens
Order :Pennatulacea Sea pens are highly specialized octocorals that are well adapted for life in soft sediments such as sand or mud. Many sea pens are nocturnal.

Cavernularia pusilla | Flower sea pen

Sea pens | 27

Veretillum sp.

Virgularia gustaviana

Virgularia sp.

They have earned the name because many species, but certainly not all, look like an antique quill pen.

28 | Sea anemones

Sea anemones
Subclass : Hexacorallia Order :Actiniaria Sea anemones are a group of waterdwelling, predatory animals of the order Actiniaria; they are named after the anemone, a terrestrial flower. Sea anemones and hard corals are anatomically similar, differing mainly in the presence of a calcium carbonate skeleton in the latter. Majority of them in the reef have symbiotic associations with anemone fishes.

Entacmaea quadricolor | Bulb tentacle sea anemone

Sea anemones | 29

Large anemones sometimes over 1.5 meters in diameter.

Heteractis crispa | Leathery sea anemone

A beautifully colored anemone. Perhaps the most commonly photographed of all reef anemones. It prefers exposed locations with sufficient current and surge.

Heteractis magnifica | Magnificent sea anemone

30 | Sea anemones

Actinostephanus sp.

Triactis sp.

Sea anemones | 31

These are usually differently colored with blue, yellow, pink, green or brown.

Cryptodendrum adhaesivum | Adhesive sea anemone

Boloceroides sp.

32 | Sea anemones
The tentacles have ring like swellings at intervals along the length giving them a bead like appearance. Individual anemones are attached to the shells of hermit crabs. They are symbiotic with hermit crabs of the genera Dardanus and Eupagurus.

Heteractis sp.

Heteractis aurora | Beaded sea anemone

Calliactis miriam | Hermit crab anemone

Tube anemones | 33

Tube anemones

Class : Anthozoa Subclass : Ceriantipatharia Order : Ceriantharia Tube-dwelling anemones or cerianthids look very similar to sea anemones, but belong to an entirely different subclass of anthozoans. They are solitary, living buried in soft sediments. Tube anemones live and can withdraw into tubes, which are made of a fibrous material.

34 | Sea anemones

Subclass : Hexacorallia Order :Zoantharia Small anemone like animals. Most are colonial, being connected by a basal stolon or a common membranous mat.

Palythoa sp.

Zooanthids

Zooanthids | 35

Protopalythoa sp.

36 | Corallimorpharians

Corallimorpharians
Subclass: Zoantharia Order: Corallimorpharia Corallimorpharians are cnidarians closely related to the true sea anemones. They are mostly tropical, with a narrow column topped with a wide oral disc. The tentacles are usually short or very short, arranged in rows radiating from the mouth. Many species occur together in large groups.

Amplexidiscus fenestrafer | Giant mushroom anemone

Fully expanded animals form plate like discs. Contracted individuals are rounded and bowl like.

Tube anemones | 37

This corallimorpharian has numerous large mammiform to cylindrical tubercles on the face of the disc. Infrequently encountered in cracks or depressions.

Discosoma sp. | Disc anemone

38 | Hard corals

Hard corals
Phylum : Cnidaria Class : Anthozoa There is something special about coral reefs. The warm, clear water, spectacular colors, and multitude of living things captivate almost everyone who sees a reef. Coral reefs rival that other great tropical community, the rain forest, in their beauty, richness, and complexity. Tropical rain forests and coral reefs are also similar in that the basic physical structure of both communities is produced by organisms. Both reef-building corals and the giant trees of a rain forest create a three-dimensional framework that is home to an incredible assortment of organisms. Coral reefs are made of vast amounts of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), limestone that is deposited by living things. Of the thousands of species in coral reef communities, only a fraction produces the limestone that builds the reef. The most important of these reef building organisms, are corals. Although corals can catch small fish and animals, such as plankton, using stinging cells on their tentacles, most corals obtain the majority of their energy and nutrients from photosynthetic unicellular algae called zooxanthellae. Such corals require sunlight and grow in clear, shallow water, typically at depths shallower than 60 meters.

Brush coral | Acropora hyacinthus

Briar coral | Anacropora reticulata

Hard corals | 39

Thorn coral | Stylocoeniella armata

Thorn coral | Stylocoeniella guentheri

40 | Hard corals

Birds Nest Coral | Seraitopora hystrix

Cauliflower coral | Stylophora pistillata

Hard corals | 41

Pearl Bubble coral | Physogyra lichtensteini

Torch coral | Euphyllia glaberescence

42 | Hard corals

Fluorescence grass coral | Galaxea fascicularis

Galaxy coral | Galaxea astreata

Hard corals | 43

Porcelain coral | Leptoseris explanata

Stony pillar coral | Psammacora digitata

44 | Hard corals

Lettuce coral | Pavona cactus

Elephant skin coral | Pachyseris ruguosa

Hard corals | 45

Mushroom coral | Fungia scutaria

Stone-leaf coral | Lithophyllon undulatum

46 | Hard corals

Spiny Cup Coral | Pectinia pectinata

Elephant nose coral | Mycedium elephantotus

Hard corals | 47

Ruffled coral | Merulina ampliata

Velvet horn coral | Hydnophora microconos

48 | Hard corals

Tree coral | Dendrophyllia robusta

Pagoda coral | Turbinaria mesenterina

Hard corals | 49

Sinuous cup coral | Symphyllia radians

Brain coral | Lobophyllia hemprichii

50 | Hard corals

Knob coral | Favia lacuna

Honey comb coral | Favites abidita

Hard corals | 51

Flower pot coral | Goniopora tenuidens

Massive stony coral | Porites arnaudi

52 | Black Corals

Black Corals
Class : Anthozoa Subclass : Ceriantipatharia Order : Antipatharia They normally occur in the tropics. Though black coral's living tissue is brilliantly colored, it takes its name from the distinctive black or dark brown color of its skeleton. Also unique to black coral are the tiny spines that cover the surface of the skeleton, the origin of the nickname little thorn coral. Black coral is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).
Feather black coral | Plumapathes pennacea Can be sparely or densely branched with pinnulated colonies and is less than half a meter in height.

Black Corals | 53

These black corals are long, slender and whip like. Frequently encountered in deeper reefs.

Whip coral/Wire coral | Cirripathes sp.

54 | Black Corals

Whip coral | Cirripathes anguina Mainly encountered in the deeper areas of reef flats. Unbranched and sinuous colonies. Frequently encountered on reef margins.

Wire coral | Stichopathes sp.

Jelly fishes | 55

Jelly fishes
Phylum : Cnidaria Subphylum : Medusozoa Jellyfish are found in every ocean, from the surface to the deep sea. Some hydrozoan jellyfish, or hydromedusae, are also found in fresh water; freshwater species are less than an inch in diameter, are colorless and do not sting. Large, often colorful, jellyfish are common in coastal zones worldwide.

The tentacles are capable of inflicting an intense sting, which can last for many hours. Aurelia sp.

56 | Jelly fishes

Upside down jelly fish It lies upside down in shallow waters usually in sandy areas, absorbing sunlight for photosynthesis by the symbiotic algae in its tissues.

Cassiopeia Andromeda Aurelia aurita is one of a group of more than ten morphologically nearly identical jellyfish species in the genus Aurelia. In general, it is nearly impossible to identify Aurelia medusae without genetic sampling.

Moon jelly fish

Aurelia aurita

Siphonophores | 57

Siphonophores
Class : Hydrozoa Order :Siphonophora They are colonial, but the colonies can superficially resemble jellyfish; although they appear to be a single organism, each specimen is actually a colony of Siphonophora. The best known species is the dangerous Portuguese Man of War.

Despite its outward appearance, the Man o' War is not a true jellyfish but a siphonophore, which differ from jellyfish in that they are not actually a single creature, but a colonial organism made up of many minute individuals called zooids. The Portuguese Man of War is responsible for up to 10,000 human stings in Australia each summer, particularly on the east coast. Stings usually cause severe pain to humans, leaving whip-like, red welts on the skin that normally last 2 or 3 days after the initial sting, though the pain should subside after about an hour.

Portuguese Man of War | Physalia physalis

58 | Comb jellies

Comb jellies
Phylum : Ctenophora Their most distinctive feature is the "combs", groups of cilia that they use for swimming, and they are the largest animals that swim by means of cilia. Ctenophores may be abundant during the summer months in some coastal locations, but in other places they are uncommon and difficult to find. In bays where they occur in very high numbers, predation by ctenophores may control the populations of small zooplanktons such as copepods, which might otherwise wipe out the phytoplankton.
Benthic comb jelly | Ceoplana meteoris The threads like tentacles are long and feather like. Usually found on soft sediment.

Ceoplana sp.

Flat worms | 59

Flat worms
Phylum: Platyhelminthes Class: Turbellaria Order: Polycladida Polyclad flatworms include some of the most flamboyant colorful animals of the sea. As thin as a leaf and usually oval in shape, these animals may first catch your attention by their spectacular color patterns.
Cycloporus venetus

Often found feeding on colonial ascidians from the reef slope.

60 | Flat worms
Commonly encountered species, but as yet unnamed and undescribed.

Acanthozoon sp.

Found out and about on reef crest and reef slope, sometimes swimming in the water column. Pseudobiceros bedfordi

Flat worms | 61
Velvety black colored species. Commonly found feeding on tunicates.

Thysanozoon nigropapillosum

Found under rubble on the reef crest; animal active at night. Pseudobiceros stellae

62 | Flat worms

Found on the reef crest and intertidal areas under rocks and rubble.

Found under rubble on the reef crest.

Pseudoceros gamblei

Pseudoceros concinnus

Flat worms | 63

Due to the color pattern this species is very difficult to be get noticed in the reef.

Pseudoceros goslineri

64 | Ribbon worms

Ribbon worms
Phylum : Nemertea Although most are less than 20 centimetres long, one specimen has been estimated at 54 metres, which would make it the longest animal ever found. A few live in the open ocean while the rest find or make hiding places on the bottom. Most are carnivores, feeding on annelids, clams and crustaceans, and may kill annelids of about their own size. They sometimes take fish, both living and dead.
Usually the adult is more than a meter in length. It is nocturnal inhabiting shallow, sandy habitats. Five lined ribbon worm | Baseodiscus quinquelineatus

Ribbon worms | 65

Barred ribbon worm This slender nemertean exceeds one meter in length when fully extended.

Baseodiscus hemprichii

66 | Segmented worms

Segmented worms
Phylum : Annelida Class : Polychaeta Polychaetes are a class of annelid worms, generally marine. Each body segment has a pair of fleshy protrusions called parapodia that bear many bristles, called chaetae, which are made of chitin. Polychaetes are extremely variable in both form and lifestyle and include a few taxa that swim among the plankton. They are the indicator group of the marine ecosystem health.

The tentacular crown is horseshoe shaped. The tubes are generally buried in sandy substrata.

Fan worm | Sabellastarte indica

Segmented worms | 67

The tube of this species is largely embedded in sand at the edge of a shallow patch reef.

Social feather duster | Bispira brunnea

68 | Segmented worms

Christmas tree worm | Spirobranchus giganteus

The tentacles are extremely variable in color: yellow, blue, purple, red, orange or brown. Lives in calcareous tubes which penetrate living coral heads (Mainly Porites sp.). An indicator species about the eutrophication in the reef.

Segmented worms | 69

A commensal species found on the asteroids and holothuroids.

Polynoid worm

Asterphilia sp.

Scale worm | Gastrolepida clavigera This species is an obligate commensal on sea cucumbers, especially species of Bohadschia and Thelenota.

70 | Segmented worms

Sand worm | Nereis sp. Nereis possesses setae and parapodia for locomotion. Locomotor chaetae are for crawling, and are the bristles that are visible on the exterior of the polychaeta.

Segmented worms | 71

Thread polychaete

72 | Peanut worms

This species inhabits dead and living reefs and forms burrows in blocks of coral.

Phylum : Sipuncula Sipunculids are relatively common, and live in shallow waters, either in burrows or in discarded shells like hermit crabs do. Some bore into solid rocks to make a shelter for themselves. Although typically less than 10 cm long, some sipunculids may reach several times that length. Sipunculid worm jelly is a delicacy in the town of Xiamen in Fujian province of China.

Sipunculus sp.

Peanut worms

This species is found on the underside of coral rubble that is partially buried in coarse coral gravel on shallow patch reefs. Themiste sp.

Chitons | 73

Chitons
Phylum: Mollusca Class: Polyplacophora Chitons are primitive, flattened mollusks with eight shell valves. These plates overlap somewhat at the front and back edges, and yet the plates articulate well with one another. Because of this the plates provide good protection for impacts from above.

Acanthopleura spinosa

74 | Chitons

Owing to the reduction of the shell plates and increased girdle, this species looks more like a worm than a mollusk.

Worm chiton | Cryptoplax larvaeformis

Snails | 75

Snails
Phylum : Mollusca Class : Gastropoda The class gastropods contain a vast total of named species, second only to the insects in overall number. The fossil history of this class goes all the way back to the Late Cambrian. Although the name "snail" can be, and often is, applied to all the members of this class, commonly this word means only those species with an external shell large enough that the soft parts can withdraw completely into it. Those gastropods without a shell, and those with only a very reduced or internal shell, are usually known as slugs.

Egg cowry | Cymbovula deflexa The animal is found exclusively on its food gorgonian Rumphella sp.

76 | Snails

Funnel hydroid | Mitra stictica

Kettle mitre | Mitra cucumerina

Snails | 77

Nassarius snail | Nassarius sp.

Isabelle's Mitre | Cancilla Isabella

78 | Snails

Gnawed or eroded cowry | Cypraea erosa

Lynx Cowrie | Cypraea lynx

Snails | 79

Money cowry | Cypraea moneta

Tiger cowry | Cypraea tigris

80 | Snails

Yellow Helmet | Cassis cornuta

Emperor/Queen Helmet | Cassis madagascariensis

Snails | 81

Chank shell | Turbinella pyrum

Brown turban | Turbo bruneus

82 | Snails

Top shell | Trochus niloticus

Snails | 83

Velvet snail | Coriocella hibyae

84 | Snails

Oblong ovulid cowry | Phenacovolva tokioi

Bivalves | 85

Phylum : Mollusca Class : Bivalvia Bivalves have a shell consisting of two asymmetrically rounded halves called valves that are mirror images of each other, joined at one edge by a flexible ligament called the hinge. The shell is typically bilaterally symmetrical, with the hinge lying in the sagittal plane. Bivalves are unique among the molluscs, having lost their odontophore and radula in their transition to filter feeding.

Variable thorny oyster | Spondylus varians It is found cemented to walls and open reef faces in shallow to deep areas.

Bivalves

86 | Bivalves

Pen shell | Atrina pectinate The animals are largely embedded in coarse sand and rubble with only top of the shell and mantle visible. Generally found in shallow waters.

Bivalves | 87

Lives in crevices of living corals. Only the shell opening and mantle visible.

Coral bivalve | Pedum spondyloideum

Commonly found under rocks in sandy and rubble habitats. Swims actively with the siphoning of shells when disturbed. File shell | Limaria orientalis

88 | Bivalves

Fluted giant clam | Tridacna squamos

Crocus giant clam | Tridacna crocea

Bivalves | 89

Giant giant clam | Tridacna gigas

GIANT CLAM The giant clam is the largest living bivalve mollusc. This is one of the most endangered clam species. One of a number of large clam species native to the shallow coral reefs of the South Pacific and Indian oceans, they can weigh more than 200 kilograms measure as much as 120 cm across, and have an average lifespan in the wild of 100 years or more.

90 | Sea slugs

Sea slugs

Phylum : Mollusca Class : Gatropodaa Informal group : Opisthobranchia Sea slug is a common name used for several different groups of saltwater snails that either lack a shell or have only an internal shell, in other words this name is used for various lineages of marine gastropod mollusks that are either not shell-bearing or appear not to be. The phrase "sea slug" is often applied to nudibranchs, members of the order nudibranchia within the opisthobranch gastropods. Many nudibranchs are colorful and are a noticeable part of the underwater fauna. However the phrase "sea slug" is also applied to various other groups within the Opisthobranchia including the sea hares, the sacoglossans, various families of bubble snails (Cephalaspidea) and others, some of which have reduced shells, and many of which are shellless.

Phyllidiella zeylanica

Sea slugs | 91

Chelidonura pallida

Cerberilla annulata

Aldisa erwinkoehleri

Chromodoris striatella

92 | Sea slugs

Costasiella paweli

Chromodoris colemani

Chromodoris fidelis

Sea slugs | 93

Discodoris boholiensis

Flabellina rubrolineata

Elysia grandifolia

94 | Sea slugs

Glossodoris cincta

Fryeria marindica

Gastropecten bicornutum

Sea slugs | 95

Gumnodoris striata

Halgerda bacalusia

Hypselodoris nigrostriata

96 | Sea slugs

Egg mass The egg mass of Spanish dancer is commonly known as Sea rose. To protect its egg cluster from predators, the Spanish dancer deposits with its eggs some of the toxins that it produces for its own defense.

This species of very large, strongswimming nudibranch is one of the largest of all nudibranchs: specimens of well over 40 cm in length have been reported. The species name, sanguineus, refers to its bright red coloration, but a yellow variant also exists.

Spanish Dancer | Hexabranchus sanguineus

Jorunna rubescenss Egg Mass

Jorunna rubescens

Sea slugs | 97

Phyllidia ocellata

Phyllidiella zeylanica

98 | Sea slugs

Hypselodoris bullockii

Thuridilla caerulea

Sea slugs | 99

Phyllaplysia engeli

Philinopsis pilsbryi

Thorunna africana

100 | Cephalopods

Cephalopods
Phylum : Mollusca Class : Cephalopoda These exclusively marine animals are characterized by bilateral body symmetry, a prominent head, and a set of arms or tentacles modified from the primitive molluscan foot. Fishermen sometimes call them ink fish, referring to their common ability to squirt ink.

This species can be recognized by a black spot surrounded by another thin black ring on the base of the arm web. This animal is active during day and is found in shallow reefs. Common octopus | Octopus cyanea

Cephalopods | 101

This small species is characterized by large branched papillae over its surface. This species is found in shallow sandy areas. The internal shell of cuttlefish is a calcium supplementary feed for pet birds.

Cuttlefish | Sepia sp.

102 | Cephalopods

Broad club cuttlefish | Sepia latimanus This is the only large cuttlefish in most of the tropical Indo-Pacific. Mostly singles or pairs are often observed active during the day time.

Barnacles | 103

Subphylum : Crustacea Class : Maxillopoda Subclass : Thecostraca Infraclass : Cirripedia Barnacles are exclusively marine, and tend to live in shallow and tidal waters, typically in erosive settings. They are sessile and suspension feeders. Barnacles are encrusters, attaching themselves permanently to a hard substrate. Barnacles are of economic consequence as they often attach themselves to man-made structures, sometimes to the structure's detriment. Particularly in the case of ships, they are classified as fouling organisms.

Acorn barnacle | Balanus sp. Shaped like a volcano. When submerged, the thoracic feeding appendages or cirri may be observed reaching out of the orifice, in a grasping motion.

Barnacles

104 | Barnacles

Though it seems to be a bivalve, the species is made up of five white plates. Found attached to floating objects such as buoys, boat hulls and driftwood.

Pelagic goose-neck barnacle | Lepas sp.

Mentis shrimps | 105

Observed in coral rubble bottoms.

Mantis shrimps

Lysiosquilla sp.

Pseudosquilla sp. Burrows in sand and gravel on coral reefs and sand flats.

Subphylum : Crustacea Class : Malacostraca Order :Stomatopoda Mantis shrimps are marine crustaceans. They are neither shrimp nor mantids, but receive their name purely from the physical resemblance to both the terrestrial praying mantis and the shrimp. Mantis shrimp appear in a variety of colors, from shades of browns to bright neon colors.

106 | Shrimps

Shrimps
Order : Decapoda
(Shrimps, Crabs and Lobsters)

Decapods, like other crustaceans have hard, jointed exoskeletons. Their growth involves molting. The decapods (ten-footed) are an order of crustaceans, including many familiar groups, such as crabs, lobsters, prawns and shrimp. Most decapods are scavengers.

Banded Coral cleaner Shrimp | Stenopus hispidus This common cleaner shrimp waits in crevices or out in the open at its cleaning station, waving its antennae to attract fishes. As fish approach to be cleaned, the shrimp touches them with the antennae until the fish becomes quite, allowing the shrimp to move about its body in search of parasites.

Shrimps | 107

Sexy anemone shrimp | Thor amboinensis It lives on corals, sea anemones and other reef communities. They perform a dance like movement which they are famous for.

108 | Shrimps

Found in association with sea anemones, especially Cryptodendrum adhaesivum.

Hinge beak prawn | Rhynchocinetes durbanensis Lives deep in crevices and holes. Usually occurring in large numbers together.

Anemone shrimp | Periclimenes brevicarpalis

Crabs | 109

Crabs

Ghost crab | Ocypode ceratophthalma This species can be distinguished from other related crabs by the eyestalks extending beyond the eyes into long points. They can run very fast in the intertidal sandy areas.

110 | Crabs

Coral Crab | Tetralia nigrolineata

This crab is often seen associated with stag horn corals (Acropora sp).

This species is associated with soft corals environment.

Stone crab | Liomera rugata

Crabs | 111

Red spotted coral crab | Trapezia rufopunctata This species is obligate s y m b i o n t s o f pocillporid corals.

Elephant squat lobster | Allogalathea elegans Found in association with feather stars. The color of the individual mimics the host, so color depends on the host feather star's color.

Spotted porcelain crab | Neopetrolisthes maculates Lives in the shelter of sea anemones. Individuals can enter and leave the mouth of the anemone freely.

112 | Crabs

Fiddler crab | Uca tetragonon

Ghost crab | Ocypode cordimana

Hermit crabs | 113

Hermit crabs

Order : Decapoda Infraorder : Anomura Superfamily : Paguroidea Hermit crabs are decapod crustaceans. Most of the species possess an asymmetrical abdomen which is concealed in an empty gastropod shell that is carried around by the hermit crab. The vulnerable abdomen is protected from predators by a salvaged empty seashell carried by the hermit crab, into which its whole body can retract. Most frequently hermit crabs use the shells of sea snails (although the shells of bivalves and scaphopods and even hollow pieces of wood and stone are used by some species).

Dardanus sp. | Hermit crab

114 | Lobsters

Lobsters

Order: Decapoda Infraorder: Astacidea Family: Nephropidae Lobsters are economically important as seafood, forming the basis of a global industry that nets more than US $ 1 billion annually. They are also revered for their flavor and texture.

This species is nocturnal and hiding in crevices during the daylight.

Painted crayfish | Panulirus versicolor

Feather Stars | 115

Feather stars

Phylum : Echinodermata Class : Crinoidea Crinoids are characterized by a mouth on the top surface that is surrounded by feeding arms. They have a U-shaped gut, and their anus is located next to the mouth. Although the basic echinoderm pattern of fivefold symmetry can be recognized, most crinoids have many more than five arms.

Robust Feather Star

Himerometra robustipinna

Green Feather Star

Himerometra sp.

116 | Feather Stars

Variable Bushy Feather Star | Comanthina schlegeli

Noble Feather Star | Comanthina nobilis

Feather Stars | 117

Many-armed Feather Star | Comaster multibrachiatus

Comaster multifidus

118 | Feather Stars

Common Feather Star | Comanthus sp.

Feather Stars | 119

Bennett's Feather Star | Oxycomanthus bennetti

120 | Feather Stars

Crevice crinoid | Comanthus parvicirrus

Sea stars | 121

Sea stars

Phylum : Echinodermata Class : Asteroidea Starfish occur across a broad depth range from the intertidal to abyssal depths (>6000 m). Starfish are among the most familiar of marine animals and possess a number of widely known traits, such as regeneration and feeding on mussels. Starfish possess a wide diversity of body forms and feeding methods. Sea stars and other echinoderms pump water directly into their bodies, via the water vascular system, as they find it. This makes them vulnerable to all forms of water pollution, as they have little ability to filter the water of toxins and contaminants. Oil spills and similar events often take a toll on echinoderm populations that carry consequences for the ecosystem.

Brown mesh sea star | Nardoa galathae

Warty mesh sea star | Nardoa tuberculata

122 | Sea stars

Cushion star | Choriaster granulatus

Indian Sea Star | Fromia indica

Sea stars | 123

Crown-of-Thorns | Acanthaster planci Potential predator of corals and prey upon the coral polyps. Out breaks of crown-of-thorn star fish often leads considerable damages to the corals of Indo-Pacific.

124 | Brittle stars

Brittle stars

Phylum : Echinodermata Class : Ophiuroidea They crawl across the seafloor using their flexible arms for locomotion. Brittle stars use their arms for locomotion. They do not, like sea stars, depend on tube feet, which are mere sensory tentacles without suction. Brittle stars move fairly rapidly by wriggling their arms which are highly flexible and enable the animals to make either snake-like or rowing movements. Brittle stars live in areas from the lowtide level downwards.

Banded Brittle Star | Ophiacantha indica

Green Brittle starfish | Ophiarachna incrassate

Toothed Brittle Star | Ophiocoma dentata

Sand dollars | 125

Sand dollars
Phylum : Echinodermata Class : Echinoidea Order : Clypeasteroida The term sand dollar refers to the species of extremely flattened, burrowing echinoids. Some species within the order, not quite as flat, are known as sea biscuits. Coordinated movements of the spines enable sand dollars to move across the seabed. The velvety spines of live sand dollars appear in a variety of colorsgreen, blue, violet, purpledepending on the species. The tests of dead individuals are often found on beaches, the textured skin missing and the skeleton bleached white by sunlight.
Laganum Sand Dollar | Laganum depressum Sand Dollar | Peronella lessueri

126 | Sea urchins

Sea urchins
Subphylum: Echinozoa Class: Echinoidea Sea urchins are small, spiny, globular animals which inhabits all oceans. Common colors include black and dull shades of green, olive, brown, purple, and red. They move slowly, feeding mostly on algae. Sea otters, wolf eels, triggerfish, and other predators feed on them. Population density varies by habitat with more dense populations being found in barren areas as compared to kelp stands. Even in these barren areas, greatest densities are also found in shallow water. Populations are also generally found in deeper water if wave action is present.

Diadem Urchin | Echinothrix diadema

Sea urchins | 127

Pencil Urchin | Phyllacanthus imperialis

Crown Urchin | Prinocidaris verticillata

128 | Sea urchins

Burrowing Urchin | Echinometra mathaei

Hatpin Urchin | Echinothrix calamaris

Sea urchins | 129

Lance urchin | Phyllacanthus imperialis

Pincushion Tuxedo Urchin | Mespilia globulus

130 | Sea cucumbers

Sea cucumbers

Phylum : Echinodermata Subphylum : Echinozoa Class : Holothuroidea They are marine animals with a leathery skin and an elongated body containing a single, branched gonad. Sea cucumbers are found on the sea floor worldwide. There are many commercially important species of sea cucumber that are harvested and dried for export for use in Chinese cuisine as Hoi sam. Some varieties of sea cucumber (known as gamat in Malaysia or teripang in Indonesia) are said to have excellent healing properties.

This species mimics the nudibranch Phyllidia ocellata; which helps them from predators. This species when juvenile has this colorful phase, but as it grows it becomes a typical boring brownish sea cucumber.

Blotched Sea Cucumber | Bohadschia graffei (Juvenile)

Sea cucumbers | 131

Edible sea cucumber As the name suggests this is one of the edible species of sea cucumbers served as trepang or beche de mer.

Holothuria edulis

Most common sea cucumber of Indo-Pacific region. Animals may form dense aggregations in shallow waters.

Black lolly fish | Holothuria atra

132 | Sea cucumbers

It is called Curry fish as it is among the sea cucumbers that are edible and harvested for the restaurant trade. Found in shallow water rubble and sandy habitat. Curry fish | Stichopus hermanni

Sea cucumbers | 133

Pineapple sea cucumber | Thelenota ananas This is a large species, reaching half a meter in length. It inhabits the interface between reefs and sand.

134 | Sea cucumbers

Spotted Worm Cucumber | Synapta maculata This is the longest sea cucumber which may exceed even 2 meter in length. Found in shallow sandy habitats and grass beds.

Sea squirts | 135

Sea squirts

Phylum : Chordata Subphylum : Tunicata Tunicates, also known as urochordates, are members of the subphylum Tunicata, a group of underwater sac like filter feeders with incurrent and excurrent siphons that is classified within the phylum Chordata. Tunicates begin life in a mobile larval stage that resembles a tadpole, later developing into a barrel-like and usually sedentary adult form.

Clavelina moluccensis

Atriolum robustum

Botriloides leachi

136 | Sea squirts

Perophora modificata

Didemnum molle

Didemnum sp.

Sea squirts | 137

Phallusia Arabica

Clavelina sp.

138 | Fishes

Fishes

Kingdom : Animalia Phylum : Chordata Clade (Unranked) : Craniata A fish is any gill-bearing aquatic vertebrate (or craniate) animal that lacks limbs with digits. Most fish are "cold-blooded", or ectothermic, allowing their body temperatures to vary as ambient temperatures change. Fish are abundant in most bodies of water. Fish, especially as food, are an important resource worldwide. Commercial and subsistence fishers hunt fish in wild fisheries or farm them in ponds or in cages in the ocean. They are also caught by recreational fishers, kept as pets, raised by fish keepers, and exhibited in public aquaria.

Forms large feeding groups in the inshore and outer reefs.

Powder blue surgeonfish | Acanthurus leucosternon

Yellow back fusilier | Caesio xanthonota Form large aggregations often mix with other fusiliers.

Fishes | 139

Solitary fish, seen in the coastal, lagoon and outer reefs. Scrawled file fish | Aluterus scriptus

140 | Fishes

Group of parrot fishes feeding on the corals (Chlorurus sp.)

Titan triggerfish | Balistoides viridescens

Fishes | 141

Anemone fishes Twenty-eight species are recognized, one in the genus Premnas, while the remaining are in the genus Amphiprion. In the wild they all form symbiotic mutualisms with sea anemones. The clownfish feeds on small invertebrates which otherwise potentially could harm the sea anemone, and the fecal matter from the clownfish provides nutrients to the sea anemone

Spine cheek anemone fish | Premnas biaculeatus

Clown anemone fish | Amphiprion percula

142 | Fishes

A. akallopisos, like A. percula, is nearly always associated with Heteractis magnifica and Stichodactyla gigantea. It resides in shallow inshore reefs as deep as 15 m with a moderate to strong current. The skunk clownfish can also be kept in captivity by aquarists.

Skunk anemone fish | Amphiprion akallopisos

Fishes | 143

Frog fishes Frogfish have a stocky appearance, a typical of fish. They are often brightly colored, white, yellow, red, green, or black or spotted in several colors in order to blend in with their coral surroundings. Coloration can also vary within one species, making it difficult to differentiate between them.

Painted frogfish | Antennarius pictus

Giant frogfish | Antennarius commersoni

144 | Fishes

Dragon sea moth | Eurypegasus draconis

Twin spot lionfish | Dendrochirus biocellatus

Fishes | 145

Common lion fish | Pterois volitans

146 | Fishes

Puffer or Porcupine fishes Puffer fish are generally believed to be the secondmost poisonous vertebrate in the world, after the Golden Poison Frog. Certain internal organs, such as liver, and sometimes their skin are highly toxic to most animals when eaten, but nevertheless the meat of some species is considered a delicacy in Japan, Korea and China.

Porcupine fish | Diodon hystrix

Star puffer fish | Arothron stellatus

Fishes | 147

Butterfly fishes Butterfly fish look like smaller versions of angelfish but unlike these lack pre-opercle spines at the gill covers. The conspicuous coloration of butterfly fish may be intended for interspecies communication. Butterfly fish have uninterrupted dorsal fins with tail fins that may be rounded or truncated, but are never forked.

White collar butterfly fish | Chaetodon collare

148 | Fishes

Black coral goby | Bryaninops tigris

Red finned triple fin | Ucla xenogrammus

Fishes | 149

Three lined blenny | Ecsenius trilineatus

Striped triple fin | Helcogramma striatum

150 | Fishes

Black fin sand | perchParapercis snyderi

Reef lizard fish | Synodus variegatus

Fishes | 151

Forms large drifting aggregations in the coastal reefs and outer slopes.

Big eye snapper | Lutjanus lutjanus

152 | Fishes

Black fin barracuda | Sphyraena qenie

Fishes | 153

Robust ghost pipefish | Solenostomus cyanopterus

Ghost pipe fishes Ghost pipe fishes must rank among the most exotic creatures inhabiting the earth's shallow seas.

Ornate ghost pipefish | Solenostomus paradoxus

154 | Fishes

Dwarf hawk fish | Cirrhitichthys falco

Black belt hog fish | Bodianus mesothorax

Fishes | 155

Tomato grouper | Cephalipholis sonnerati

Saddle grouper | Cephalopholis sexmaculata

156 | Fishes

Black spotted moray | Gymnothorax favagineus

Emperor angelfish | Pomacanthus imperator

Long fin spade fish | Platax teira

Marine reptiles | 157

Marine reptiles
Phylum : Chordata Clade : Amniota Class : Reptilia Marine reptiles are reptiles which have become secondarily adapted for an aquatic or semi-aquatic life in a marine environment. Some marine reptiles, such as ichthyosaurs and mosasaurs, rarely ventured onto land and gave birth in the water. Others, such as sea turtles and saltwater crocodiles, return to shore to lay their eggs. Some marine reptiles also occasionally rest and bask on land.

Sea snakes are venomous elapid snakes that inhabit marine environments for most or all of their lives. All have paddle-like tails and many have laterally compressed bodies that give them an eel-like appearance. Unlike fish, they do not have gills and must surface regularly to breathe.

Yellow lipped sea krait | Laticauda colubrina

158 | Marine reptiles

Member species of the family Crocodylidae are large aquatic reptiles that live throughout the tropics in Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia. Crocodiles tend to congregate in freshwater habitats l i k e r i ve r s , l a k e s , wetlands and sometimes in brackish water. This is the largest of all living reptiles. It is found in suitable habitats in Northern Australia, the eastern coast of India and parts of Southeast Asia.

Saltwater crocodile | Crocodylus porosus

Marine reptiles | 159

Sea turtles are marine reptiles that inhabit all of the world's oceans except the Arctic. Sea turtles are almost always submerged in water, and, therefore, have developed an anaerobic system of respiration. Although all sea turtles breathe air, under dire circumstances they may divert to anaerobic respiration for long periods of time. It is the only species in the genus Chelonia. Their common name derives from the usually green fat found beneath their carapace. Like other sea turtles, they migrate long distances between feeding grounds and hatching beaches. Many islands worldwide are known as Turtle Island due to green sea turtles nesting on their beaches.

Green sea turtle | Chelonia mydas

160 | Marine mammals

Marine mammals
Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Marine mammals are a diverse group of 120 species of mammal that are primarily ocean-dwelling or depend on the ocean for food. Marine mammals evolved from land dwelling ancestors and share several adaptive features for life at sea such as generally large size, hydrodynamic body shapes, modified appendages and various thermoregulatory adaptations. Whales are the largest mammals ever. Different species are, however, adapted to marine life to varying degrees.

Bottlenose dolphin | Tursiops truncatus

Marine mammals | 161

It is the only living representative of the once-diverse family Dugongidae; its closest modern relative, Steller's sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas), was hunted to extinction in the 18th century. It is also the only sirenian in its range, which spans the waters of at least 37 countries throughout the Indo-Pacific, though the majority of dugongs live in the northern waters of Australia between Shark Bay and Moreton Bay. The dugong is the only strictly-marine herbivorous mammal, as all species of manatee utilize fresh water to some degree. The IUCN lists the dugong as a species vulnerable to extinction, while the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species limits or bans the trade of derived products. Despite being legally protected in many countries, the main causes of population decline remain anthropogenic and include hunting, habitat degradation, and fishing-related fatalities.

Sea cow | Dugong dugon

162 | Phytoplankton

Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton are the autotrophic component of the plankton community. Most phytoplankton are too small to be individually seen with the unaided eye. However, when present in high enough numbers, they may appear as a green discoloration of the water due to the presence of chlorophyll within their cells. Phytoplankton are photosynthesizing microscopic organisms that inhabit the upper sunlit layer of almost all oceans and bodies of fresh water. They are agents for "primary production," the incorporation of carbon from living organisms, a process that sustains the aquatic food web.

Grammatophora undulata

Oscillatoria margarilifera

Seagrasses | 163

Seagrasses
Kingdom : Plantae Clade : Angiosperms Clade : Monocots Order : Alismatales Sea grasses are flowering plants which grow in marine, fully-saline environments. These unusual marine flowering plants are called sea grasses because the leaves are long and narrow and are very often green, and because the plants often grow in large "meadows" which look like grassland: in other words many of the species of sea grasses superficially resemble terrestrial grasses.

Turtle grass | Thalassia sp.

Paddle grass | Halophilia sp.

164 | Seaweeds

Seaweeds

Kingdom : Protista Seaweed is a loose, colloquial term encompassing macroscopic, multicellular, benthic marine algae. The term includes some members of the red, brown and green algae. Seaweeds can also be classified by use (as food, medicine, fertilizer, industrial, etc.). In addition, some tuft-forming bluegreen algae (Cyanobacteria) are sometimes considered as seaweeds "seaweed" is a colloquial term and lacks a formal definition.

Cactus algae | Halimeda sp.

Mermaids wine cup | Acetabularia sp.

Seaweeds | 165

Peacock seaweed

Padina sp.

Spiny-leaf seaweed | Turbinaria sp.

Cactus algae | Halimeda sp.

Button seaweed | Dictyosphaeria sp.

166 | Mangroves

Mangroves
Mangroves are various kinds of trees up to medium height and shrubs that grow in saline coastal sediment habitats in the tropics and subtropics. The mangrove biome, or mangal, is a distinct saline woodland or shrub land habitat characterized by depositional coastal environments, where fine sediments (often with high organic content) collect in areas protected from high-energy wave action. Mangroves dominate three quarters of tropical coastlines. About 110 species are considered mangroves. However, a given mangrove typically features only a small number of tree species.

Small to medium sized trees grow upto 15 m tall. Occur in less saline parts of mangrove forests on deeply muddy soil, along tidal creeks with slow moving water. Found along rivers, occurring upstream to where the tidal influence is still felt.

Mangrove apple | Sonneratia caseolaris Large tree grows to 20 m tall. Found solitary at the front of the mangrove belt and usually on sandy soil and sometimes mixes with seaward Avicennia marina individuals. Occasionally prefers rock and gravel and can tolerate the full strength of sea water.

Mangrove apple | Sonneratia alba

Mangroves | 167

Long fruited stilted red mangrove | Rhizophora mucronata Most important and widespread mangrove species; may grow upto 15 m tall and more tolerant of sandy and firmer ground than any other species of Rhizophora. Grows well in soft mud too and is believed to be among the few that can survive complete daily inundation.

168 | Mangroves

Straight stemmed tall tree may grow upto 15 - 25 m. Thrives under a wide range of inter tidal conditions, including salinity levels from near freshwater to full strength seawater and tolerates wide range of soil types. Typically, the most common in middle and upper inter tidal zones.

Large leafed orange mangrove | Bruguiera gymnorrhiza

There are so many different living things in the sea that it almost boggles the mind. From microscopic bacteria to gigantic whales, marine organisms come in all shapes, sizes, and colours. It is estimated that more than 2 lakhs species may be available in the seas of the world, of which 80,000 has been identified and in India so far 15000 has been identified. This is a comprehensive book to the fascinating marine life of India. Forty six different categories of marine life are illustrated with more than 300 underwater photographs. This book can serve as a perfect reference material for marine enthusiasts, divers, students, underwater photographers' etc. The book provides the identifications of species, based on the collective experience of the authors, who have been working for many years on the marine animals. All the groups are illustrated with few photographs of those animals which are common in Indian Seas. The illustrations of the book are a perfect source to learn about the life of the ocean. This book can help an aficionado to become underwater photographer. Almost all photographs are taken by the authors from Andaman and Nicobar Islands with few exceptions which were contributed by expert underwater photographers.