From Rice to Cocoa through a Political Economy of Dishonesty, Sulawesi, Indonesia Franois Ruf CIRAD, Humid Tro ics

Program, A!id"an, I#ory Coast$ A%STRACT Sulawesi has !een the theatre of a s ectacular cocoa !oom, which started from scratch in the late &'()s, with roduction e*ceeding the +)),))),tonne threshold in the mid,&'')s$ Sulawesi also used to !e a rice granary for Indonesia$ Although it still e* orts rice to other ro#inces, Sulawesi turned its dynamism towards cocoa$ They mostly are %ugis farmers$ Then %alinese and -a#anese transmigrants started to follow$ From that historical de#elo ment in Sulawesi, the o!"ecti#e is to analy.e at the microeconomic le#el, how Indonesia switched !ac/ from rice self,sufficiency to structural de endency on im orts since &''0$ %ugis used their e* erience and ca ital !uilt on rice to start cocoa ioneer li#es that ro#ed to !e highly successful$ They also !enefited of in#oluntary hel ful olicies such as fertili.er su!sidies that were concei#ed for rice self,sufficiency, not for cocoa$ 1ithin official ro"ects, %alinese and -a#anese transmigrants were often o!liged not to lant tree cro s, or at least not !eyond the )$+2ha !ac/yard$ How did these olicies in#oluntarily trigger new im etus to cocoa and e#entually ham er the de#elo ment of addy culti#ation in the &'')s3 The Sulawesi cocoa story may !e a showcase for understanding why the ga !etween the national demand and su ly of rice increased since the mid,&'')s$ I4TR5D6CTI54 Indonesia is /nown for ha#ing made the olitical choice of self,sufficiency in rice in the &'()s, for ha#ing achie#ed this self,sufficiency in &'72 and lost it since &''0$ De endency u on a narrow international mar/et of rice is a dangerous game in a country a!o#e +)) million eo le$ This was one of the things clearly understood !y the e*,President Suharto$ Sulawesi is one of the rice granaries for the archi elago$ It still e* orts rice to other Indonesian islands although its addy growth rate is on the decline in the &'')s$ In the meantime, Sulawesi has !een the theatre of a s ectacular cocoa !oom which started from scratch in the mid to late &'()s, with roduction e*ceeding the +)),))),tonne threshold in the mid,&'')s$ The first o!"ecti#e is here to e* lore in Sulawesi how Indonesia switched from rice self,sufficiency during some &2 years to come !ac/ to structural de endency on rice im orts since &''0$ The achie#ement in rice self,sufficiency was in itself a /ey element in agricultural olicies$ It has gone$ 1as it the out ut of too much com lacency after a relati#ely costly !ut successful olicy3 1as it the result of mista/es and of a olicy of dishonesty3 1as it the result of dynamic farmers ready for self,hel action, not for national self,sufficiency in rice at any cost3 1as that cocoa !oom #oluntarily or in#oluntary accelerated !y a mi*ture of successful and harmful rice,oriented transmigration olicies3 Com are to other agricultural su!,sectors, was is not the great chance of the Sulawesi cocoa !oom to start when the regime and the Suharto family had not enough time to try to control it3 Does the end of regime fa#or farmer em owerment3 %y tentati#ely answering these 8uestions, one should reach a second o!"ecti#e, which is to enter the de!ate a!out di#ersification and olicies$ Is there a need for go#ernments to romote di#ersification itself or should this !e left to smallholders3 According to Delgado and Siamwalla,

9Policy ma/ers seem to consider farm di#ersification a ma"or :economic; issue, thus an objective. Economists ty ically neglect it, seeing farm di#ersification as an outcome from ursuing another o!"ecti#e$ They tend to see farm di#ersification as an outcome of economy,wide olicies or secular trends affecting relati#e incenti#es$< =Delgado and Siamwalla &''', &+>,&+(?$ The authors 9argue that in some cases, !ut only in some cases, it ma/es sense for !oth economists and go#ernments to a roach farm di#ersification as a s ecific o!"ecti#e, e#en to the oint of concentrating analysis and inter#entions on fa#ored su!,sectors and out uts$ If mar/ets do not wor/ well, if agriculture accounts for a large share of em loyment and e* orts as well, if agriculture is also re,commercial, a commodity,s ecific a roach may !e needed to commerciali.e agriculture, s eed u the transmission of incenti#es to the farm le#el, to romote ad"ustment of out ut mi*es in ways fa#ora!le for growth and e8uity< =Delagado and Siamwalla &''', &@7,&@'?$ 1e argue that this conclusion is erfectly true as long as go#ernments are reasona!ly :honest;, and ha#e themsel#es a reasona!le access to information, which is far from !eing rere8uisites$ As shown in the case of Indonesia that artially fit the conditions for seeing di#ersification as a go#ernment o!"ecti#e, di#ersification from rice and clo#es to cocoa in Sulawesi is more the une* ected outcome of a olitical economy of dishonesty #ersus an e*tremely efficient access to cocoa information !y smallholders$ AETH5DS 5F I4BESTICATI54 Aost in#estigations are done on the cocoa side$ The !asic tools are migrants; !iogra hies and in#estigations a!out their #arious sources of ca ital for funding migrations and land ac8uisitions$ Aost early ioneers usually do not own any addy fields$ This is recisely !ecause they are only sharecro ers andDor they only own dry u lands, not irrigated addy fields, that they mo#e and search land elsewhere$ Howe#er, when these oor migrants come !ac/ a few years later and can afford !uying motorcycles, saying that this :wealth; comes from cocoa, the co ying effect and the :sur rise effect lay their full role =Pom and %urger &''2?$ Relati#ely richer farmers, owning some addy fields, also mo#e to forest regions and grow cocoa$ In &''+, we made a ra id in#estigation in a addy region and found that already +2E of rice growers mo#ed to the cocoa frontier$ C5C5A BERS6S P5FITICAF 5%SESSI54 I4 RICE SEFF,S6FFICIE4CG As foreseen !y a Dutch geologist in &')', Sulawesi has fertile allu#ial lains such as the Aasam!a,Aalili lain which 9is not culti#ated although it can com ete with the !est irrigated lains of -a#a $$$ and could !e turned into the granary of Central Cele!es< =A!endanon, &'@7, 8uoted !y Pel.er, &'02?$ This e#entually ha ened$ Sulawesi !ecame a rice !arn for the whole Indonesia$ %ig irrigation dams started under the Dutch coloni.ation in the thirties and forties, for local %ugis eo le, for instance in Pinrang and also for -a#anese transmigrants, es ecially in this lain !etween Aasem!a and Aalili, at the head of the Culf of %one =Pel.er &'02?$ After the inde endence, once local u risings were ended, these ty es of irrigation ro"ects were resumed in the &'>)s, !oth for local %ugis and transmigrants, not only in South !ut also in Central Sulawesi$ It was the !eginning of the green re#olution and Sulawesi is still e* orting rice to other islands of the archi elago and sometimes to Singa ore and Aalaysia$ In com arison with the -a#a rice granaries, South Sulawesi roduces twice as much addy rice er inha!itant of the ro#ince$ According to national statistics, in &''), South Sulawesi was roducing 0() /g er

ca ita #ersus +0) to +7) in the three -a#a ro#inces$ Howe#er roduction seems to ha#e stagnated around the threshold of @,))),))) tons$ During this time, the Sulawesi cocoa !oom was entering its e* onential hase$ At the microeconomic le#el, there is little wonder why$ %un/gu is one of the most dynamic ioneer front in the late &'')s$ Aigrants; "o!s and origins !efore coming to %ung/u confirm the im ortance of transfers from the rice to the cocoa sector =Ta!le &?$
Table 1: Status and jobs of migrants before they came to Bungku StatusD "o! Percentage Rice farmer Rice farmer;s son Cocoa farmer Cocoa and rice farmer Cocoa farmer;s son Cloth trader, dri#er 1ood trader Agricultural wor/er Resettled !y the army 4on acti#e, still young Total @( &@ &@ 7 @ &) @ @ 2 2 &))

The transfer of la!or through migrations from the rice,growing regions to cocoa ioneer fronts was started in the early &'')s, and continued in &''( and &''7$ The addy sector and rice self, sufficiency olicies layed an in#oluntary role in cocoa ado tion, through se#eral mechanisms$ F55D SEC6RITG AS A SAFE E4BIR54AE4T F5R C5C5A AICRA4TS The structural sur lus of rice in Sulawesi hel ed in generating a safe en#ironment for %ugis migrants who decided to concentrate on cocoa$ They /new that they could !uy chea rice$ For those who owned a sawah =irrigated addy field? and did not need to sell or ledge it to fund their migration, the addy grown in their farm in the origin region was sometimes !rought to the new cocoa farm in the ioneer region$ This es ecially ha ened if migrants /e t wor/ing in their addy field with regular tri s !etween the : addy s ace; and the new cocoa site$

ASSET A4D CAPITAF The assets accumulated !y %ugis from addy and the green re#olution also layed an im ortant role$ The #ery first wa#e of cocoa ado ters was made of e* mem!ers of an u rising and made of oor migrants$ They did not own rice fields$ That is why they migrated$ Howe#er, their early

success on cocoa attracted lenty of relati#ely !etter off farmers who owned sawah$ Those new candidates to cocoa,dri#en migration started selling their cows, !uffaloes, houses, gold "ewels and e#en the sawah$ Ca ital and assets accumulated !y and for addy fund migrations, land urchase and cocoa lanting at the edge of ioneer fronts$ Since the mid &'')s, in all our sur#eys of cocoa sites, around >2E of migrants were e* addy farmers, sons of addy farmers, andDor sharecro ers$ Des ite the increasing ro ortion of cocoa accumulators, funding a second cocoa migration !y a first cocoa farm, the migrations funded !y addy are still dominant in the late &'7)s$ This is #erified in %ung/u =ta!le &?$ PFEDCI4C 5F THE RICE FARA AS A4 I4BESTAE4T A6FTIPFIER Aigrants sometimes a#oided to sell their sawah !y using the techni8ue of :Cadai; = ledging?$ They ledge the addy farm for two to four years and manage to refund the ca ital !orrowed with early incomes got in the new region from cocoa and #alua!le annual cro s such as chilly$ The :gadai; techni8ue ro#es to !e a wonderful institutional arrangement as in#estment multi lier$ Firstly it lays that direct role in co#ering migration costs and land urchase without de, ca itali.ation in the origin region$ Secondly, as it accelerates the successful con#ersion of addy ca ital into cocoa, it increases the otential im act of co ying effect that early migrants may ha#e on their followers$ The role of co ying effect in cocoa ado tion has !een demonstrated in the case of autochtons, =here defined as a o ulation esta!lished for more than two generations?, with farmers co ying their neigh!ours in the #illage =Pom and %urger, &''2?$ As guessed !y these authors, it also wor/s in the more general case of cocoa ado tion through migration$ According to our sur#eys, the #ery first cocoa migrants in Sulawesi started to show off their success to others !y !uying a :.ing roof; =corrugated iron sheets?$ Then the im act of co ying effect increased with the gadai in#estment multi lier a lied to cocoa farms$ After ledging one of their cocoa farms, some migrants came !ac/ to their original #illage not with iron sheets !ut with a car$ 5thers !ought a sawah andDor recisely too/ sawah in Cadai, which generated a demand for rice farm ledging, and thus hel to fund migrations of followers$ Howe#er, one of the most im ortant means of showing off one;s success was to fly to Aecca and !ecome :Ha"i; =Ruf and -amaluddin, &''2?$ CREE4 REB5F6TI54 A4D FA%5R,SABI4C TECH45F5CIES Threshers and her!icides ena!led su!stantial sa#ings in la!or from the &'()s onwards =4aylor &''+?$ Aotor culti#ators ha#e !een diffused #ery ra idly in Sulawesi since &'72D7>, at least in regions where control of water ma/es ossi!le two and ossi!ly three cro cycles er year$ The e8ui ment is accessi!le to a larger num!er of eo le on a rental !asis$ This costs R 7),))) er ha in &''@ =H0)?$ In com arison with tillage using !uffaloes or cows, motor culti#ators sa#e &) to &2 days of la!or er hectare er tillage o eration and remo#e almost all the la!or constraints during the soil re aration eriod$
Days of labour for one tillage operation man I hoe 02 air of !uffaloes &2 motor culti#ator @ JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ Sources : authors' surveys, Sidrap, 1994.

This freeing of la!or layed an im ortant role in accelerating cocoa migrations$ They were two main mechanisms$ Firstly, as seen a!o#e, the middle,income rice farmers were influenced !y the :ha#e not; who succeeded in cocoa !efore them$ They ut at least one of their two or three sawah lot in gadai and migrated$ In addition to reducing the num!er of days of la!or, mechani.ation ma/es tillage less la!orious and seems to raise the fle*i!ility of la!or organi.ation$ It hel s to manage a sawah e#en without li#ing ermanently$ Secondly, the use of hand tractor hel ed the u er class of rice farmers to fire many :!agi hasil; =share cro ers? and to manage their rice lots directly$ Those %agi hasil had little o tion !ut to migrate to cocoa ioneer fronts$ Although they had no sa#ings, they could easily get land there, !y :!agi tanah; =free access to forest or fallow land !ut ay !ac/ !y sharing the lantation after three years? 64EKPECTED IAPACT 5F :RICE I4P6T; S6%SIDIES A large ro ortion of cocoa smallholders stated that their ado tion of fertili.er for cocoa comes from their e* erience in rice farming$ LHefner =&'')? has also shown that the ado tion of fertili.er in coffee farms in Central -a#a results artly from the lessons learnt in rice growingM$ There is thus a transfer of su!sidy not foreseen !y the state, since lanters also lace fertili.er su!sidi.ed for rice on cocoa$ The su!sidies had !eing gradually hased out for NCF and TSP in the mid,&'')s !ut maintained for urea u to /rismon in &''7$ In the meantime, it can !e said that the go#ernment slightly !ut in#oluntarily su!sidi.ed some &) years of cocoa e* ansion$ TRA4SAICRATI54 P5FICIESO REPFE4ISHED FA%5R S6PPFIES FR5A RICE T5 C5C5A %y o osition to migrations that are su osed to !e s ontaneous and local =within the same island?, transmigration or :transmigrasi; is the official word to define go#ernment,organi.ed migrations from the o#er, o ulated islands of -a#a and %ali to :outer islands;$ 1hich were the o!"ecti#es and olicies that lie !ehind transmigration schemes3 In the mid,&'')s, transmigration !ecame an institution laying a role in the olitical landsca e !ut without recise o!"ecti#es =Fe#ang &''2?$ Howe#er, for decades, one of the su osed and declared official o!"ecti#es of transmigration was to ease the :sur lus; of o ulation in -a#a and fulfill the su osed :em ty; regions of the outer islands$ It was so unrealistic that one might consider that is rather was to ma/e outer islands more -a#anese$ Transmigration o!#iously was a wonderful tool of control for the military regime to !uild a nation =Fe#ang &''2, 0)&?$ Another o!"ecti#e was more agrarian$ At least until the &'7)s, it was to hel to achie#e the rice self,sufficiency of the country$ For that reason, transmigrants were often o!liged not to lant tree cro s, or at least not !eyond the )$+2ha !ac/yard$ How did this olicy in#oluntarily trigger new im etus to cocoa and e#entually ham er the de#elo ment of addy culti#ation in the &'')s3 In South Sulawesi, lenty of young %alinese, usually the sons of transmigrants !ased in the Aang/utana region =north of %one Culf?, come to wor/ for se#eral months in %ugis cocoa farms !efore the rice har#est on the family holding$ In Central Sulawesi, where se#eral sites were financed !y the 1orld %an/ in the &'()s, the Pfamily life cycleP of the transmigrants also matched the Pcocoa cycleP well$ E#en if the rice scheme were a full success, !ringing eo le to grow rice una#oida!ly would su ly la!or one generation later, not necessarily for rice, es ecially if the green re#olution is freeing la!or$ Transmigration ro#ided la!or with the children of the transmigrants who reach wor/ing age$ Some of them found land, sometimes with their fathers$ This rocess led to su ly lenty of young chiefs of families ready to ado t cocoa in the &'7)s$

Fast !ut not least, !y in#esting in infrastructures li/e roads and !ridges, transmigration schemes also attracted a num!er of s ontaneous migrants$ They could !e :s ontaneous transmigrants; !eing :trans,migrant; in that sense that they come from other islands !ut !eing :s ontaneous; in the sense they decided it !y themsel#es and did not !enefit any official su ort$ There were also lenty of s ontaneous local migrants from the same island ta/ing the o ortunity of the roads in the lains to ha#e a !etter access in the foothills !ehind$ In Sulawesi, %ugis are e*cellent at this game$ It is es ecially the case in 1est,%ung/u where they can com!ine low costs of land to well, de#elo ed roads and mar/ets, des ite the distance$ This must !e the dream of all migrants$ :AIR DI %A1AH;$ :DEFAG; I4 IRRICATI54 I4FRASTR6CT6RES E#en when they are successful, transmigration schemes !ring la!or, technology and ca ital to cocoa$ All the more so if they are not successful$ In Aang/utana region in South Sulawesi as well as in Central Sulawesi, !oth on the 1est and East coasts, we found se#eral cases of recent transmigrants com laining that they waited for years for irrigation schemes to !e com leted$ The irrigation and drainage networ/ was ne#er finished$ 9Air di !awah;, 9literally water stayed !elow<$ For instance in Fewonu, close to Aang/utana, the irrigation canal should ha#e !een done where suddenly an oil alm estate too/ lace$ It was too late to dig any canal$ Among &)) hectares lanned for !eing sawah, only @) were done$ The %alinese decided to turn the other () hectares into cocoa$ In Pangalasiang, on the 1est Coast of Central Sulawesi, it was still more sim le$ %efore they migrated, -a#anese were romised a :sawah;$ They thus e* ected lain and irrigation$ Instead they found no irrigation, hills and land conflicts with autochtons$ After #arious failures in u land rice, it too/ two years to o#ercome these difficulties, !y engaging themsel#es into cocoa$ In Nasim!ar, on the east coast of Central Sulawesi, the %alinese were already on their own initiati#e there, ha#ing left official transmigration schemes to get more land here and with the idea to lant coconuts and clo#es !eside sawah$ %ut they ne#er managed to !uild an efficient irrigation system !y themsel#es$ There were sort of non,irrigated sawah until &'72$ Since then, they con#erted all into cocoa farms$ %alinese e#en totally forgot rice to the oint they !uy &))E of their food in &''7D&'''$ C54CF6SI54 Firstly, inde endently from olicies, rice migrations !efore the &'7)s would ha#e accelerated cocoa migrations in the &'')s anyway$ To a large e*tent, the arado* of rice olicies turned !y smallholders into :cocoa in#estment; was una#oida!le$ 5nce self,sufficiency and sur lus of rice seem to ha#e !een achie#ed, it made sense for farmers and e#en for local olicy ma/ers to loo/ for alternati#es and concentrate on other o!"ecti#es$ Howe#er, go#ernment and smallholders did not find the same aths of :di#ersification;$ The go#ernment was not thin/ing to cocoa !ut rather to cro s such as oil alm in the framewor/ of contract arrangements !etween an estate with a lantation and a factory, su osed to !e the :nucleus; and transmigrant farmers called the : lasma;$ This is 8uite a sym!olic and e* licit terminology$ Cocoa as an easy cro to grow indi#idually and out of control was not considered !y the central go#ernment$ 5n the o osite, as a no,!arrier sector, cocoa was ra idly ado ted !y smallholders$ The : olicy !ase; made of romotion of the green re#olution and transmigration schemes =!ottom

of Fig$&? met the initiati#es ta/en !y local s ontaneous migrants, mostly %ugis ,u er line of Fig$&?$ This meeting accelerated the use of the ca ital and e* erience that was !uilt on rice and hel ed to ada t !oth to a cocoa !oom$ This is a nice showcase of transfer of ca ital and information from one sector to another, a nice showcase of accumulation !y smallholders$ To a large e*tent, it was achie#ed des ite the will of the central go#ernment in -a/arta and against its olicy of rice self,sufficiency for Indonesia$ Secondly, olicies of the central go#ernment in#oluntarily accelerated cocoa !y underestimating ca acities of migrants and transmigrants to o#ercome s oliation done !y the Suharto regime and family$ 1hate#er the e#olution of go#ernment strategies regarding addy, tree cro s and transmigration, the switch from addy to cocoa has !een accelerated !y :s ontaneous transmigrants; following the official transmigrants$ This was non,e* ected !y the central go#ernment in -a/arta and to a certain e*tent una#oida!le$ Howe#er, it can !e said that the :iron hand; of the go#ernment to /ee transmigrants on small ieces of land and food cro s !ac/fired$ The first o!#ious o tion of transmigrants was to esca e official schemes and loo/ for land somewhere else$ There were success stories in transmigrations oriented to rice, !ut mostly due to the /now,how of %alinese farmers$ Then limits and constraints came !y the corru tion im lemented in the schemes, !y contradictory and ersonal interests, !y the dishonesty of the whole system$ The degradation of irrigation in transmigration sites suggest that olicies of self,sufficiency in rice were made inefficient, not !y mere com lacency of a arent achie#ements !ut more !y contradiction of ersonal interests and corru tion$ The fact that transmigration schemes were increasingly close to oil alm ro"ects, sometimes mi*ed together, seem to !e another sign of these contradictions$ 1ith less reci itation and more decentrali.ed decision ma/ing, a !etter !alance could ha#e !een achie#ed$ %asically, the &''7 monetary crisis hel ed to re#eal that attem ts of the Suharto regime and family to decide for %ugis and %alinese farmers, did not wor/ as much as they ho ed$ Rather than suffering from olitical contradictions somewhat com!ined with dishonesty regarding the rice sector, many mo#ed to freedom with cocoa$ That, the Suharto family did not ha#e time to harm, or it faced too much dynamism$ As most cocoa !ooms in the ast, the Sulawesi one owed its #ital strength to farmers; self,hel action$ Finally, coming !ac/ to the de!ate a!out di#ersification su osed to !e seen !y a go#ernment as an o!"ecti#e and !y an economist as a mere out ut of the relati#e incenti#es, the latter is es ecially right when go#ernment dishonesty goes too far$ In that case, di#ersification is e#en a fighting strategy to esca e central go#ernments; o!"ecti#es and too narrow olicies$ In that case, di#ersification is an outcome, often 8uite an une* ected outcome and this is one fre8uent case of farmers; self,hel action$ References

Delgado, C$ and A$ Siamwalla, &''', Rural economy and Farm income diversification in developin countries $ Food Security, Di#ersification and resource managementO Refocusing the role of agriculture$ In Peters and Bon %raun =eds?, Food Security, Di#ersification and Resource AanagementO Refocusing the role of Agriculture3 Proceedings of the +@rd International Conference if Agricultural Economists$ AshgateO &+>,&0@$ Hefner, R$1$ =&'')?$ The Political Economy of Aountains -a#a Q An Inter retati#e History$ 6ni#ersity of

California Press, +(7 $ Fe#ang, P$ =&''2?$ Tanah Sa!rang$ Fa transmigration en IndonRsie O ermanance d;une oliti8ue agraire contrainte$ PhD thesis, Aont ellier, 0>& $ 5tten, A$ =&'7>?$ TransmigrasiO Indonesian resettlement olicy, &'>2,&'72$ Co enhagen$ 4aylor =&''+?$ Fa!our,sa#ing technologies in the -a#anese rice economyO recent de#elo ments and a loo/ into the &'')s$ !ulletin of "ndonesian #conomic Studies , +7 =@?O (&,7'$ Pel.er, N$-$ =&'02?$ Pioneer settlement in the Asiatic tro icsO studies in land utili.ation and agricultural coloni.ation in South,Eastern Asia, 4ew Gor/$ American Ceogra hical Society$ Pom , A$, and N$ %urger =&''2?$ Inno#ation and imitationO ado tion of cocoa !y Indonesian smallholders . $orld %evelopment +@ =@?O 0+@,0@&$ Ruf, F$, -amaluddin, Goddang, 1aris Ardhy =&''2?$ The Ps ectacularP efficiency of cocoa smallholders in SulawesiO why3 6ntil when3$ "nO Ruf, F$ and P$S Siswo utanto =eds?, Cocoa Cycles$ The economics of cocoa su ly$ 1oodhead Pu!lishing$ Cam!ridge$ $ @@',@(2$

%ugis history concern and traditions ro erty of s ontaneous migrations and trade

DIDTII u rising

Fa#ora!le soil and climate factors and forest rent

Fac/ of CAPITAF at the initial stage =&st migration?

Smallholders; regarding rights and State Interference FA4D

Aigrations to Sa!ah Information on cocoa and #arious techni8ues =nurseries, runing, etc? Free cocoa mar/et and high com etition

Trend to limit the cocoa area er family at the initial stage

High relati#e rice of cocoa against rice =around @ in the &'7)s? 4o state le#ies Food security and rice sur luses achie#ed in Sulawesi Fearning to use her!icides Transfer of /now,how and in ut trade networ/ from the rice sector to cocoa farms Freeing of FA%56R in rice fields made a#aila!le for other acti#ities

The choice of cocoa monoculture and high yields corres onding to the economic o timum for a certain degree of economic and social security Cocoa moti#ated migrations and continuous deforestation

of

Su

ly of

Con#ersion addy FA4D into Cocoa farms Fac/ of re aration of irrigation

additional FA%56R

reen re!olution on addy and ado tion of CAPITAFO HER%ICIDES, TRESHERS, and HA4D TRACT5RS -a#anese

"olicy measures !ased on the green re#olution and rice self,sufficiency Aanufacturing units and su!sidies for agricultural in uts$

Transmigration policies oriented towards Paddy roduction for and !y %alinese until the &'7)s

and

5il rent and the Indonesian demogra hic en#ironmentO In a country of +)) million eo le, the olitical ower needs to ay s ecific attention to food security

Fig# 1# Rice farming systems and policies helping to ### the rapid establishment of intensi!e cocoa pioneer fronts in Sula$esi in the 1%&'s and 1%%'s#

'

FranSois R6F CIRAD CIRAD )& %P >07@ A!id"an )& C5TE d;IB5IRE Tel ++2 )( )7 '@ '> TelDfa* ++2 ++ 0+ >> &' rufTa#iso$ci The a er is su!mitted for oral resentation &ro rammatic 'heme 1. Small Farm %iversification and (ompetitiveness Farmer empo)erment and self*help action

&)