DUNS SCOTUS: THE BASIC

PRINCIPLES OF HIS PHILOSOPHY

by Efrem Bettoni, O. F. M., Ph. D.
SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY
UNIVERSIY OF HE S!CRED HE!R, MIL!N
r"n#$"te% "n% E%ite%
by Bern"r%ine Bon"n#e", O. F. M., Ph. D.
SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY
HE C!HOLIC UNIVERSIY OF !MERIC!
HE C!HOLIC UNIVERSIY OF !MERIC! PRESS
&"#hin'ton (), D. C. (*+(
,iii,
Nihil obstat:
I'n"ti-# Br"%y, O. F. M.
Censor Deputatus
Imprimi potest:
P"#.h"$ /in#e$, O. F. M.
Commissary
0"n-"ry 1, (*+(
Nihil obstat:
M#'r. 0ohn /. Ry"n
Censor Deputatus
Imprimatur:
P"tri.2 !. O3Boy$e, D. D.
Archbishop of Washington
he nihil obstat "n% imprimatur "re offi.i"$ %e.$"r"tion# th"t " boo2 or 4"m4h$et i# free
of %o.trin"$ or mor"$ error. No im4$i."tion i# .ont"ine% therein th"t tho#e 5ho h"6e
'r"nte% the nihil obstat "n% the imprimatur "'ree 5ith the .ontent, o4inion#, or
#t"tement# e74re##e%.
Co4yri'ht, (*8+, by 9L" S.-o$", 9 Bre#.i", It"$y.
It"$i"n e%ition ori'in"$$y 4-b$i#he% by 9L" S.-o$", 9 (*8+. S4e.i"$ .ontent# .o4yri'ht, :
(*+(, by he C"tho$i. Uni6er#ity of !meri." Pre##. hi# tr"n#$"te% e%ition 4-b$i#he% by
"rr"n'ement 5ith 9L" S.-o$". 9
Printe% in the U. S. !.
,i6,
Translator's Preface
NEED H!S LON; BEEN FEL for " .on.i#e "n% #im4$e e74o#ition of D-n# S.ot-#3
4hi$o#o4hi."$ tho-'ht, in 5hi.h the b"#i. 4rin.i4$e# of hi# #y#tem 5o-$% be 4re#ente%
"'"in#t their %o.trin"$ b".2'ro-n%, "n% the .h"r".teri#ti. fe"t-re# of hi# #4e.-$"tion
5o-$% be 4ro4er$y i$$-#tr"te% from the 6ie54oint of hi# ne5 "n% ori'in"$ 4hi$o#o4hi."$
#ynthe#i#.
F"ther Efrem Bettoni, 4rofe##or of 4hi$o#o4hy "t S".re% He"rt Uni6er#ity in Mi$"n, "n% "
re.o'ni<e% "-thority in the fie$% of S.oti#ti. #t-%ie#, h"# #-..e##f-$$y "n#5ere% thi# nee%.
Hi# in6e#ti'"tion of D-n# S.ot-#3 tho-'ht, 5hi.h "44e"r# no5 for the fir#t time in En'$i#h
tr"n#$"tion, i# "n e7.e$$ent #t-%y of the S.oti#ti. #y#tem. In it .$"rity of e74o#ition i#
m"t.he% by %ee4 "n% 4enetr"tin' "n"$y#i#. One .o-$% h"r%$y "#2 for " better 4re#ent"tion
of the 4hi$o#o4hy of D-n# S.ot-# in " 5or2 of the 4ro4ortion# of the 4re#ent one.
In -n%ert"2in' the tr"n#$"tion of F"ther Bettoni3# 5or2, I h"6e h"% t5o m"in 4-r4o#e# in
min%. Fir#t, to 4ro6i%e the En'$i#h,#4e"2in' #t-%ent of 4hi$o#o4hy 5ith " #-b#i%i"ry 5or2
for " %ee4er 2no5$e%'e of D-n# S.ot-#3 tho-'ht, 5hi.h the or%in"ry te7tboo2# -#-"$$y
4re#ent in " 6ery #-4erfi.i"$ "n% in"%e=-"te 5"y> #e.on%, to fo#ter the #t-%y of one of the
're"te#t fi'-re# of #.ho$"#ti. 4hi$o#o4hy. D-n# S.ot-# 5e$$ %e#er6e# the tit$e of Doctor
Subtilis, not on$y be."-#e of hi# e7".t "n% 4enetr"tin' %i#tin.tion#, b-t mo#t of "$$
be."-#e of the 4o5er of hi# min% "n% the %e4th of hi# %o.trine.
In .ert"in re#4e.t# the 4re#ent tr"n#$"tion ."n be .on#i%ere% "n im4ro6ement -4on the
ori'in"$ It"$i"n te7t. he .h"4ter# on the $ife "n% 5or2# of D-n# S.ot-# h"6e been re6i#e%
"n% bro-'ht -4 to %"te in the $i'ht of re.ent #t-%ie# "n% %i#.o6erie#. E".h .h"4ter h"#
been %i6i%e% into #e.tion#, "n% o.."#ion"$$y the #e.tion# h"6e been %i6i%e% into
4"r"'r"4h#. !$$ the referen.e# h"6e been ."ref-$$y .he.2e% "'"in#t S.ot-#3 ori'in"$
,6,
5or2# "n% .ert"in .orre.tion# h"6e been m"%e. M"ny "%%ition"$ footnote# h"6e been
in#erte% 5hene6er it h"# #eeme% ne.e##"ry to .$"rify 4"rti.-$"r 4oint#. he#e ne5 note#
"re m"r2e% by "#teri#2# "n%?or br".2et# to %i#tin'-i#h them from tho#e in the ori'in"$
It"$i"n te7t. Be."-#e of the m"ny im4ort"nt S.oti#ti. #t-%ie# th"t h"6e "44e"re% #in.e
(*8+, the ye"r of 4-b$i."tion of F"ther Bettoni3# 5or2, the bib$io'r"4hy h"# been 're"t$y
en$"r'e%. hi# h"# been %one e#4e.i"$$y 5ith " 6ie5 to the nee%# of the En'$i#h,#4e"2in'
#t-%ent. !n "n"$yti. in%e7 h"# "$#o been "%%e%. Fin"$$y, ."re h"# been 'i6en to the
4rintin' "n% form"t of the 5or2.
It i# the tr"n#$"tor3# ho4e th"t thi# 5or2 5i$$ be of he$4 to #t-%ent# of 4hi$o#o4hy 5ho
%e#ire " better -n%er#t"n%in' of " #y#tem th"t h"# 4$"ye% #o im4ort"nt " ro$e in the
%e6e$o4ment of #.ho$"#ti. tho-'ht "n% h"# 5on the "%mir"tion of #o m"ny 4hi$o#o4her#
e6en o-t#i%e the #.ho$"#ti. fie$%.
he tr"n#$"tor 5i#he# to t"2e thi# o44ort-nity to e74re## hi# #in.ere 'r"tit-%e to the Ri'ht
Re6eren% M#'r. 0ohn /. Ry"n, Ph. D., De"n of the S.hoo$ of Phi$o#o4hy, the C"tho$i.
Uni6er#ity of !meri.", "n% to the Re6eren% I'n"ti-# Br"%y, O. F. M., Ph. D., !##o.i"te
Profe##or of Phi$o#o4hy in the #"me Uni6er#ity, for their re"%in' of the m"n-#.ri4t "n%
their he$4f-$ #-''e#tion# 5hi.h h"6e .ontrib-te% 're"t$y to im4ro6e the te7t of the
4re#ent tr"n#$"tion. He e7ten%# hi# th"n2# "$#o to Re6. /ier"n /emner, O. F. M., "n% Mr.
P"-$ I. Sem"n, 5ho 5ent o6er the m"n-#.ri4t "n% #-''e#te% f-rther im4ro6ement#, "n%
e#4e.i"$$y to Mi## E$i#"beth !. M-r"5#2i, e%itori"$ "##i#t"nt of the C"tho$i. Uni6er#ity of
!meri." Pre##, for her .on#t"nt effort# "n% te.hni."$ #-4er6i#ion in the 4-b$i."tion of thi#
boo2.
,6i,
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART ONE THE MAN AND HIS OR!S
I" LIFE (
II" OR!S @
III" THE #ENESIS AND SPIRIT OF 'THE SCOTISTIC
SYNTHESIS (A
PART TO DUNS SCOTUS' THOU#HT
I" THY PROPER OB$ECT OF THE HUMAN INTELLECT 1A
T%o D&fferent A''roac(es to P(&loso'() 1A
D*ns Scot*s' Conce't of t(e Pro'er O+,ect of t(e H*-an
Intellect 1)
Cr&t&c&s- of O''os&n. /&e%s 1*
T(e Un&0oc&t) of t(e Conce't of Be&n. BB
T(e O+,ect of O*r Intellect &n Its Present State B*
I-'l&cat&ons of t(e Scot&st&c T(eor) of t(e Pro'er O+,ect
of t(e H*-an Intellect 8(
II" FINITE BEIN# 8)
Matter an1 For- 8@
T(e Pro+le- of Un&0ersals AB
,6ii,
Co--on Nat*re an1 t(e Pr&nc&'le of In1&0&1*at&on A@
Essence an1 E2&stence +A
III" MAN +)
T(e For- of Cor'ore&t) +)
Doctr&ne of Pl*ral&t) of For-s )C
T(e Intellect&0e So*l as For- of Man )B
Relat&ons(&' +et%een t(e So*l an1 Its Fac*lt&es )+
Intellect an1 &ll @(
T(e I--ortal&t) of t(e So*l @+
I/" !NOLED#E *B
Sensat&on *8
T(e Doctr&ne of A+stract&on *A
T(e Eff&c&ent Ca*se of !no%le1.e (C(
T(e Platon&c3A*.*st&n&an T(eor) (C(
T(e Ar&stotel&an3T(o-&st&c T(eor) (CA
D*ns Scot*s' T(eor) (C@
/" EPISTEMOLO#ICAL PROBLEMS ((@
T(e /al*e of !no%le1.e ((@
Int*&t&0e !no%le1.e of t(e S&n.*lar (1(
T(e Nat*re of Sc&ent&f&c !no%le1.e (1B
E0&1ence as t(e Ult&-ate Mot&0e of Cert&t*1e an1
Cr&ter&on of Tr*t( (1A
Concl*1&n. Re-ar4s (1*
/I" INFINITE BEIN# (B1
T(e Conce't of Inf&n&te Be&n. (B1
St" Ansel-'s Ontolo.&cal Ar.*-ent for t(e E2&stence of
#o1 (BB
T(e A Poster&or& Proofs for t(e E2&stenco of #o1 (B)
T(e F&rst Eff&c&ent Ca*se (B*
T(e S*'re-e F&nal Ca*se (81
T(e Most Perfect Be&n. (8B
Scot*s' Proofs 0s" St" T(o-as' F&0e a)s (8B
T(e Un&c&t) of t(e F&rst Ca*se (8A
,6iii,
Intellect an1 &ll &n #o1 (8+
#o1's Inf&n&t) (8*
#o1 an1 t(e Un&0erse (AB
/II" MORAL DOCTRINES (+C
T(e D&0&ne &ll 0s" Creat&on an1 t(e Moral Or1er (+(
T(e Deter-&nants of Moral&t) (+A
Morall) In1&fferent Acts ()C
D*t) an1 t(e Nat*ral La% ()B
Pos&t&0e La% an1 Conf&r-ator) La% ())
Concl*1&n. Re-ar4s (@(
PART THREE DUNS SCOTUS IN HISTORY AND
CATHOLIC THOU#HT
I" DUNS SCOTUS' POSITION IN THE PAST (@A
II" DUNS SCOTUS AND THE FUTURE (*1
BIBLIO#RAPHY 1C(
INDE5 1(A
,i7,
PART ONE
THE MAN AND HIS OR!S
,7i,
I
LIFE
HE C!RELESSNES of me%ie6"$ 5riter# 5ith re'"r% to bio'r"4hi."$ %"t" "n%
4#y.ho$o'i."$ ob#er6"tion# #er6in' to ."t.h the 4er#on"$ity of " m"#ter "# he 5"# in
".t-"$ $ife i# 4"rti.-$"r$y noti.e"b$e in the ."#e of 0ohn D-n# S.ot-#. Hi#tori."$ m"teri"$
on the S-bt$e Do.tor 5"# "t one time #o #."r.e "n% 6"'-e th"t %o-bt# 5ere ."#t e6en on
hi# e7i#ten.e. Some 5ent #o f"r "# to .on#i%er him " mere #ymbo$, the b"nner of "
4hi$o#o4hi."$ #.hoo$. o%"y, "fter 4"in#t"2in' re#e"r.h, .ert"in %efinite bio'r"4hi."$ f".t#
h"6e been "#.ert"ine%. On the b"#i# of #-.h %"t" it i# 4o##ib$e to 4re#ent, by me"n# of
inferen.e "n% ref$e.tion, " f"ir$y "..-r"te hi#tori."$ "..o-nt of D-n# S.ot-#3 $ife.
(

0ohn D-n# S.ot-# 5"# born in S.ot$"n% either "t M"7tonon,5ee%, in the .o-nty of
Ro7b-r'h, on "n e#t"te #ti$$ 2no5n "# Litt$e%e"n, or, "# mo#t re.ent %i#.o6erie# #eem to
in%i."te,
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(
he %o.-ment"tion of the .ontent of thi# .h"4ter ."n be fo-n% in the fir#t 4"rt of my
5or2, Vent'anni di studi scotisti E Mi$"nF Vit" e Pen#iero, (*8BG. Hhi# .h"4ter h"# been
re6i#e% "n% bro-'ht -4 to %"te on the b"#i# of the "-thor3# more re.ent "rti.$e on D-n#
S.ot-# in Enciclopedia ilosofica E Veni.e,RomeF I#tit-to 4er $" Co$$"bor"<ione
C-$t-r"$e, (*A)G, 6o$. IV, .o$#. 8+B,8)1, -n%er Scoto, ;io6"nni D-n#. !"ranslator's
note# $I
,(,
"t D-n#, in the .o-nty of Ber5i.2. he o4inion, b"#e% on the "-thority of L-2e &"%%in',
5hi.h .$"im# for Ire$"n% the '$ory of bein' the birth4$".e of the 're"t me%ie6"$ m"#ter,
no5 h"# been %efinite$y %i#."r%e%.
he e7".t %"te of S.ot-#3 birth i# not 2no5n. Ho5e6er, "$$ bio'r"4her# "'ree in 4$".in' it
bet5een De.ember 1B, (1+A, "n% M"r.h (), (1++. Hi# f"ther 5"# ."$$e% Nini"n D-n# of
Litt$e%e"n. he D-n# f"mi$y h"% "$5"y# been "mon' the benef".tor# of the Fri"r# Minor
from the fir#t "rri6"$ of the Or%er in S.ot$"n%. ! member of thi# f"mi$y, the 4"tern"$
-n.$e of D-n# S.ot-#, Joine% the Or%er "n% too2 the n"me of F"ther E$i"# D-n#. It i# $itt$e
5on%er, then, th"t " ne5 Fr"n.i#."n 6o."tion m"t-re% in #-.h " f"6or"b$e en6ironment.
In (1)@, F"ther E$i"# D-n# 5"# "44ointe% Vi."r ;ener"$ of the Fri"r# Minor of S.ot$"n%
by " .h"4ter 5hi.h he$% it# meetin' "t H"%%in'ton. !t the time, 0ohn D-n# 5"# " boy of
t5e$6e or thirteen in thi# S.otti#h to5n. He 5"# then "tten%in' it# 'r"mm"r #.hoo$, 5here
he fir#t '"6e 4roof of hi# rem"r2"b$e t"$ent# "n% 4iety.
One of the fir#t ".t# of the ne5 Vi."r ;ener"$ 5"# to "..e4t hi# ne4he5 for the Or%er,
#in.e he h"% e6ery #i'n of " 6o."tion. He bro-'ht him to the fri"ry of D-mfrie#, 5here he
him#e$f 5"# #t"tione%, in or%er to he$4 him 4re4"re for hi# %efinite entr"n.e into the
Or%er. Sin.e D-n# S.ot-# 5"# "t the time not yet fifteen, the "'e re=-ire% by the
.on#tit-tion# of the Or%er for the re.e4tion of no6i.e#, thi# .eremony m-#t h"6e t"2en
4$".e to5"r%# the en% of (1@C.
he %"te of hi# or%in"tion to the 4rie#thoo% "t the h"n%# of O$i6er S-tton, bi#ho4 of
Lin.o$n, i# 2no5n for #-re. It too2 4$".e on M"r.h (), (1*(, 5hen D-n# S.ot-# 5"#
t5enty,fi6e ye"r# o$%, "t St. !n%re53#, " .h-r.h entr-#te% to the Mon2# of C$-ny.
Ho5e6er, no re$i"b$e inform"tion h"# .ome %o5n to -# "# to the 4$".e of hi# #t-%ie#
bet5een (1@( "n% (1*( in 4re4"r"tion for the 4rie#thoo%. he #t"tement# of #ome
hi#tori"n#, th"t he #4ent tho#e ye"r# "t O7for%, 5here there 5"# " f$o-ri#hin'
,1,
Studium %enerale of the Fri"r# Minor .$o#e to the Uni6er#ity, o4ene% -n%er the
4rote.tion "n% "t the in#ti'"tion of Robert ;ro##ete#te, "re not #-44orte% by "ny hi#tori."$
%o.-ment. he 5e$$,2no5n S.oti#t, F"ther E4hrem Lon'4rK, #eem# to h"6e 'oo% re"#on#
to be$ie6e th"t, in "%%ition 4erh"4# to hi# tem4or"ry re#i%en.e "t O7for%, D-n# S.ot-#
#4ent " fe5 ye"r# "t P"ri# bet5een (1@B "n% (1*C. hi# 5o-$% e74$"in more n"t-r"$$y
S.ot-#3 f"mi$i"rity 5ith the 5ritin'# of ;i$e# of Rome, ;o%frey of Font"ine#, "n%
e#4e.i"$$y Henry of ;hent, "$$ 4rofe##or# "t P"ri# %-rin' th"t 4erio%. In thi# ."#e, it 5o-$%
"$#o h"6e been 4o##ib$e for him to be.ome 4er#on"$$y ".=-"inte% 5ith Ri.h"r% of
Mi%%$eton, Peter 0ohn O$i6i, "n% ;on#"$6-# of S4"in, "n% to be inf$-en.e% by them in the
form"tion of hi# tho-'ht. !t "ny r"te, "$$ hi#tori"n# "..e4t "# %efinite$y e#t"b$i#he% the
f".t th"t S.ot-# 5"# "t P"ri# bet5een (1*8 "n% (1*). In th"t .ity he 4erfe.te% him#e$f in
the #t-%y of 4hi$o#o4hy "n% theo$o'y.
It i# 2no5n 5ith .ert"inty th"t in (BC1 the S-bt$e Do.tor 5"# .ommentin', "# " b".he$or,
on the Sentences of Peter Lomb"r% "t the Uni6er#ity of P"ri#. Ho5e6er, the S.oti#ti.
tr"%ition i# -n"nimo-# in "ffirmin' th"t D-n# S.ot-# .ommente% on the Sentences "t
O7for% e6en before he %i% #o in P"ri#. hi# tr"%ition i# "..e4t"b$e "n% not %iffi.-$t to
.onfirm. In%ee%, it i# more th"n re"#on"b$e to thin2 th"t, before e74o#in' the yo-n'
m"#ter to the J-%'ment "n% .riti.i#m of the Uni6er#ity of P"ri#, hi# #-4erior# 5i#he% to be
#-re of hi# te".hin' "bi$ity "n% #.ientifi. 4re4"r"tion. h-# it ."n be "##-me% th"t D-n#
S.ot-# h"% "$re"%y re6e"$e% hi# e7.e4tion"$ =-"$itie# both "# " #.ho$"r "n% "# " te".her in
one of the Or%er3# ho-#e# of #t-%y. Nothin' 4re6ent# -# from be$ie6in' th"t thi# 5"# the
Studium %enerale in O7for%. In "%%ition to P"ri# "n% O7for%, D-n# S.ot-# "$#o t"-'ht "t
C"mbri%'e.
In (BC8 D-n# S.ot-# 5"# "$re"%y 2no5n both 5ithin "n% o-t#i%e the Or%er "# " re$i'io-#
of %ee4 #4irit-"$ity "n% "# " m"n of 5i%e .-$t-re "n% 4o5erf-$ min%. &hen F"ther ;on,
,B,
#"$6-# of S4"in, Mini#ter ;ener"$ of the Fr"n.i#."n Or%er, 4ro4o#e% him to the Pro6in.i"$
of P"ri# "# " ."n%i%"te for " m"#ter3# .h"ir "t the Uni6er#ity of th"t .ity, he e74re##e%
him#e$f in the fo$$o5in' term#F 9I re.ommen% to yo-r .h"rity o-r be$o6e% brother in
Chri#t, F"ther 0ohn S.ot-#, 5ho#e $"-%"b$e $ife, e7.e$$ent 2no5$e%'e, mo#t #-bt$e 'eni-#,
"n% other rem"r2"b$e =-"$itie# "re f-$$y 2no5n to me, 4"rt$y be."-#e of my $on'
"##o.i"tion 5ith him, "n% 4"rt$y be."-#e of hi# 5i%e#4re"% re4-t"tion. 9
Ho5e6er, in (BC8 D-n# S.ot-# 5"# no $on'er in P"ri#, "# he h"% to $e"6e the .ity
#-%%en$y in (BCB, in the mi%%$e of the "."%emi. ye"r. &h"t 5"# the re"#on for thi#
#-%%en %e4"rt-reL In the fir#t month# of (BCB the #tr-''$e bet5een Po4e Bonif".e VIII
"n% the /in' of Fr"n.e, Phi$i4 the F"ir, 5hi.h i# better 2no5n from D"nte3# 4oem E.f.
P-r'"torio, MM, @A,*BG th"n from the re4ort# of hi#tori"n#, h"% be.ome 're"t$y
inten#ifie%. Phi$i4 the F"ir $oo2e% for "%herent# to hi# "nti4"4"$ 4o$i.ie# "mon' the
.$er'y. hi# $e% to " #4$it e6en "mon' the member# of the re$i'io-# or%er#. D-n# S.ot-#,
"# i# 5e$$ %o.-mente% by the $i#t of the Fri"r# Minor th"t too2 #i%e 5ith the Po4e "'"in#t
the /in',," $i#t %i#.o6ere% "n% 4-b$i#he% by F"ther E4hrem Lon'4rK in (*1@,,%i% not
he#it"te to fo$$o5 the %i.t"te# of .on#.ien.e "n% tr-th. Roy"$ re4ri#"$ for.e% him to
interr-4t hi# te".hin' "n% ret-rn to O7for% in En'$"n%, 5here he $e.t-re% %-rin' the
#.ho$"#ti. ye"r (BCB,(BC8.
&hen in (BC8, fo$$o5in' the %e"th of Bonif".e VIII, the #torm #-b#i%e% "n% "$$ 4o$iti."$
%iffi.-$tie# 5ere remo6e%, 0ohn D-n# S.ot-# 5"# #ent b".2 to P"ri# by the Mini#ter
;ener"$ in or%er to obt"in the tit$e of m"#ter. !bo-t E"#ter in (BCA, 5hen Simon of
;-iber6i$$e 5"# .h"n.e$$or of the Uni6er#ity, the offi.i"$ 4ro.$"m"tion too2 4$".e.
hi# #e.on% 4erio% of te".hin' "t the Uni6er#ity of P"ri# be."me f"mo-# in #.ho$"#ti.
tr"%ition be."-#e of the theo$o'i."$ %i#4-te of the S-bt$e Do.tor in f"6or of the
Imm".-$"te Con.e4tion of the B$e##e% Mother. L"ter tr"%ition# h"6e
,8,
in6e#te% thi# f"mo-# b"tt$e 5ith $e'en%"ry e$ement#. !$$e'e%$y it en%e% in " 'r"n% fin"$e,
in 5hi.h the Fr"n.i#."n m"#ter, em-$"tin' in the fie$% of .-$t-re the %ee%# of the br"6e#t
2ni'ht#, 6i.torio-#$y 5ith#too% "$$ the m"#ter# of the Uni6er#ity of P"ri#, 5ho 5ere fier.e
o44onent# of hi# M"rio$o'y. Ho5e6er, the #-b#t"nti"$ hi#tori.ity of thi# f"mo-# %i#4-te
h"# been 4ro6e% in re.ent ye"r# by F"ther Ch"r$e# B"$i. 5ith "n "b-n%"n.e of "r'-ment#
5hi.h #ho5 ho5 5e$$ D-n# S.ot-# %e#er6e# the tit$e of 2ni'ht "# 5e$$ "# of %o.tor of the
Imm".-$"te Con.e4tion.
N

By the be'innin' of the "."%emi. ye"r (BC),(BC@ the S-bt$e Do.tor 5"# no $on'er
#t"tione% in P"ri#. Hi# 4$".e there 5"# t"2en by "nother Fr"n.i#."n, F"ther !$e7"n%er of
!$e7"n%ri". In the fir#t month# of (BC@, D-n# S.ot-# 5"# .ert"in$y in Co$o'ne, 5here he
$e.t-re% in the Fr"n.i#."n Ho-#e of St-%ie# of the .ity. &h"t "re the re"#on# for thi#
#-%%en %e4"rt-re from P"ri# 5here hi# te".hin' h"% .omm"n%e% re#4e.t "n% "%mir"tionL
In (BC), by or%er of Phi$i4 the F"ir, No'"ret 5"# 4re4"rin' the f"mo-# 4ro.e## "'"in#t
the /ni'ht# em4$"r, 5hi.h 5o-$% on.e more 4$".e the /in' of Fr"n.e in o44o#ition to
the Po4e. It 5"# e7treme$y im4ort"nt, if not ne.e##"ry, for the Uni6er#ity to #ho5 on #-.h
"n o.."#ion it# #o$i%"rity 5ith the roy"$ ho-#e. Hen.e the 4re."-tion 5"# t"2en of
%i#mi##in' from the Uni6er#ity tho#e m"#ter# 5ho#e beh"6ior .$e"r$y in%i."te% their
o44o#ition to the intri'-e# of the Fren.h J-ri#t#. D-n# S.ot-# 5"# one of tho#e m"#ter#.
he 4re.e%ent of (BCB .o-$% not $e"6e "ny %o-bt "# to hi# "ttit-%e. o "%% to thi#, hi#
re".hin' on the Imm".-$"te Con.e4tion of M"ry offere% to hi# o44onent# " 'oo% 4rete7t
to "..-#e him of here#y "n% h"6e him remo6e%, or e6en #t"n% tri"$. !n in%i."tion th"t
thin'# mi'ht h"6e t-rne% o-t thi#
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
N
See P. C"ro$-# B"$i., O. F. M., 9Io"nne# D-n# S.ot-# et Hi#tori" Imm".-$"t"e
Con.e4tioni#9, Antonianum, MMM E (*AAG, B8*,8@@. hi# #.ho$"r$y "n% "-thorit"ti6e
"rti.$e .ont"in# "b-n%"nt inform"tion on the #-bJe.t. !"r# $
,A,
5"y for the S-bt$e Do.tor i# the &uodlibet of 0ohn of Po-i$$y, 4-b$i#he% in (BC@. In it the
theo$o'i."$ the#i# f"6orin' the Imm".-$"te Con.e4tion i# .h"r".teri<e% "# hereti."$.
!'"in#t tho#e 5ho %efen% it, it i# f-rther #t"te% in the &uodlibet th"t 9one m-#t 4ro.ee%
not 5ith "r'-ment#, b-t other'ise# ( If 5e ref$e.t th"t 0ohn of Po-i$$y, " Fren.hm"n, 5"#
" #-44orter of Phi$i4 the F"ir, it 5i$$ not be %iffi.-$t to -n%er#t"n% the 2in% of thre"tenin'
"tmo#4here th"t 5"# formin' "ro-n% the M"ri"n Do.tor.
he Mini#ter ;ener"$, ;on#"$6-# of S4"in, 5ho h"% " 're"t $o6e "n% "44re.i"tion for
S.ot-#, "n% 5ho h"% be.ome ".=-"inte% 5ith the #it-"tion in P"ri# %-rin' hi# m"ny ye"r#
of re#i%en.e "n% te".hin' "t the Uni6er#ity, 5"# no %o-bt .on.erne% o6er the thre"t#
%ire.te% "'"in#t the S.otti#h m"#ter. o #"6e him from the "44ro".hin' #torm, the be#t
e74e%ient 5"# to ."$$ him to Co$o'ne, 5here he .o-$% be 6ery he$4f-$ in the
reor'"ni<"tion of the Fr"n.i#."n Studium of th"t .ity "n% 5here he mi'ht be "b$e to
.ontrib-te to the inten#ifi."tion of the fi'ht "'"in#t the Be'h"r%#, 5ho#e here#y h"% "
.ert"in n-mber of fo$$o5er# "mon' the 4eo4$e of tho#e re'ion#. h-#, be."-#e of hi#
%e6otion to the Po4e "n% hi# $o6e for the B$e##e% Mother, D-n# S.ot-# 5"# for.e% on.e
more to $e"6e the 're"t theo$o'i."$ .enter "t P"ri#, the #4irit-"$ home$"n% of "$$ 're"t
thirteenth,.ent-ry m"#ter#.
In Co$o'ne D-n# S.ot-# h"% b-t one ye"r of inten#i6e 5or2, for on No6ember @, (BC@, he
%ie% 4rem"t-re$y "t the "'e of forty,t5o or forty,three. On hi# tomb "t Co$o'ne there 5"#
en'r"6e% " L"tin .o-4$etF
Scotia me genuit))Anglia me suscepit*
%allia me docuit))Colonia me tenet#
It i# "$mo#t " hi#tori."$ #ynthe#i# of hi# $ife.
he '$ory of D-n# S.ot-#3 %o.trine i# m"t.he% by the '$ory of the #"n.tity of hi# $ife. Hi#
4ro.e## of be"tifi."tion 5"# #t"rte% in ()C+. Diffi.-$tie# of m"ny 2in%# h"6e been the
."-#e
,+,
of %e$"y in hi# '$orifi."tion. Ho5e6er, " #o$emn 4etition for the be"tifi."tion of D-n#
S.ot-# 5"# 4re#ente% by the Fr"n.i#."n Or%er to the Ho$y See in (*CA, 5ith the #-44ort
of more th"n ACC 4"tri"r.h#, "r.hbi#ho4# "n% bi#ho4#, (@ ."r%in"$#, "n% ten 'ener"$# of
re$i'io-# or%er#. Both 5ithin the Fr"n.i#."n Or%er "n% o-t#i%e of it, there i# ho4e th"t thi#
4etition 5i$$ be f"6or"b$y ".te% -4on by the Ho$y See.
,),
II
OR!S
HE LIER!RY 4"trimony of 0ohn D-n# S.ot-# h"# not yet been .riti."$$y e#t"b$i#he%.
1
! #4e.i"$ .ommi##ion of #.ho$"r# 5ithin the Or%er of Fri"r# Minor, he"%e% by F"ther
Ch"r$e# B"$i., h"# been ".ti6e %-rin' re.ent ye"r# in 4re4"rin' " .riti."$ e%ition of S.ot-#3
+pera +mnia. he fir#t fi6e 6o$-me# h"6e "$re"%y "44e"re% in the fo$$o5in' or%erF 6o$#.
I,II, (*AC> 6o$. III, (*A8> 6o$. IV, (*A+> 6o$. V, (*A*, "$$ 4-b$i#he% by the V"ti."n City
Pre##. Vo$. I .ont"in# " Dis,uisitio critica "n% the -rologus to the +rdinatio -rima, the
tit$e 'i6en by D-n# S.ot-# to hi# o5n .om4i$"tion of the +pus +.oniense, or .omment"ry
on the /oo0 of Sentences. he other 6o$-me# .ont"in S.ot-#3 .omment"ry on the fir#t
Distinctiones of the fir#t boo2 of the Sentences. h-# f"r, the mo#t .om4$ete "n% re$i"b$e
e%ition of S.ot-#3 5or2# i# #ti$$ L-2e &"%%in'3# e%ition 4rinte% "t Lyon# in (+B*
Ere4rinte% by Vi6O# in the fin"$ ye"r# of the $"#t .en,
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
1
he #e.on% 4"rt of my bib$io'r"4hi."$ e##"y, Vent'anni di studi scotisti* op# cit#,
.ont"in# " f"ithf-$ re4ort on the .on.$-#ion# re".he% by the #.ho$"r# on D-n# S.ot-#3
$iter"ry 4"trimony. In thi# .h"4ter, I fo$$o5 the 'ener"$ $ine# of th"t re4ort. Hhe
.ontent of thi# .h"4ter h"# "$#o been .he.2e% "'"in#t the "-thor3# "rti.$e in
Enciclopedia ilosofica. See "bo6e n. (. !"r# $I
,@,
t-ryG to'ether 5ith the .omment"rie# of the be#t S.oti#t# of the fifteenth "n% #i7teenth
.ent-rie#.he Vi6O# e%ition .on#i#t# of 1+ fo$io 6o$-me# "n% in.$-%e# 1) 5or2#. Some of
the#e "re "-thenti., 5hi$e other# "re either "4o.ry4h"$ or of %o-btf-$ "-thenti.ity. For
4r".ti."$ 4-r4o#e#, I 5i$$ omit in thi# #t-%y "$$ S.ot-#3 -n4-b$i#he% 5ritin'# "n% mention
on$y the 5or2# .ont"ine% in the Vi6O# e%ition.
AUTHENTIC OR!S
(. Short 5or2# 5hi.h ."n be 'ro-4e% -n%er the tit$e of 1ogic of Scotus. hey m"2e -4 "
$"r'e 4"rt of the fir#t t5o 6o$-me# of the Vi6O# e%ition.
1. &uaestiones in libros Aristotelis De Anima EVi6O# e%., 6o$. IIIG. hi# 5or2 i#
in.om4$ete. he S-44$ement-m 5"# 5ritten by the #e6enteenth,.ent-ry S.oti#t H-'o
C"6e$$o, "n% i# not "$5"y# " f"ithf-$ inter4ret"tion of the M"#ter3# tho-'ht.
B. De -rimo -rincipio EVi6O# e%., 6o$. IVG, " #hort b-t 6"$-"b$e 5or2, 5hi.h i# "
5on%erf-$, 4rofo-n% e74o#ition of the S.oti#ti. theo%i.y. It i# "$#o 6ery im4ort"nt
be."-#e it re6e"$# the my#ti."$ .h"r".ter of S.ot-#3#4e.-$"tion. Here bo$% #4e.-$"tion
#o min'$e# 5ith fer6ent 4r"yer, th"t S.ot-# r"n2# hi'h 5ith #-.h 're"t m"#ter# "# St.
!-'-#tine, St. !n#e$m, "n% St. Bon"6ent-re. Ho5e6er, it i# %iffi.-$t to re"%, not on$y
for be'inner#, b-t for other# "# 5e$$, be."-#e of the .on.i#ene## "n% %e4th of the
"r'-ment"tion, im4re'n"te% "# it i# 5ith met"4hy#i."$ tho-'ht.
8. Collationes EVi6O# e%., 6o$. VG. he#e "re %i6i%e% into t5o 'ro-4#, Collationes
+.onienses "n% Collationes -arisienses, "n% h"6e no 4"rti.-$"r im4ort"n.e.
A. &uaestiones subtilissimae in 2etaphysicam Aristotelis EVi6O# e%., 6o$. VIIG, " 5or2
of D-n# S.ot-#3 yo-th, 6ery he$4f-$ for the #t-%y of the form"tion, "n%, to " .ert"in
e7tent, of the e6o$-tion of S.oti#ti. tho-'ht. he fir#t nine boo2# "re .ert"in$y
"-thenti.> the e$e6enth boo2 i# mi##in', "n% the tenth
,*,
"n% t5e$fth boo2# "re of %o-btf-$ "-thenti.ity. ! re"%in' of the#e =-e#tion#, 5here
the m"in .ontro6er#i"$ met"4hy#i."$ 4rob$em# of the time "re %i#.-##e%, i#
in%i#4en#"b$e for "nyone 5ho 5i#he# to m"2e " #erio-# #t-%y of D-n# S.ot-#3
4hi$o#o4hy.
+pus +.oniense EVi6O# e%., 6o$#. VIII,MMIG. hi# i# the mo#t im4ort"nt 5or2 of the
S-bt$e Do.tor. Here hi# tho-'ht i# %i#4$"ye% in it# f-$$ e7tent "n% bri$$i"n.y.
!$tho-'h it# $iter"ry form i# #-b#t"nti"$$y th"t of " .omment"ry on the Sentences of
Peter Lomb"r%, it i# "# im4ort"nt for the 2no5$e%'e of S.ot-#3 tho-'ht "# the Summa
"heologiae i# for the 2no5$e%'e of St. hom"#3. In re"$ity, the +pus +.oniense i# not
mere$y the 5ritten .om4i$"tion of " .o-r#e 'i6en "t the Uni6er#ity of O7for%, "# the
n"me mi'ht in%-.e -# to be$ie6e> it i# S.ot-#3 %efiniti6e 5or2 "n% m"#ter4ie.e.
he S-bt$e Do.tor %i% not .omment on the Sentences of Peter Lomb"r% on$y on.e>
he .ommente% on them #e6er"$ time#. h-# the fir#t t5o boo2# 5ere .ommente%
-4on by him "t $e"#t fo-r time#, the thir% boo2 three time#, "n% the fo-rth boo2
t5i.e. !$$ the#e -ni6er#ity $e.t-re# e7i#t in the form of note# 5hi.h, "..or%in' to the
.-#tom of the time, 5ere either 5ritten by D-n# S.ot-# him#e$f, or t"2en %o5n by hi#
%i#.i4$e# "n% then re6i#e% by the M"#ter. Mo#t of the#e note# or re4ort#, 2no5n by
the n"me of 3eportationes, "re #ti$$ -n4-b$i#he%. B-t the 5or2 th"t h"# .ome %o5n in
tr"%ition by the n"me of +pus +.oniense, e6en tho-'h it i# 5ritten in the form of "
.omment"ry, %oe# not re4re#ent mere$y the ".t-"$ .ontent of S.ot-#3 te".hin'. It i# "
%efiniti6e 5or2, 5hi.h he .om4i$e% "n% or'"ni<e% "# time 5ent on by 4-ttin'
to'ether the be#t of hi# $e.t-re# "n% 'i6in' fin"$ #h"4e to hi# tho-'ht. Hen.e the
n"me# of +rdinatio or 1iber Scoti h"6e been 'i6en to 5h"t 5e ."$$ to%"y the +pus
+.oniense, or O7for% Comment"ry.
Unfort-n"te$y, the S-bt$e Do.tor 5"# #tr-.2 %o5n by %e"th before he .o-$% fini#h
hi# 5or2. It i# tr-e th"t the m"in 4"rt of it 5"# %one, b-t .ert"in =-e#tion# h"%
#."r.e$y been o-t$ine%, 5hi$e other# 5ere no more th"n #."ttere% note# on the #-b,
,(C,
Je.t. Moreo6er, the m"r'in# of the m"n-#.ri4t "ref-$$ of referen.e#, "%%ition#, "n%
.orre.tion#. he 5or2 5"# .om4$ete% by hi# %i#.i4$e#, 5ho, in#te"% of e%itin' the
M"#ter3# m"n-#.ri4t 5ith "$$ it# $".-n"e "n% %efi.ien.ie#, "# 5o-$% be %one to%"y,
fo$$o5e% the #y#tem of the time "n% trie% to m"2e it "44e"r "# .om4$ete "n% 4erfe.t
"# 4o##ib$e. h-# " f"mi$y of .o%i.e# 5"# born, to the e7tent th"t it 5"# no $on'er
4o##ib$e to %i#tin'-i#h the 'en-ine 4"'e# of S.ot-#from the .h"n'e# m"%e by hi#
%i#.i4$e#.
!# 5"# to be e74e.te%, not e6erybo%y 5"# #"ti#fie% 5ith #-.h #-bJe.ti6e .om4$etion#
of the M"#ter3# tho-'ht. !ttem4t# 5ere m"%e to re,e#t"b$i#h the tr-th by
%i#tin'-i#hin' bet5een S.ot-#3 ori'in"$ 5ritin' "n% the "%%ition# of hi# %i#.i4$e#.
Cert"in .o%i.e# of the +pus +.oniense 5ritten "..or%in' to thi# .riterion "re no5
2no5n to -#. hey "re e7treme$y im4ort"nt for the re#tor"tion of the +rdinatio to it#
ori'in"$ form, i. e., "# it h"% been $eft by S.ot-# him#e$f. hi# i#the 4-r4o#e of the
.riti."$ e%ition no5 5e$$ -n%er 5"y. Let -# ho4e th"t #-..e## "tten%# the 5or2 of the
e%itor#.
L".2 of " .riti."$ te7t of S.ot-#3 m"in 5or2 %oe# not 4re6ent #-b#t"nti"$ 2no5$e%'e
of S.ot-#3 %o.trine, "##ome #.ho$"r# #eem to be$ie6e. hi# i# 4"rti.-$"r$y tr-e of hi#
4hi$o#o4hi."$ tho-'ht. In f".t, "# "$$ hi#tori"n# of me%ie6"$ 4hi$o#o4hy te$$ -#, the
thirteenth,.ent-ry m"#ter# -#e% to e74o-n% their 4hi$o#o4hi."$ %o.trine# "$mo#t
e7.$-#i6e$y in the fir#t t5o boo2# of their .omment"rie# on the Sentences. !t D-n#
S.ot-#3 %e"th, the fir#t t5o boo2# of the +pus +.oniense 5ere "$mo#t .om4$ete%, "n%
they "re the mo#t homo'eneo-# "n% %e4en%"b$e of the boo2#. On the other h"n%,
S.ot-# %e"$t 5ith 4hi$o#o4hi."$ 4rob$em# in other tre"ti#e#, "$#o of " 4re%omin"nt$y
4hi$o#o4hi."$ .h"r".ter. Hen.e, the .om4"ri#on of hi# tho-'ht "# it #t"n%# in the
+pus +.oniense 5ith the #"me tho-'ht "# e fin% it in hi# other 5ritin'# i# for -# "n
"$mo#t "b#o$-te .riterion for the "-thenti.ity of S.ot-#3 %o.trine#. Fin"$$y, the $o'i."$
.on#i#ten.y 4ro4er to "ny 4hi$o#o4hi."$ #4e.-$"tion
,((,
5orthy of the n"me i# "$#o " '-i%e th"t ."nnot be %i#re'"r%e% in the inter4ret"tion of
.ert"in in"..-r".ie# "n% $".-n"e fo-n% in the %efe.ti6e te7t "t h"n%.
&h"te6er their 6"$-e, the#e .on#i%er"tion# "re f"r frombein' "n "ttem4t to %imini#h
the im4ort"n.e of the .riti."$ e%ition, 5hi.h 5i$$ no %o-bt he$4 re.on#tr-.t D-n#
S.ot-#3 4hi$o#o4hi."$ tho-'ht on " more #o$i% "n% #-re b"#i#. heir "im i# #im4$y to
#ho5 th"t e6en if "t the 4re#ent time it i# not yet 4o##ib$e to -#e .riti."$$y e#t"b$i#he%
te7t# for #t-%ie#of S.oti#t %o.trine, the te7t# "t h"n% "re #-ffi.ient$y re$i"b$e to
%e4en% -4on.
3eportata -arisiensia EVi6O# e%., 6o$#. MMII,MMIVG. hi# i# "nother .omment"ry on
the Sentences of Peter Lomb"r% .om4i$e% by S.ot-#3 #t-%ent#. !# #-.h, it #ho-$%
ref$e.t the M"#ter3# te".hin' "t P"ri#. &"%%in'3# te7t of the 3eportata i# %ifferent$y
e6"$-"te% by me%ie6"$i#t#. Ho5e6er, they "re one in #"yin' th"t it i# not .om4$ete$y
re$i"b$e, "n% #ho-$% therefore be -#e% 5ith 're"ter ."-tion th"n the te7t of the +pus
+.oniense. Be."-#e of it# 4re6"i$in'$y theo$o'i."$ .h"r".ter, the Re4ort"t" nee% not
be .on#i%ere% "# one of the 4rim"ry #o-r.e# for the #t-%y of S.ot-#3 4hi$o#o4hy.
&uodlibetum EVi6O# e%., 6o$#. MMV,MMVIG. If &"%%in' i# to be be$ie6e%, thi# i#
S.ot-#3 $"#t 5or2. In "%%ition to thi#, the t5enty,one =-e#tion# th"t m"2e -4 the
P-o%$ibet-m .on#tit-te " 6ery 'oo% #o-r.e of #t-%y of S.ot-#3 tho-'ht, for, "#
&"%%in' #t"te# in hi# -raefatio, the %o.trine# "re therein e74o-n%e% 9more .$e"r$y,
more metho%i."$$y, "n% 5ith more #o$i% "r'-ment#. 9 Hen.e, 5hene6er "n
inter4ret"tion of the S-bt$e Do.tor3# tho-'ht ."n be #-44orte% 5ith " 4"##"'e from
the &uaestiones &uodlibetales, there 5i$$ be $itt$e %o-bt "# to it# %e4en%en.e "n%
re$i"bi$ity.
UNAUTHENTIC OR!S
Of the 5or2# .ont"ine% in the &"%%in',Vi6O# e%ition, the fo$$o5in' "re not "-thenti.F
,(1,
(. &uaestiones in libros -hysicorum Aristotelis EVi6O# e%., 6o$#. II,IIIG.
1. 2eteorologicorum libri ,uattuor EVi6O# e%., 6o$. IVG.
B. &uaestiones de rerum -rincipio EVi6O# e%., 6o$. IVG.
8. &uaestiones miscellaneae de formalitatibus EVi6O# e%., 6o$. VG. P-e#tion# 1, B, 8, A
"n% + "re .ert"in$y "4o.ry4h"$.
A. 2etaphysicae te.tualis libri 4II EVi6O# e%., 6o$#. V, VIG.
+. Conclusiones 2etaphysicae EVi6O# e%., 6o$. VIG.
DOUBTFUL OR!S
he "-thenti.ity of the fo$$o5in' 5or2# i# #ti$$ -n%er%i#.-##ionF
(. "ractatus imperfectus de cognitione Dei EVi6O# e%., 6o$. VG. More 4rob"b$y it i# not
"-thenti..
1. De perfectione Statuum EVi6O# e%., 6o$. MMVIG.
B. "heoremata EVi6O# e%., 6o$. VG. he "-thenti.ity of thi# o4-#.-$e h"# been #tron'$y
"n% he"te%$y %eb"te%. h-# f"r, no %e.i#i6e "r'-ment# h"6e been "%6"n.e% either 4ro
or .on, "n% f-rther #t-%y i# nee%e%.
;ener"$$y #4e"2in', S.ot-#3 5or2# "re 6ery%iffi.-$t to re"%. he t"#2 m"y e6en be
%i#.o-r"'in'. S-.h %iffi.-$ty i# %-e, in o-r o4inion, to the fo$$o5in' re"#on#. Fir#t, it
m-#t be"%mitte% th"t by n"t-re D-n# S.ot-# i# not "# .$e"r " 5riter "# i#, for e7"m4$e, St.
hom"# !=-in"# or St. Bon"6ent-re. hi# #erio-# %i#"%6"nt"'e i# "''r"6"te% by the
.onf-#e% #t"te in 5hi.h hi# 5or2#, "n% e#4e.i"$$y hi# m"Jor 5or2, 5ere h"n%e% %o5n to
-# in m"n-#.ri4t form. Yet, in #4ite of the S-bt$e Do.tor3# %ry "n% "b#tr".t #ty$e, m"ny of
the tort-o-# 4"##"'e# "n% #ynt".ti."$ $".-n"e th"t 5e fin% in hi# 5ritin'# "re %o-bt$e##
%-e to the f".t th"t he %i% not h"6e the time to 'i6e them " fini#hin' to-.h. hey 5ere
th-# $eft to the "rbitr"ry h"n%$in' of "m"n-en#e#.
! $"r'e 4"rt of the %iffi.-$ty en.o-ntere% inre"%in' S.ot-#3
,(B,
5or2# i# "$#o %-e to "nother f".tor. he #t-%ent of me%ie6"$ 4hi$o#o4hy -#-"$$y
"44ro".he# the +pus +.oniense "fter h"6in' m"%e hi# ".=-"int"n.e 5ith the 5or2# of St.
hom"# "n% St. Bon"6ent-re. No5, for him 5ho i# -#e% tothe .$e"r #.hem"ti. #tr-.t-re
of the homi#ti. or Bon"6ent-ri"n ,uaestio, there ."n be on$y %i#"44ointment "n%
%iffi.-$ty 5hen he f".e# " =-e#tion in the +pus +.oniense, #in.e he 5i$$ fin% it #o m-.h
more in6o$6e% "n% .onf-#in'. D-n# S.ot-#, for e7"m4$e, %oe# not .onfine him#e$f to "
#-mm"ry e74o#ition of "r'-ment# 4ro "n% .on. He #-bJe.t# to .riti."$ e6"$-"tion the m"in
#o$-tion#, if "ny, of the 4rob$em -n%er %i#.-##ion. He #ho5# their 5e"2 4oint# "n%
#tre##e# the nee% of " ne5 #o$-tion. hi# 5i$$ be hi# o5n #o$-tion, 5hi.h he "m4$y
e74o-n%# in the respondeo. It 5i$$ then be e"#y for him to 4ro6e th"t hi# o5n #o$-tion
m"2e# -4 for the %efi.ien.ie# of other o4inion# "n% e6ent-"$$y re.on.i$e# "$$ the %ifferent
4oint# of 6ie5.
h-# the #.ho$"#ti. ,uaestio be.ome# " tre"ti#e in it# o5n ri'ht. he hi#tori."$ "#4e.t of
the 4rob$em i# 'i6en more em4h"#i#, b-t it be.ome# in.re"#in'$y %iffi.-$t to fo$$o5 the
$o'i."$ thre"% hi%%en -n%er the %i"$e.ti."$ "44"r"t-#. I# thi# " #-ffi.ient re"#on for
.h"r'in' " thin2er 5ith ob#.-rity "n% e7.e##i6e #-bt$etyL It %oe# not #eem #o. Mere
%efe.t# of form# "n% te.hni=-e %o not %etr".t from the intrin#i. 6"$-e of " %o.trine. If thi#
6"$-e i# not e"#y to %i#.o6er, 5e "re ne6erthe$e## re5"r%e% for o-r effort#, for 5e #h"$$
fin% th"t 5e h"6e "t h"n% "$$ the ne.e##"ry e$ement# for "n obJe.ti6e e6"$-"tion of the
%o.trine in =-e#tion.
,(8,
III THE #ENESIS AND SPIRIT OF THE SCOTISTIC
SYNTHESIS
HE L!S thirty ye"r# of the thirteenth .ent-ry5ere .h"r".teri<e% by the .onf$i.t of the
t5o 4hi$o#o4hi."$ #.hoo$#th"t h"% 'r"%-"$$y t"2en #h"4e 5ithin the Chri#ti"n tr"%itionF
the !-'-#tini"n #.hoo$, 5hi.h h"% fo-n% it# mo#t 4o5erf-$ "n% homo'eneo-#
form-$"tion in the 5or2# of St. Bon"6ent-re> "n% the !ri#tote$i"n #.hoo$, .re"te%, r"ther
th"n rene5e%, by the 4enetr"tin' 'eni-# of St. hom"# !=-in"#. Ho5e6er 5e m"y
e6"$-"te their %ifferen.e#, the e7i#ten.e of thi# .onf$i.ti# hi#tori."$$y -n%eni"b$e. &hi$e
both #.hoo$# "'ree in m"int"inin' "n% %efen%in' the #tri.t met"4hy#i."$ tr"n#.en%en.e of
;o% o6er .re"t-re#, they 4"rt .om4"ny 5hen the n"t-re "n% mo%e# of the re$"tion#hi4
bet5een .re"t-re# "n% ;o% "re to be %etermine%.
Cre"tion i# the 4ro%-.t of ;o%3# inte$$i'en.e "n%$o6e> "$$ thin'# m-#t therefore ."rry
5ithin them#e$6e# the 6e#ti'e# "n% the im"'e of %i6ine 4erfe.tion#. On the other h"n%, by
.re"tin' thin'# %i#tin.t from Him#e$f, ;o% %oe# not "b"n%on them> He 2ee4# them in
e7i#ten.e by the .ontin-"tion of Hi# ".tion on them. &e m-#t, then, %i#.o6er in thin'# the
#i'n of thi# %i6ine .o$$"bor"tion. Fin"$$y, ;o% .re"te% the 5or$%
,(A,
for Hi# o5n '$ory> He 4$".e% in "$$ thin'# "ne##enti"$ %em"n% for their Cre"tor, "
4rofo-n% #tim-$-# th"t brin'# e6erythin' b".2 to Him. &h"t i# the n"t-re of thi#
4rofo-n% $"5 of bein'#, 5hereby ;o% i# the fin"$ en% of .re"tionL Ho5 %oe# it re6e"$
it#e$f to -#L he#e "re the .on.ern# of the !-'-#tini"n #.hoo$.
o #t"te the 4rob$em more brief$yF met"4hy#i."$ tr"n#.en%en.e %oe# not e7.$-%e " .ert"in
imm"nen.e of ;o% in thin'#, e#4e.i"$$y in m"n. In%ee%, on$y #-.h "n imm"nen.e
f-rni#he# " fo-n%"tion for the ret-rn of thin'# to ;o% "n% m"2e# it 4o##ib$e.
&h"t, then, "re the mo%e# "n% m"nife#t"tion# in .re"t-re# of thi# %i6ine tr"n#.en%en.eL
!-'-#tini"n# "re of the o4inion th"t the !ri#tote$i"n #.hoo$, .on.erne% "# it i# 5ith
#"fe'-"r%in' %i6ine tr"n#.en%en.e, ."rrie# too f"r the %i#tin.tion bet5een the %i6ine "n%
the h-m"n e$ement in thin'# by "ttrib-tin' to .re"t-re# "n e7.e##i6e "-tonomy in re#4e.t
to their Cre"tor. In their 6ie5, the !ri#tote$i"n# re%-.e "$mo#t to nothin' the %i6ine
imm"nen.e in thin'# "# 5e$$ "# in m"n, "n% in #o %oin' they #eem to Jeo4"r%i<e the nee%
"n% the 4o##ibi$ity of their ret-rn to ;o%.
!$tho-'h in the %i#4-te# bet5een !-'-#tini"n# "n% !ri#tote$i"n# 4reo..-4"tion# of "
%ifferent or%er ."me to the #-rf".e, it i# here, in o-r o4inion, th"t the he"rt of the 5ho$e
.ontro6er#y m-#t be #o-'ht. hi# i# the 4o#ition th"t $ie# "t the bottom of "$$ %i#.-##ion#>
from it "$$ the .ontr"#tin' the#e# re.ei6e $i'ht "n% -nity.
B

It i# not 5itho-t re"#on th"t one of the %o.trine# the !-'-#tini"n# %efen%e% mo#t
6i'oro-#$y i# 4re.i#e$y the theory of %i6ine i$$-min"tion. he ret-rn of thin'# to ;o% i#
effe.te%
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
B
hi# .on6i.tion h"# been forme% in me from re"%in' "n% me%it"tin' on St.
Bon"6ent-re "n% D-n# S.ot-#, r"ther th"n from the .on#i%er"tion of more or $e##
e74$i.it te7t# of !-'-#tini"n 5or2# of the time. I#h"$$ h"6e the o44ort-nity to e74$"in
my tho-'ht more .$e"r$y in the.o-r#e of thi# #t-%y.
,(+,
thro-'h the inte$$e.t "n% 5i$$ of m"n. It i# thro-'h %i6ine i$$-min"tion th"t m"n h"# "n
inn"te i%e" of ;o% "n% "n in%e#tr-.tib$e %e#ire for the #-4reme 'oo%, 5hi.h 'i6e to m"n3#
f".-$tie# "n o4enin' on the infinite "n% .re"te in them "n-r'e th"t %ire.t# "n% #tim-$"te#
m"n3# "#.ent to ;o%. hi# "#.ent i# not #-ffi.ient$y e74$"ine% or #"fe'-"r%e% by
!ri#tot$e3#em4iri."$ i%eo$o'y. Ho5 .o-$% ;o% be the #-4reme tr-th "n% #-4reme 'oo% for
-#, if thereF 5ere not in m"n #o %ee4,roote% "n "44e"$ to the infinite t"2in' .on.rete form
"n% fin%in' e74re##ion in the 4#y.ho$o'i."$ effe.t# of %i6ine i$$-min"tionL
One #ho-$% not for'et th"t the "%6er#"rie# of the!ri#tote$i"n 9no6e$tie#9 5ere not on$y
Fr"n.i#."n m"#ter#, b-t the 're"t m"Jority of the m"#ter# of theo$o'y, in.$-%in'
m"nyDomini."n#. Unti$ the en% of the thirteenth .ent-ry, to #"ythe $e"#t, the %o.trine# of
the !-'-#tini"n #.hoo$ 5ere ."$$e% .omm-ne#, i. e., .ommon %o.trine#. On the other
h"n%, it 5"# not 5itho-t " .ert"in "mo-nt of .on.ern th"t the Ho$y See 5"t.he% the
%e6e$o4ment of the !ri#tote$i"n #.hoo$. hi# i# eno-'h to #ho5 th"t the offi.i"$ %o.trine
of Rome 5"# "t the time the!-'-#tini"n %o.trine. !n obJe.ti6e #t-%y of the hi#tory
of4hi$o#o4hy ."nnot he$4 be"rin' 5itne## to thi# f".t. In%ee%, from ;re'ory M, 5ho 5"#
e$e.te% S-4reme Pontiff in (1)(, -nti$ Honori-# IV, 5ho %ie% in (1@), "$$ the 4o4e# h"%
been, before their e$e.tion, m"#ter# of the Uni6er#ity of P"ri#. Moreo6er, they "$$
m"nife#te% %efinite$y, both in their 5ritin'# "n% inoffi.i"$ ".t#, their "%heren.e to the
!-'-#tini"n #.hoo$.
!n e6i%ent in%i."tion of the %o.trin"$ tren% 4re6"i$in' in the Rom"n C-ri" in tho#e ye"r#
i# the f".t th"t -nti$ (BCA the M"#ter# of the S".re% P"$".e 5ere "$$ Fr"n.i#."n#, "n% th"t
t5o "mon' them 5ere "-thenti. .h"m4ion# of !-'-#tini"ni#m, 0ohn Pe.2"m "n%
M"tthe5 of !.=-"#4"rt".
It ."nnot be %enie% th"t the e7"''er"te%!ri#tote$i"ni#m of the !6erroi#t# 4ro6e% to be
e7treme$y h"rmf-$ to the mo%er"te !ri#tote$i"ni#m of St. hom"#. B-t thi# ."nnotbe
.on#i%ere% "# the on$y re"#on for the .on%emn"tion# in the ye"r (1)),
,(),
5hereby .ert"in homi#ti. %o.trine# 5ere 4ro#.ribe%"$on' 5ith the !6erroi#ti. the#e#.
Pro4er$y to -n%er#t"n% #-.h.on%emn"tion#, the 'ener"$ #it-"tion of the time m-#t be
.on#i%ere%. he .on%emn"tion#, in =-e#tion 5ere by no me"n# the re#-$t of " r"#h
%e.i#ion on the 4"rt of the bi#ho4 of P"ri#, Ste4hen em4ier, or of the "r.hbi#ho4
ofC"nterb-ry, Robert /i$5"r%by. hey 5ere r"ther in "..or% 5ith the .ommon, if not
-n"nimo-#, tho-'ht of the time. he mere f".t th"t the#e .on%emn"tion# h"6e been
.riti.i<e% i# not #-ffi.ient re"#onfor "..e4tin' the the#i# of tho#e hi#tori"n# 5ho $i2e to
4re#ent o44o#ition to homi#m "# "n ".t of in#o$en.e on the 4"rt of .ert"in "-thorit"ri"n
"n% f"n"ti."$ m"#ter#.
&"# not the 5or2 of St. !$bert the ;re"t"n% St. hom"# " 2in% of 4hi$o#o4hi."$
re6o$-tionL &hy, then, #ho-$% 5e be #-r4ri#e% if it 5"# not "..e4te% "t on.e by the
m"Jority ofthe #.ho$"r#L Hi#tory te".he# -# th"t "$$ inno6"tion# h"6e " h"r% time bre"2in'
thro-'h " 5e$$,e#t"b$i#he% tr"%ition. Be#i%e#, i# it not " #i'nifi."nt f".t th"t the %omin"nt
fi'-re "t the Uni6er#ity of P"ri# in tho#e ye"r# 5"# Henry of ;hent, " re#torer of
tr"%ition"$ !-'-#tini"ni#mL
he#e .on#i%er"tion#, 5hi.h .o-$% %o-bt$e## be %e6e$o4e% "t m-.h 're"ter $en'th, m"y
5e$$ #er6e to thro5 $i'ht on the hi#tori."$ me"nin' of the #o,."$$e% "nti,homi#m of
0ohnD-n# S.ot-#. On the one h"n%, thi# "nti,homi#m h"# e"rne%for S.ot-# the 4r"i#e of
m"ny mo%ern hi#tori"n#, 5ho "re f"r from "..e4tin' homi#m "# " 4erfe.t #ynthe#i#. On
the other h"n%, it h"# been " #o-r.e of #."n%"$ to more th"n " fe5 C"tho$i. 5riter#, 5ho
#eem -n"b$e to e74$"in it e7.e4t by "n "$$e'e% ri6"$ry bet5een Or%er# "n% "n -nre#tr"ine%
.riti."$ "ttit-%e. If 5e be"r in min% th"t %-rin' the 4erio% of time 5e h"6e been
%e#.ribin' the S-bt$e Do.tor re.ei6e% hi#e%-."tion 5ithin the Fr"n.i#."n Or%er, "t
O7for% moreth"n "t P"ri#, 5e #ho-$% not be #-4ri#e% to fin% 4rofo-n%"n% e7ten#i6e
%i#"'reement bet5een hi# tho-'ht "n% th"t of the !n'e$i. Do.tor.
,(@,
On.e the e7i#ten.e of the hi#tori."$ .ontr"#t bet5een !-'-#tini"ni#m "n% homi#ti.
!ri#tote$i"ni#m i# "%mitte%, "n% on.e thi# .ontr"#t i# re.o'ni<e% "# bein' b"#e% -4on re"$
theoreti."$ %iffi.-$tie#, D-n# S.ot-#3 "ttit-%e 5i$$ "44e"r to be " 6ery $o'i."$ one. If he
h"% not been the h"r%y thin2er he i# .ommon$y 2no5n to h"6e been, he 5o-$% h"6e been
#"ti#fie%, $i2e m"ny other Fr"n.i#."n m"#ter#, 5ith " f"ithf-$ imit"tion of the
Bon"6ent-ri"n #.hoo$. In thi# ."#e he 5o-$% not h"6e 'one m-.h f-rther th"n hi# o5n
m"#ter#. He 5o-$% h"6e been on$y "nother !-'-#tini"n "%%e% to the #erie# of St.
Bon"6ent-re3# %i#.i4$e#, "n% hi# ori'in"$ity 5o-$% not h"6e "mo-nte% to "nythin'
5orth5hi$e. For ob6io-# re"#on#, it i# $e## $i2e$y th"t he 5o-$% h"6e be.ome " fo$$o5er of
St. hom"#. !t "ny r"te, in either ."#e he 5o-$% h"6e #h-t him#e$f 5ithin the $imite%
hori<on# of one or the other #.hoo$.
hin'# t-rne% o-t =-ite %ifferent$y for him. Po5erf-$ thin2er th"t he 5"#, he "ttem4te% to
o6er.ome the .ontr"#t bet5een !-'-#tini"ni#m "n% homi#m by h"rmoni<in' their
%o.trine# into " #-4erior #ynthe#i# th"t 5o-$% meet the re=-irement# of both #.hoo$#. hi#
e74$"in# 5hy .riti.i#m o..-4ie# #-.h "n im4ort"nt 4$".e in hi# 5or2#. In%ee%, on.e the
%efi.ien.ie# of the t5o #.hoo$# h"% been %i#.o6ere% "n% 4ointe% o-t, nee% 5"# fe$t for "
ne5 4er#on"$ #o$-tion of the 6"rio-# 4rob$em# "t i##-e. hi# 5"# on$y the ne.e##"ry
o-t.ome of the 6ery %efi.ien.ie# of the -ni$"ter"$ #o$-tion# #-''e#te% by e".h of the t5o
#.hoo$#, "n% .o-$% on$y be obt"ine% by " .riti."$, e6en tho-'h e7ten#i6e "n% often #-bt$e,
e6"$-"tion of the %o.trine# in =-e#tion. S-.h .riti.i#m, ho5e6er, 5"# not %ire.te% "'"in#t
homi#ti. %o.trine# "$one b-t "'"in#t the !-'-#tini"n %o.trine# "# 5e$$. he#e $"tter, "#
5i$$ be 4re#ent$y #ho5n, 5ere e6en " better t"r'et th"n the other#.
&h"t S.ot-# "ttem4te% 5"# f"r from bein' #omethin' ne5. !nyone ".=-"inte% 5ith the
te".hin' of me%ie6"$ 4hi$o#o4her# m-#t "%mit th"t St. Bon"6ent-re, St. hom"#, "n%, in
'ener"$, the 're"t m"#ter# of the thirteenth .ent-ry, h"% "ttem4te%
,(*,
to f-#e St. !-'-#tine3# te".hin' 5ith the te".hin' of !ri#tot$e. Re"#on#, both hi#tori."$
"n% %o.trin"$, 4rom4te% them to %o #o. !mon' the re"#on# on the %o.trin"$ $e6e$, the
-n%eni"b$e f".t of the .om4$ement"ry .h"r".ter of the P$"toni. "n% !ri#tote$i"n, or, "#
one 5o-$% #"y to%"y, the r"tion"$i#ti. "n% the em4iri."$, 4oint# of 6ie5, i# mo#t
im4ort"nt. Yet the "44ro".h 5"# not "$5"y# the #"me. &hi$e in St. Bon"6ent-re it i#
P$"toni. !-'-#tini"ni#m th"t "ttem4t# to "##imi$"te !ri#tot$e, in St. hom"# it i#
!ri#tote$i"ni#m th"t trie# to "##imi$"te !-'-#tine. In%ee%, in e6ery 4hi$o#o4hi."$
#ynthe#i# 5e h"6e " mo6ement th"t #t"rt# from one of the t5o 4oint# of 6ie5 J-#t
mentione%, "n% then 'oe# to5"r% the other in or%er to "rri6e "t " f-#ion 5ith it. he
're"ter "n% more $o'i."$ i# the f-#ion, the %ee4er "n% more .on#i#tent i# the #ynthe#i#. It
."nnot be other5i#e. For m"n %oe# not 4o##e## " #ynthe#i#> he m-#t #tr-''$e to "tt"in it.
Not e6en D-n# S.ot-# .o-$% e#."4e from the $"5 of h-m"n im4erfe.tion in6o$6e% in "ny
#ynthe#i# of the 2in%. herefore, hi# #ynthe#i# i# " ne5 "ttem4t to "##imi$"te homi#ti.
!ri#tote$i"ni#m, 5hi.h h"% me"n5hi$e be.ome better 2no5n "n% #o better -n%er#too%
"n% "44re.i"te%, into "n !-'-#tini"ni#m th"t, -n%er the 4re##in' .riti.i#m of the ne5
!ri#tote$i"ni#m, h"% be.ome more ri'ori#ti. in it# e##enti"$ fe"t-re#. S-.h bein' the ."#e,
one 5i$$ re"%i$y -n%er#t"n% 5hy the S-bt$e Do.tor 5"# 4reo..-4ie% 5ith %i#ent"n'$in'
the e##enti"$ 4oint# of !-'-#tini"n in#4ir"tion from it# -#e$e##, or "t $e"#t -nne.e##"ry,
#-4er#tr-.t-re#. he#e, he m-#t h"6e tho-'ht, h"% the ine6it"b$e effe.t of 5e"2enin' it#
#tren'th "n% %imini#hin' it# "44e"$.
It h"# been 4ointe% o-t th"t the t"r'et of S.ot-#3 .riti.i#m i# not #o m-.h St. hom"#3
theorie# "# tho#e of Henry of ;hent. hi# i# tr-e. Ho5e6er, Henry of ;hent, "# ;i$#on
5e$$ rem"r2#, i# for S.ot-# not #o m-.h "n "%6er#"ry to .om4ete 5ith "# he i# "
.om4"nion 5ith 5hom he %i#.-##e# 4rob$em# in or%er to .$"rify "n% #tren'then "
.ommon %o.trine. He
,1C,
%i#"'ree# 5ith him on$y on .ert"in 4"rti.-$"r 4oint#, not on the #-b#t"n.e of hi# te".hin'.
S-.h "n "ttit-%e ."n be e"#i$y -n%er#too% in the $i'ht of 5h"t 5"# #t"te% "bo6eF the
"..-r"te "n% .ontin-o-# .riti.i#m th"t the S-bt$e Do.tor m"2e# of Henry of ;hent3#
!-'-#tini"n theorie# i# %-e to hi# 4reo..-4"tion 5ith 4re#entin' !-'-#tini"ni#m in it#
e##enti"$ tr"it#, #o "# to m"2e it " #tron'er "n% $e## ri'i% #y#tem in re'"r% to
!ri#tote$i"ni#m. On the other h"n%, the frien%$y b-t .on#tr-.ti6e .h"r".ter of hi# .riti.i#m
fin%# it# e74$"n"tion in the f".t th"t he him#e$f mo6e# 5ithin the #"me P$"toni.,
!-'-#tini"n $ine of tho-'ht, from 5hi.h he %oe# not %e4"rt -n$e## for.e% to %o #o.
he %iffi.-$ty met 5ith in the #t-%y of S.ot-#3 tho-'ht i# "$#o 4"rti"$$y %-e to the f".t th"t
#-.h " #t-%y 4re#-44o#e# " thoro-'h 2no5$e%'e of "$$ the thirteenth,.ent-ry
4hi$o#o4hi."$ tren%#, 5hi.h the S.oti#ti. #ynthe#i# "ttem4t# to 4re#ent in " fin"$ .riti."$
re4ort. h-# the $".-n"e in o-r 2no5$e%'e of the hi#tory of th"t 're"t #4e.-$"ti6e .ent-ry
"re "$#o the $".-n"e in o-r 2no5$e%'e of the S.oti#ti. tho-'ht.
It i# the 5riter3# ho4e th"t the fo$$o5in' 4"'e#, 5hi.h "re " #-mm"ry e74o#ition of the
S-bt$e Do.tor3# tho-'ht, 5i$$ .onfirm the tr-th of hi# hi#tori."$ hy4othe#i#, n"me$y, th"t
S.ot-#3 4hi$o#o4hy i# "n !-'-#tini"ni#m th"t "im# to meet homi#ti. !ri#tote$i"ni#m,
"n% to f-#e it into " more .om4$ete "n% therefore more 6it"$ "n% mo%ern #ynthe#i#.
,1(,
PART TO DUNS SCOTUS'
THOU#HT
,1B,
I THE PROPER OB$ECT OF THE HUMAN
INTELLECT TO DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO
PHILOSOPHY
IN PHILOSOPHY more th"n in "ny other #.ien.e the min% of m"n re".he# the f-$$
me"#-re of it# "bi$ity. Phi$o#o4hy #ee2# to embr".e "$$ re"$ity, 5here"# other #.ien.e#
#t-%y the re"$ from #ome 4"rti.-$"r 4oint of 6ie5 "n% 5ithin " $imite% fie$%. In hi# in=-iry
the 4hi$o#o4her m"y fo$$o5 either of t5o 5"y#. He m"y #t"rt from e7tern"$ re"$ity, "# it
4re#ent# it#e$f to hi# e74erien.e, "n% try to %i#.o6er it# $"5#, ."-#e#, "n% inner -nity. In
thi# ."#e, he be'in# %ire.t$y to b-i$% -4 " met"4hy#i.#. he 6"$i%ity of thi# #y#tem "n% the
$e'itim".y of it# .on.$-#ion# 5i$$ be %etermine% by the #o$i%ity of it# "r'-ment"tion.
Ho5e6er, one m"y "$#o "rri6e "t met"4hy#i.# by 5"y of e4i#temo$o'y, in 5hi.h ."#e he
#t"rt# hi# #4e.-$"tion 5ith "n in=-iry "bo-t the h-m"n inte$$e.t. One m"y be'in, for
e7"m4$e, by "#2in' #-.h =-e#tion# "# the fo$$o5in'. Ho5 %oe# m"n 2no5L &h"t i# the
4ro.e## of 2no5$e%'eL &h"t "re the im4$i."tion# of the inte$$e.ti6e ".tL Doe# h-m"n
2no5$e%'e h"6e "ny $imit#L &h"t "re the#e $imit#L
,1A,
he .on6enien.e "n% "%6"nt"'e# of the one or the other "44ro".h to 4hi$o#o4hy h"6e
'i6en ri#e to " 're"t %e"$ of %i#.-##ion. In o-r o4inion either 5"y i# " 'oo% "n% $e'itim"te
#t"rtin' 4oint for 4hi$o#o4hy. Met"4hy#i.# $e"%# ine6it"b$y to e4i#temo$o'y, "n%
e4i#temo$o'y $e"%# to met"4hy#i.#. he hi#tory of 4hi$o#o4hy i# " .$e"r %emon#tr"tion of
thi# tr-th. On the one h"n%, h-m"n 2no5$e%'e i# " re"$ity th"t m-#t be e74$"ine%> on the
other, one ."nnot "6oi% "#2in' ho5 re"$ity i# re6e"$e% to the h-m"n min%. Differen.e in
the metho% of in=-iry ."nnot of it#e$f be 4reJ-%i.i"$ to the 4o##ibi$ity of "rri6in' "t the
#"me .on.$-#ion. Phi$o#o4hi."$ 4rob$em# "re .ir.-$"r, one %em"n%in' the .on#i%er"tion
of "nother. No m"tter 5h"t 4rob$em one f".e# fir#t, one m-#t ne.e##"ri$y f".e "$$ the
other 4rob$em# "t #ome time. he e6ent-"$ %i6er'en.y in the .on.$-#ion# i# not to be
"ttrib-te% to the metho% of in=-iry b-t to other re"#on#, #-.h "# the %iffi.-$ty
.h"r".teri#ti. of the h-m"n inte$$e.t to #ee .$e"r$y "$$ the 4rob$em# in their .om4$e7ity
"n% inter%e4en%en.e. Hen.e it i# e7treme$y %iffi.-$t for the h-m"n min% to 'i6e " 5e$$,
b"$"n.e% #o$-tion th"t #omeho5 or other 5i$$ not 4reJ-%i.e " 5ho$e #y#tem of 4hi$o#o4hy.
One of the %ifferen.e# bet5een P$"toni#m "n% !ri#tote$i"ni#m i# 4re.i#e$y thi#F P$"toni#m
ten%# to b"#e it# 4hi$o#o4hi."$ in=-iry on intern"$ e74erien.e> !ri#tote$i"ni#m 4refer# to
be'in it 5ith e7tern"$ e74erien.e. he P$"toni. ten%en.y m"nife#t# it#e$f .$e"r$y in the
4hi$o#o4hi. tren% ."$$e% !-'-#tini"ni#m, 5here the 4rob$em# of the h-m"n #4irit o..-4y
fir#t 4$".e "n% "re the #t"rtin' 4oint for #4e.-$"tion. !-'-#tini"n met"4hy#i.# m"y th-#
be ."$$e% " met"4hy#i.# of m"n, in .ontr"#t to the !ri#tote$i"n,homi#ti. met"4hy#i.#,
5hi.h 5o-$% be " met"4hy#i.# of the -ni6er#e.
D-n# S.ot-# rem"in# f"ithf-$ to !-'-#tini"ni#m "$#o in thi# re#4e.t.
,1+,
DUNS SCOTUS' CONCEPT OF THE PROPER OB$ECT OF THE
HUMAN INTELLECT
he 4rob$em from 5hi.h " #y#tem"ti. re.on#tr-.tion of S.oti#ti. tho-'ht m-#t t"2e it#
#t"rt i# the 4rob$em of the 4ro4er obJe.t of the h-m"n inte$$e.t. It i# on$y th-# th"t the
n"t-r"$ $o'i."$ or%er of the S.oti#ti. #y#tem i# 4ro4er$y em4h"#i<e%.
he S-bt$e Do.tor 5"# .onfronte% 5ith t5o .onf$i.tin' #o$-tion#. Henry of ;hent, 5ho
5"# "t the time the mo#t inf$-enti"$ re4re#ent"ti6e of the !-'-#tini"n #.hoo$, t"-'ht th"t
the fir#t "n% 4ro4er obJe.t of the h-m"n inte$$e.t i# ;o%, or the #-4reme bein'. hi# the#i#
i# im4$i.it$y .ont"ine% in e6ery theory of inte$$e.t-"$ i$$-min"tion, #-.h "# th"t 4re6"$ent,
5ith 6ery fe5 e7.e4tion#, "mon' the !-'-#tini"n# of the thirteenth .ent-ry. Henry of
;hent i# to be .re%ite% 5ith h"6in' #t"te% e74$i.it$y 5h"t h"% been 4re6io-#$y #"i% in "
.onf-#e% m"nner. he "%6"nt"'e# of thi# %o.trine "re e6i%ent. If ;o% i# the 4ro4er obJe.t
of the h-m"n inte$$e.t, one ."n re"%i$y -n%er#t"n% 5hy m"n #ho-$% not .on.entr"te -4on
"ny .re"te% thin', for m"n i# $e% by "n interior $o'i. to fi7 hi# "ttention -4on 5h"t i#
etern"$, infinite, "b#o$-te. hi# %ee4 interior 9%ri6e9 mi'ht 5e$$ be ."$$e% m"n3# %i6ine
6o."tion.
In .ontr"#t 5ith the !-'-#tini"n #o$-tion, #t"n%# the !ri#tote$i"n,homi#ti. %o.trine,
"..or%in' to 5hi.h the 4ro4er obJe.t of the h-m"n inte$$e.t i# the =-i%%ity of " m"teri"$
thin'. hi# i# t"nt"mo-nt to #"yin' th"t the n"t-r"$ obJe.t of o-r 2no5$e%'e i# the e##en.e
"b#tr".te% from m"tter. hi# o4inion #eem# to be .onfirme% by o-r %"i$y e74erien.e,
5hi.h #ho5# th"t "$$ h-m"n 2no5$e%'e h"# #en#"tion "# it# ne.e##"ry #t"rtin' 4oint.
D-n# S.ot-# i# not #"ti#fie% 5ith either of the t5o #o$-tion#, "n% he m"2e# thi# .$e"r by
4ointin' o-t their 'r"6e %i#"%6"nt"'e#. &hen the fir#t obJe.t of the inte$$e.t i# %i#.-##e%,
it i# imme%i"te$y ne.e##"ry to %efine the me"nin' of the term 9fir#t. 9 he =-e#tion,
9&h"t i# the fir#t obJe.t of the h-m"n inte$$e.tL9
,1),
."n be -n%er#too% in %ifferent 5"y#. One 5"y of #t"tin' it i#, 9&h"t i# the fir#t thin' th"t
m"n 2no5# in the or%er of timeL9 !nother 5"y i#, 9&h"t i# the mo#t 4erfe.t thin' Efir#t in
the or%er of 4erfe.tionG th"t ."n be 2no5n by the h-m"n min%L9 Sti$$ "nother 5"y of
#t"tin' it i#, 9&h"t i# the obJe.t to 5hi.h the h-m"n inte$$e.t i# %ire.te% by it# 6ery
n"t-reL9 It i# in thi# thir% #en#e th"t the =-e#tion i# t"2en here. o "#2, therefore, 5h"t the
fir#t obJe.t of the h-m"n inte$$e.t i#, i# e=-i6"$ent to "#2in', 9&h"t i# the "%e=-"te obJe.t,
th"t i#, the obJe.t th"t f-$$y .orre#4on%# to the n"t-r"$ 4o5er of the h-m"n inte$$e.tL9
M"n i# not born 4erfe.t. hi# me"n# th"t m"n i# not in 4o##e##ion from the fir#t moment
of hi# e7i#ten.e of "$$ the ".t# of 5hi.h he i# ."4"b$e. Li2e "$$ other .re"t-re#, m"n i# "
.om4$e7 of 4otenti"$itie#, to be %e6e$o4e% 'r"%-"$$y "# he .ome# in .ont".t 5ith re"$ity.
o the $"5 of thi# 'r"%-"$ %e6e$o4ment "n% be.omin', not on$y hi# bo%y i# #-bJe.t b-t
"$#o hi# #o-$. h-# m"n3# inte$$i'en.e "n% 5i$$ h"6e " n"t-r"$ ten%en.y to5"r% the
4o##e##ion of their obJe.t#. &hen thi# 4o##e##ion i# .om4$ete%, the 4erfe.tion of the#e
t5o f".-$tie# i# "tt"ine%, i. e., f-$$y ".t-"te%.
he obJe.t #4e.ifie# the f".-$ty, i. e., the obJe.t i# the me"#-re of the 4erfe.tion of the
f".-$ty. Moreo6er, "ny %e6e$o4ment of the f".-$ty i# on$y 4o##ib$e in 6irt-e of it# obJe.t,
in the #en#e th"t it i# ne.e##"ri$y " 4-r#-it of it# obJe.t, #in.e it i# on$y in 6ie5 of it#
obJe.t th"t the f".-$ty i# %etermine% to ".t.
By "44$yin' the#e 'ener"$ .on#i%er"tion# to the 4"rti.-$"r ."#e of h-m"n 2no5$e%'e, it
be.ome# e6i%entF E(G th"t the h-m"n inte$$e.t ."n 2no5 nothin' th"t %oe# not #omeho5
enter the #4here of the n"t-r"$ obJe.t for 5hi.h it 5"# m"%e> E1G th"t the h-m"n inte$$e.t
2no5# thin'# in the $i'ht of it# obJe.t, 5hi.h th-# be.ome# the ne.e##"ry 4oint of 6ie5
from 5hi.h it #ee# e6erythin'. hi# ."n be re"$i<e% in " 4erfe.t 5"y, "# in the ."#e of
;o%, 5ho 2no5# "$$ 4o##ib$e thin'# in the -ni=-e obJe.t of Hi# %i6ine min%, or
im4erfe.t$y, "# in the ."#e of m"n, 5ho %oe# not 2no5 "$$ thin'# in the i%e" of bein',
,1@,
yet ."nnot 2no5 "nythin' "4"rt from the i%e" of bein'. In f".t, 9the "%e=-".y of the
obJe.t, 9 5rite# S.ot-#, 9."n be .on#i%ere% from the 4oint of 6ie5 of it# 4o5er Esecundum
5irtutemG "n% from the 4oint of 6ie5 of it# 4re%i."tion Esecundum praedicationemG. From
the 4oint of 6ie5 of it# 4o5er, th"t obJe.t i# "%e=-"te to it# f".-$ty 5hi.h, on.e it i#
2no5n, m"2e# "$$ other 4o##ib$e obJe.t# 2no5"b$e to the inte$$e.t. In thi# #en#e the %i6ine
e##en.e i# the "%e=-"te obJe.t of ;o%3# inte$$e.t. From the 4oint of 6ie5 of it#
4re%i."tion, th"t obJe.t i# "%e=-"te to it# f".-$ty 5hi.h i# per se "n% e##enti"$$y the
4re%i."te of "$$ thin'# th"t ."n be 2no5n by the inte$$e.t. 9
(

he fo$$o5in' e7"m4$e 5i$$ he$4 .$"rify the 4oint "t i##-e. he h-m"n eye #ee# thin'#
in#of"r "# they "re .o$ore%. E6en b$".2, 5hi.h i# "b#en.e of .o$or, i# #een by the eye, b-t
on$y in o44o#ition or .ontr"#t to #ome other .o$or. If e6erythin' 5ere b$".2, the eye
5o-$% not #ee "nythin'> it 5o-$% not #ee "t "$$. Sin.e re"$ity i# #een by the h-m"n eye
on$y thro-'h .o$or, .o$or i# the ne.e##"ry .on%ition for thin'# to be 4re#ent to the eye.
&h"t h"# no .o$or i# ipso facto in6i#ib$e. Hen.e .o$or i# the 4rim"ry "n% "%e=-"te obJe.t
of o-r 4o5er of 6i#ion.
here i# " 4erfe.t "n"$o'y bet5een o-r 6i#ion on the #en#ory $e6e$ "n% the 6i#ion of o-r
inte$$e.t. he 4ro4er obJe.t of my inte$$e.t, then, 5i$$ be th"t the 4re#en.e of 5hi.h i#
ne.e##"ry for #eein' thin'# inte$$e.t-"$$y, "n% i# e6en the 4re.i#e re"#on for #eein' them.
CRITICISM OF OPPOSIN# /IES
H"6in' %etermine% the .on.e4t of the 4rim"ry obJe.t of the h-m"n inte$$e.t, it 5i$$ not be
%iffi.-$t to fo$$o5 D-n# S.ot-# in hi# .riti.i#m of Henry of ;hent "n% St. hom"#
!=-in"#.
;o% i# not "n% ."nnot be the 4rim"ry obJe.t of the h-m"n
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(
De Anima, =. 1(, n. 1.
,1*,
inte$$e.t. Fir#t, be."-#e the %i6ine e##en.e ."nnot be the 4rim"ry obJe.t of my inte$$e.t
from the #t"n%4oint of it# 4re%i."tion Eadae,uatione secundum praedicationemG. ;o%
5o-$% h"6e to be .ont"ine% 5ithin my inte$$e.t "n% be e##enti"$$y 4re%i."b$e of "$$ the
thin'# I 2no5. He 5o-$% be their .ommon 4re%i."te. hi# i# e6i%ent$y f"$#e, #in.e
4"nthei#m i# f"$#e "n% .ontr"ry to o-r .ommon e74erien.e. I ."n in effe.t form " 4erfe.t
.on.e4t of m"n, 4$"nt, "n% the $i2e, 5itho-t thin2in' of ;o%, 5ho#e .on.e4t i# entire$y
%ifferent. Se.on%$y, the %i6ine e##en.e ."nnot be the 4rim"ry obJe.t of my inte$$e.t from
the #t"n%4oint of it# 4o5er Eadae,uatione secundum 5irtutemG. o 2no5 "$$ re"$ "n%
4o##ib$e thin'# in ;o%, m"n 5o-$% h"6e to h"6e "n imme%i"te, 4erfe.t, "n% int-iti6e
2no5$e%'e of the %i6ine e##en.e, "n% not mere$y "n in%ire.t 2no5$e%'e of it thro-'h "
4"in#t"2in' 4ro.e## of .on.e4t# "n% inferen.e#. For it i# e6i%ent th"t ;o%, "# He i# 2no5n
in o-r 4re#ent #t"te, i# for -# " 'o"$ r"ther th"n " #t"rtin' 4oint. hi# i# " 2no5$e%'e 5e
"tt"in "fter 5e 2no5 m"ny other thin'#, "n% not "n i%e" in 5hi.h 5e .ontem4$"te the
i%e"#, or from 5hi.h 5e %eri6e, by "n"$y#i#, the .on.e4t# of other thin'#.
h"t ;o% i# not "n% ."nnot be the 4rim"ry obJe.t of o-r inte$$e.t i# "$#o m"nife#t from the
f".t th"t int-ition of ;o% %oe# not n"t-r"$$y be$on' to m"n. he %i6ine e##en.e, be."-#e
of it# infinity, i# in it#e$f 4ro4ortion"te "n% "%e=-"te on$y to "n infinite inte$$e.t, the on$y
inte$$e.t th"t re=-ire# "n infinite obJe.t 4re.i#e$y to e7i#t "# "n infinite inte$$e.t. It i# not
in.on#i#tent 5ith the h-m"n inte$$e.t to 2no5 the infinite, b-t #-.h " 2no5$e%'e i# not
re=-ire% by it# n"t-reF it ."n e7i#t "# "n inte$$e.t, e6en tho-'h it h"# no imme%i"te "n%
%ire.t 2no5$e%'e of "n infinite obJe.t. In #hort, ;o% i# not the 4rim"ry obJe.t of the
h-m"n inte$$e.t, be."-#e He %oe# not h"6e one of the re=-irement# the 4rim"ry obJe.t of
the inte$$e.t m-#t h"6e, n"me$y, th"t of bein' the 4oint of 6ie5 from 5hi.h 5e 2no5
thin'# "n% the 6ery re"#on 5hy thin'# "re 2no5n to -#.
On the other h"n%, 5e ."nnot "..e4t the 4o#ition of St.
,BC,
hom"#, th"t the 4rim"ry "n% 4ro4er obJe.t of the h-m"n inte$$e.t i# the e##en.e of "
m"teri"$ thin'. ! m"teri"$ =-i%%ity %oe# not f-$fi$$ "nother e##enti"$ re=-irement of the
4rim"ry obJe.t, n"me$y, th"t of .ont"inin' -n%er it "$$ th"t m"n 2no5#. !..or%in' to the
!n'e$i. Do.tor, the obJe.t i# 4ro4ortion"te to " f".-$ty in the #en#e th"t the n"t-re of the
f".-$ty %etermine# the n"t-re of the obJe.t. hi# me"n# th"t " f".-$ty ."nnot be ".t-"te%
e7.e4t by "n obJe.t of it# o5n n"t-re, or of " n"t-re th"t i# 4ro4ortione% to the n"t-re of
the f".-$ty. No5, there "re three 2in%# of .re"te% .o'niti6e f".-$tie# or 4o5er#. here i# "
.o'niti6e 4o5er th"t i# tie% -4 5ith m"tter in it# bein' "n% o4er"tionF the #en#e. It# obJe.t
i# ne.e##"ri$y $in2e% 5ith m"tterF it i# the #in'-$"r m"teri"$. here i# "nother .o'niti6e
4o5er th"t i# in%e4en%ent of m"tter both in bein' "n% in o4er"tion, th"t i#, the "n'e$i.
inte$$e.t. !n "n'e$, by hi# n"t-re, 5i$$ be "b$e to 2no5 on$y imm"teri"$ thin'#. Bet5een
the#e t5o i# the h-m"n inte$$e.t, " 4o5er 5hi.h i# #-b#t"nti"$$y -nite% 5ith the bo%y in
bein' Ein essendoG, b-t in%e4en%ent of m"teri"$ or'"n# in it# o4er"tion#. It# 4ro4er obJe.t,
therefore, 5i$$ be the e##en.e# of m"teri"$ thin'#, b-t in#of"r "# they "re "b#tr".te% from
m"tter.
It i# not %iffi.-$t to #ee ho5 in St. hom"#3 #y#tem 'no#eo$o'y i# m"%e to fit met"4hy#i.#.
In hi# .riti.i#m of thi# o4inion, D-n# S.ot-#, "# -#-"$, #t"rt# from f".t# of e74erien.e. In
hi# #.ientifi. "n% 4hi$o#o4hi. en%e"6or#, m"n i# #tim-$"te% "n% '-i%e% by " n"t-r"$ %e#ire
to 2no5 the -$tim"te ."-#e# of thin'#, not on$y in " .onf-#e% "n% ob#.-re m"nner, b-t
.$e"r$y "n% %i#tin.t$y. &hen " %e#ire i# n"t-r"$, S.ot-# rem"r2#, it m-#t "$#o be in it#e$f
effi.".io-#, #o th"t it i# ne6er "b#o$-te$y im4o##ib$e to #"ti#fy it. If, then, the -$tim"te
."-#e of thin'# i# imm"teri"$, "# i# re"$$y the ."#e, it fo$$o5# th"t 2no5$e%'e of the
imm"teri"$ i# not beyon% o-r ."4".ity.
F-rthermore, met"4hy#i.# #t-%ie# bein' in 'ener"$ "n% not on$y m"teri"$ bein'#, 5hi.h
"re the obJe.t of 4hy#i.#. hi#
,B(,
me"n# th"t the h-m"n inte$$e.t i# not .onfine% to the 5or$% of m"teri"$ thin'#. hi# i# #o
tr-e, th"t e6en in hi# 4re#ent #t"te m"n ."n "tt"in #ome 2no5$e%'e of ;o% "n% the #o-$.
No5 the#e f".t# ."nnot be e74$"ine% by one 5ho m"int"in# th"t the 4ro4er obJe.t of the
h-m"n inte$$e.t i# the e##en.e of " m"teri"$ thin', #in.e 5e "re here .onfronte% 5ith
2no5$e%'e of obJe.t# th"t tr"n#.en% the 4ro4er obJe.t of the inte$$e.t. If o-r min% i#
."4"b$e of 'oin' #omeho5 beyon% the $imit# of m"teri"$ bein'#, it i# .$e"r th"t the
=-i%%ity of " m"teri"$ thin' i# not the 4ro4er obJe.t of the h-m"n inte$$e.t.
From the 4oint of 6ie5 of Chri#ti"n 4hi$o#o4hy, "nother ob#er6"tion i# in or%er. If the
inte$$e.t by it# n"t-re, th"t i#, in#of"r "# it i# #-b#t"nti"$$y -nite% to the bo%y "# " form of
it, ."nnot 2no5 "nythin' "4"rt from the e##en.e of m"teri"$ thin'#, it fo$$o5# th"t "# $on'
"# it 2ee4# th"t n"t-re, it 5i$$ be im4o##ib$e for it to 2no5 imm"teri"$ obJe.t#. In #-.h "
."#e, there i# on$y one "$tern"ti6eF either 5e %eny to m"n "# #-.h the ."4".ity to enJoy
#ome %"y the %ire.t be"tifi. 6i#ion of ;o%, or 5e m-#t "%mit th"t in he"6en m"n .h"n'e#
hi# met"4hy#i."$ n"t-re. Re.o-r#e to the lumen gloriae i# not " #o$-tion. For either the
$-men '$ori"e .h"n'e# the n"t-re of o-r 2no5in' f".-$ty, "n% then o-r .on.$-#ion i#
'r"nte%, or it %oe# not .h"n'e it, "n% then the lumen gloriae 5i$$ ne6er be #-.h "# to
.onfer on o-r inte$$e.t the ."4".ity to 2no5 "n obJe.t th"t in no 5"y enter# the #4here of
it# 4ro4er "n% n"t-r"$ obJe.t. Sin.e both .on#e=-en.e# "re -nten"b$e, #o "$#o i# the
%o.trine th"t $o'i."$$y $e"%# to them.
D-n# S.ot-# "6oi%# the#e %iffi.-$tie# by "ffirmin' th"t the 4rim"ry "n% "%e=-"te obJe.t of
the h-m"n inte$$e.t i# neither imm"teri"$ bein', ;o%, nor m"teri"$ bein', nor the
,uidditas rei materialis, b-t being #im4$y "n% 5itho-t "ny =-"$ifi."tion, i.e., bein' "#
bein' Eens in ,uantum ensG. Bein' ."n be 4re%i."te% of e6erythin', "n% nothin' ."n be
2no5n th"t i# not " bein'. &h"te6er i#, by the 6ery f".t th"t it i#, i# inte$$i'ib$e. It ."n be
the #-bJe.t of "t $e"#t one 4re%i."teF it e7i#t#. For
,B1,
bein' h"# the #"me $imit# "# the inte$$i'ib$e, "n% on$y nonbein' or nothin'ne## i#
-ninte$$i'ib$e to -# "n% to "ny other inte$$e.t.
THE UNI/OCITY OF THE CONCEPT OF BEIN#
he ob6io-# .on#e=-en.e# th"t fo$$o5 from #-.h " #t"n%4oint %i% not e#."4e D-n#
S.ot-#. he fir#t of #-.h .on#e=-en.e# i# the -ni6o.ity of the .on.e4t of bein'. he
4ro4er obJe.t of " f".-$ty, in the #en#e th"t h"# J-#t been e74$"ine%, m-#t be on$y one, J-#t
"# the f".-$ty i# on$y one. herefore, in or%er th"t bein' be the 4ro4er obJe.t of o-r
inte$$e.t, "n% .on#e=-ent$y the 4oint of 6ie5 from 5hi.h "n% the re"#on 5hy 5e 2no5
;o% "n% .re"t-re#, imm"teri"$ "n% m"teri"$ bein'#, it m-#t be 4re%i."te% -ni6o."$$y, i. e.,
in the #"me #en#e, of "$$ thin'#. It ."nnot be other5i#e, for the #im4$e f".t th"t bein' i#
the me"n# by 5hi.h, "n% the $i'ht thro-'h 5hi.h, "$$ thin'# "re 2no5n.
In the !-'-#tini"n 4hi$o#o4hy there rem"ine% the %iffi.-$ty of e74$"inin' ho5, from the
.on.e4t of ;o%, m"n .o-$% %e#.en% to the .on.e4t of .re"t-re# 5itho-t 4"##in' thro-'h
the int-ition of the %i6ine e##en.e. In %ie !ri#tote$i"n,homi#ti. 4hi$o#o4hy the %iffi.-$ty
5"# re6er#e%F " 5"y h"% to be #ho5n ho5 one .o-$% "#.en% from the .on.e4t of .re"t-re#
to the .on.e4t of ;o%. Both !-'-#tini"n# "n% homi#t# #o$6e% the %iffi.-$ty 5ith the
%o.trine of "n"$o'yF "n "n"$o'y th"t 'oe# from ;o% to .re"t-re# for the !-'-#tini"n#, "n
"n"$o'y th"t 'oe# from .re"t-re# to ;o% for the homi#t#. &ith hi# %o.trine of the
-ni6o.ity of the .on.e4t of bein', "n% .on#e=-ent$y of the other tr"n#.en%ent"$ .on.e4t#,
D-n# S.ot-# o4en# " ne5 5"y to the #o$-tion of the 4rob$em. He %oe# #o 6ery mo%e#t$y,
"# the fo$$o5in' 4"##"'e in%i."te#F
9In the #e.on% 4$".e, it ."n be #"i%, "$tho-'h not %efinite$y be."-#e it i#
not in "..or%"n.e 5ith the .ommon o4inion, th"t
,BB,
of ;o% 5e 4o##e## not on$y .on.e4t# 5hi.h "re "n"$o'o-# to tho#e of
.re"t-re#, th"t i#, entire$y %ifferent from tho#e h"% of .re"te% thin'#, b-t
"$#o .on.e4t# 5hi.h "re -ni6o."$ to ;o% "n% .re"t-re#. 9
1

It i# " 5e$$,2no5n f".t th"t thi# f"mo-# S.oti#ti. %o.trine h"# 'i6en ri#e to m"ny
%i#.-##ion#F Ho5 m-#t it be -n%er#too%L &h"t %"n'ero-# im4$i."tion# "re in itL &h"t "re
it# "%6"nt"'e#L o the re"%er of thi# #t-%y 5e ."n offer on$y " brief "n% #-b#t"nti"$
#-mm"ry of the .ontro6er#y.
Let -# fir#t #ee the "r'-ment# on 5hi.h D-n# S.ot-# b"#e# hi# %o.trine. Hi# ob#er6"tion#
on the nee% for the h-m"n inte$$e.t to h"6e it# o5n 4ro4er obJe.t m"y be .on#i%ere% to be
hi# fir#t "r'-ment. o e6ery 4o5er there m-#t .orre#4on% "n "%e=-"te obJe.t, for it i#
on$y from " -nion of 4o5er "n% obJe.t th"t ".t# en#-e. he#e ".t# "re the re"#on for the
6ery e7i#ten.e of the 4o5er of 5hi.h they .on#tit-te the n"t-r"$ "n% ne.e##"ry 4erfe.tion.
On the other h"n%, on$y bein' in 'ener"$, th"t i#, bein' 4rior to "ny #4e.ifi."tion, h"# the
=-"$itie# ne.e##"ry for " 4rim"ry "n% "%e=-"te obJe.t of the h-m"n inte$$e.t. Hen.e,
-n$e## 5e 5i#h to m"int"in th"t the h-m"n inte$$e.t i# " 4o5er 5itho-t " 4ro4er obJe.t,
5e m-#t "%mit th"t the .on.e4t of bein' h"# " re"$ -nity of me"nin' "n% 4re%i."tion.
9If the 4re%i."te being i# not re.o'ni<e% "# -ni6o."$ to .re"t-re# "n% ;o%, #-b#t"n.e "n%
"..i%ent,,thin'# th"t "re no %o-bt inte$$i'ib$e to -#,,5e ."n no $on'er #4e"2 of " 4rim"ry
obJe.t of o-r inte$$e.t, either secundum 5irtutem or secundum praedicationem# It i# on$y
by "%mittin' the -ni6o.ity of the
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
1
+pus +.oniense, (, %. B, =. 1, n. A. HOb6io-#$y, in thi# 4"##"'e D-n# S.ot-# %oe# not
-#e the term 9"n"$o'o-#9 in the #en#e it i# -#e% by mo%ern homi#t#. &hen he #t"te#
th"t the .on.e4t# 5e 4o##e## of ;o% "re 9entire$y %ifferent9 from the .on.e4t# 5e h"6e
of .re"t-re#, he #im4$y me"n# th"t the re"$ity e74re##e% by the#e .on.e4t# i# in it#e$f
e##enti"$$y %ifferent. ;o% i# "n infinite, #e$f,#-b#i#tent bein'> .re"t-re# "re $imite%,
4"rti.i4"te% bein'#. E"r#GI
,B8,
.on.e4t of bein' th"t the 4ro4er obJe.t of o-r inte$$e.t ."n #omeho5 be %efine%. 9
B

! #e.on% "r'-ment i# %eri6e% by D-n# S.ot-# from the .ommon 5"y of thin2in' "n%
t"$2in' "mon' men. One ."n %o-bt 5hether " thin' i# ;o%, " #-4reme "n% "b#o$-te bein',
or " .re"t-re, " re$"ti6e bein'> 5hether it i# #-b#t"n.e or "..i%ent> b-t one thin' i# .ert"in,
th"t ;o%, .re"t-re#, "n% "..i%ent# "re bein'#. No5 " .on.e4t or 4re%i."te ."nnot be
.ert"in "n% %o-btf-$ "t one "n% the #"me time "n% in the #"me re#4e.t. Con#e=-ent$y, if
on the one h"n% I "m #-re th"t #omethin' i# " bein', "n% on the other h"n% I "m not #-re
5hether it i# "n "b#o$-te bein' E;o%G, or " bein' th"t e7i#t# per se E#-b#t"n.eG, or " bein'
th"t e7i#t# on$y in "nother E"..i%entG, it fo$$o5# th"t the .on.e4t of bein' i# #im4$y
%ifferent from "ny one of the#e .on.e4t# "n% ."nnot be i%entifie% 5ith "ny one of them
"$tho-'h it i# in.$-%e% in them "$$. herefore, one #ho-$% "%mit th"t the .on.e4t of bein'
"# #-.h h"# in it#e$f " -nity "n% .on#i#ten.y th"t "re 4rior to "ny f-rther %etermin"tion. It
i# " 4re%i."te th"t ."n be "ffirme% of "$$ re"$ity in e7".t$y the #"me #en#e, i. e., -ni6o."$$y.
F-rthermore, 5e "rri6e "t the .on.e4t of ;o% #o$e$y thro-'h
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
B
Ibid#* =. B, n. +. D-n# S.ot-# #"y# (ali,uo modo( %efine%, be."-#e the .on.e4t of bein'
i# not 4re%i."b$e in ,uid* i. e., e##enti"$$y, of the tr"n#.en%ent"$# unum* 5erum* bonum*
e6en tho-'h it .ont"in# the#e .on.e4t# 6irt-"$$y. he#e "re .on.e4t# th"t ."nnot be
re%-.e% to the .on.e4t of bein', "n% therefore "re not in.$-%e% in th"t .on.e4t by "
.omm-nity of 4re%i."tion Epropter communitatem praedicationisG, "# "$$ other
.on.e4t# "re. hey ."n be re%-.e% to the .on.e4t of bein' in "nother 5"y, n"me$y,
in#of"r "# the .on.e4t of bein' h"# the 4o5er to .ont"in them or .ont"in# them
6irt-"$$y Epropter 5irtualitatemG. For thi# re"#on D-n# S.ot-# #"y# (ali,uo modo# (
Bein' 5o-$% 4erfe.t$y f-$fi$$ the .on%ition# of " 4rim"ry obJe.t if it 5ere 4re%i."te%
e##enti"$$y of "$$ thin'# 5itho-t e7.e4tion, or if from the .on.e4t of being it 5ere
4o##ib$e to %eri6e the .on.e4t# of "$$ thin'#, J-#t "# the tr"n#.en%ent"$ .on.e4t# "re
%eri6e%, or "# the %i6ine inte$$e.t #ee# in It# o5n E##en.e "$$ other e##en.e#.
,BA,
the #t-%y "n% 2no5$e%'e of .re"t-re#, the on$y obJe.t# th"t %ire.t$y mo6e o-r inte$$e.t.
Ho5, then, 5i$$ it be 4o##ib$e for -# to obt"in from .re"t-re# "ny .on.e4t of ;o%, if the
i%e"# 5e "b#tr".t from them "re "$$ 4ro4er on$y to .re"te% thin'#L If my 4hi$o#o4hi."$
in=-iry into .re"te% re"$ity "ffor%# me not on$y the 4o##ibi$ity of formin' " .on.e4t of
;o%, b-t .om4e$# me to thin2 of Him, thi# me"n# th"t, in "%%ition to their 4ro4er
.on.e4t#, .re"t-re# #-''e#t to me " .on.e4t 5hi.h %oe# not fin% it# f-$$ "44$i."tion in
them. In other 5or%#, it i# " .on.e4t th"t %oe# not be$on' to them e7.$-#i6e$y, "n% it
.om4e$# me to "%mit in "%%ition to them " re"$ity to 5hi.h the .on.e4t it#e$f i# 4erfe.t$y
"%e=-"te. hi# .on.e4t 5hi.h I "b#tr".t from .re"te% bein'#, b-t 5hi.h %oe# not be$on'
to them e7.$-#i6e$y, i# 4re.i#e$y the .on.e4t of bein' in it# mo#t #im4$e #i'nifi."tion, "n%
on thi# I ."n b-i$% my .on.e4t of ;o%. Ob6io-#$y, thi# 5o-$% not be 4o##ib$e if the
.on.e4t of bein' 5ere not -ni6o."$, i. e., .ommon to both ;o% "n% .re"t-re#.
In 4r".ti.e, then, "nyone 5ho #4e"2# "bo-t ;o% "n% Hi# 4erfe.tion# "%mit# -ni6o.ity,
e6en tho-'h he m"y %eny it in theory. 9M"#ter#, too, 5hen %e"$in' 5ith ;o% "n% 5h"t i#
2no5n "bo-t ;o%, e74re## them#e$6e# in #-.h 5"y "# ".t-"$$y to "%mit -ni6o.ity, e6en
tho-'h they %eny it in their 5or%. 9
8

If the .on.e4t of ;o% 5ere from e6ery 4oint of 6ie5 mere$y "n"$o'o-# to the .on.e4t# 5e
"b#tr".t from .re"t-re#, 5e 5o-$% h"6e to "%mit th"t 5e %eri6e from thin'# " .on.e4t
m-.h more 4erfe.t th"n them#e$6e#. B-t thi# i# im4o##ib$e, #in.e no bein' ."n of it#e$f
'i6e ri#e to 2no5$e%'e th"t i# more 4erfe.t th"n it#e$f. Moreo6er, the #tren'th of "$$ o-r
re"#onin', in.$-%in' re"#onin' "bo-t ;o%, re#t# on the e6i%en.e of the fir#t 4rin.i4$e#.
he fir#t 4rin.i4$e# in t-rn #tem from the .on.e4t of bein' t"2en in it# mo#t #im4$e
me"nin'. Ho5, then, ."n the
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
8
3eportata -arisiensia, (, %. B, =. (, n. ).
,B+,
fir#t 4rin.i4$e# be e=-"$$y 6"$i% for ;o% "n% .re"t-re#, if the .on.e4t of bein' from 5hi.h
they #tem i# not 4re%i."te% -ni6o."$$y of ;o% "n% .re"t-re#L On$y the -ni6o.ity of their
#o-r.e '-"r"ntee# their -ni6er#"$ 6"$i%ity.
A

Nor %oe# it #eem 4o##ib$e to #"6e the tr"n#.en%ent"$ .h"r".ter of bein', if the -ni6o."$
-nity of it# .on.e4t in re'"r% to "$$ 2no5"b$e thin'# i# not "%mitte%.
&e m"y "#2F Doe# not -ni6o.ity en%"n'er the met"4hy#i."$ tr"n#.en%en.e of ;o%, 5hi.h
%em"n%# " 4erfe.t otherness of the %i6ine bein' in re$"tion to .re"te% bein'L D-n# S.ot-#
".2no5$e%'e# #-.h otherne## "n% "ffirm# it in .$e"r term#F 9;o% "n% .re"t-re "re not
#im4$y "n% tot"$$y %ifferent in their .on.e4t#> ho5e6er, they "re #im4$y %ifferent in
re"$ity, be."-#e they h"6e nothin' in .ommon on the met"4hy#i."$ $e6e$. 9
+

B-t 5e m"y in#i#tF Ho5 i# " .on.e4t-"$ 9.omm-nity9 4o##ib$e 5itho-t " re"$
.omm-nityL D-n# S.ot-# e74$"in# thi# "44"rent .ontr"%i.tion by 4ointin' o-t ho5 bein'
i# .ontr".te% to it# inferior#, 9-n.re"te% bein'9 "n% 9.re"te% bein'. 9 hi# .ontr".tion i#
entire$y %ifferent from the met"4hy#i."$ 4ro.e## of Por4hyry3# tree 5hereby one %e#.en%#
from 'ener" to #4e.ie#. In the Por4hyri"n tree "$$ tr"n#ition# "re .h"r".teri<e% by "n
in.re"#e of re"$ity, in"#m-.h "# in e6ery .ontr".tion " f-rther ".t or 4erfe.tion i# "%%e% to
the 4re.e%in' 'en-#. hi# i# not
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
A
De Anima, =. 1(, n. (C.
+
+p# +.on#, (, %. @, =. B, n. ((. HHere i# ;i$#on3# 4ertinent ob#er6"tionF 9h-# the
S.oti#t -ni6o.ity i# " r"%i."$ ne'"tion of 4"nthei#m, #in.e the .ommon "ttrib-tion of
the .on.e4t of bein' to ;o% "n% .re"t-re# re=-ire# 4re.i#e$y th"t it #ho-$% not be
e7ten%e% to th"t 5hi.h m"2e# the bein' of ;o% to be ;o%> b-t "t the #"me time it
-nifie# the 5ho$e or%er of h-m"n 2no5$e%'e in "ffirmin' the e##enti"$ -nity of it#
obJe.t thro-'ho-t "$$ the %i6er#ity of the #t"te# thro-'h 5hi.h it m"y 4"##. 9 Etienne
;i$#on, "he Spirit of 2ediae5al -hilosophy, tr"n#. !. H. C. Do5ne# E Ne5 Yor2F
Ch"r$e# S.ribner3# Son#, (*8CG, 4. 1++. E"r#G
,B),
tr-e of bein', 5hi.h %oe# not be.ome -n.re"te% or .re"te% be."-#e of " ne5 "%%e%
=-"$ity #4e.ifyin' itF o-t#i%e of bein' there i# nothin'. In other 5or%#, there i# no re"$
#t"rtin' 4oint .ommon to both infinite bein' "n% finite bein', "# there i#, for e7"m4$e, for
m"n "n% hor#e, 5ho #h"re in .ommon " met"4hy#i."$ re"$ity, i. e., "nim"$ity. Infinity "n%
finitene## "re not =-"$itie# th"t %etermine bein' "# by " #4e.ifi. %ifferen.e, b-t %ifferent
intrin#i. mo%e# "ffe.tin' bein' in it# tot"$ity. Hen.e, from the met"4hy#i."$ 4oint of
6ie5, infinite bein' i# tot"$$y "n% "b#o$-te$y %i#tin.t from finite bein'. Brief$y, bein' i#
not " 'en-# in referen.e to ;o% "n% .re"t-re#> nor ."n it be, be."-#e of the e##enti"$
in%etermin"tion of it# .on.e4t in re'"r% to "$$ thin'#. It i# 4re.i#e$y on. thi#
in%etermin"tion th"t it# tr"n#.en%ent"$ity re#t#.
Yet, %e#4ite the f".t th"t infinite bein' "n% finite bein' "re tot"$$y %ifferent, e".h of them
i# " bein', i. e., #omethin' th"t re"$$y e7i#t#. he f".t of their re"$ e7i#ten.e i# the
met"4hy#i."$ fo-n%"tion for th"t .on.e4t-"$ .omm-nity 5hi.h i# 'r"#4e% "n% e74re##e%
by the -ni6o."$ .on.e4t of bein'. No %o-bt, "n inte$$e.t ."4"b$e of 2no5in' "$$ thin'#
int-iti6e$y 5o-$% not h"6e to %i#tin'-i#h bet5een. bein' "n% it# intrin#i. mo%e> it 5o-$%
'r"#4 e6ery bein' in it# .on.retene## "# 5e$$ "# in it# met"4hy#i."$ inte'rity. S-.h "n
inte$$e.t 5o-$% not h"6e to be he$4e% by -ni6o."$ .on.e4t# in it# 2no5$e%'e of ;o%, "n%
it .o-$% not #to4 "t -ni6o.ity. B-t m"n, 5ho 2no5# on$y by "b#tr".tion "n% i# .om4e$$e%,
"# it 5ere, to bre"2 -4 re"$ity in or%er to "##imi$"te it inte$$e.t-"$$y, here, too, -#e# hi#
"b#tr".ti6e 4o5er. &hi$e in the fir#t moment he 'r"#4# on$y the bein' of " .on.rete
re"$ity "# #-.h, in the #e.on% he #ee# "$#o it# mo%e of bein' "n% e74re##e# it by me"n# of
" .on.e4t th"t i# %ifferent from the #im4$e .on.e4t of bein'. Hen.e -ni6o.ity i# im4o#e%
-4on -# by o-r 4ro.e## of 2no5in' re"$ity r"ther th"n by re"$ity it#e$f. It i# " moment in
o-r "b#tr".ti6e
,B@,
4ro.e##, 5hi.h i# "# 'oo% "n% 6"$i% "# "ny other 2in% of "b#tr".tion, "n im4erfe.t b-t not
" f"$#e 5"y of 2no5in' re"$ity.
)

THE OB$ECT OF OUR INTELLECT IN ITS
PRESENT STATE
! 4hi$o#o4her $i2e D-n# S.ot-#, 5ho %efen%# the the#i# th"t the 4ro4er "n% "%e=-"te
obJe.t of the h-m"n inte$$e.t i# bein' ,ua bein', m-#t f".e "nother %iffi.-$ty. If o-r
inte$$e.t i# tr-$y m"%e to 2no5 bein' 5itho-t "ny $imit"tion, it #eem# n"t-r"$ to #"y th"t
the ri.her in bein' " thin' i#, "n% .on#e=-ent$y the ri.her it i# in 4erfe.tion#, the e"#ier it
i# for -# to 'r"#4 it. h-# ;o%, 5ho i# bein' in the mo#t eminent 5"y, #ho-$% be be#t
2no5n to -#, "n% th"t "$mo#t by " #4ont"neo-#, e7treme$y 4$e"#"nt ".t. Yet o-r i%e"# of
;o% "n% imm"teri"$ bein'# in 'ener"$ "re obt"ine% on$y 5ith 're"t 4"in, "n% e6en "fter
$on' me%it"tion# they #ti$$ rem"in -n.ert"in, .onf-#e% "n% 6"'-e. On the .ontr"ry, o-r
2no5$e%'e of m"teri"$ thin'#
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
)
he#e tho-'ht# "re fo-n% in "n "-thenti. 4"##"'e 5hi.h h"# not yet been 'i6en the
.on#i%er"tion it %e#er6e#F +p# +.on#, I, %. @, =. B, nn. 1) "n% 1*. Hhe better to e74$"in
thi# #ome5h"t %iffi.-$t, yet 4rofo-n% %o.trine, D-n# S.ot-# m"2e# -#e of the
fo$$o5in' e7"m4$e. S-44o#e there i# " 5hitene## to the tenth %e'ree of inten#ity. I
.o-$% .on.ei6e 5hitene## 5ith it# %e'ree of inten#ity, in 5hi.h ."#e my .on.e4t of it
5o-$% be 4erfe.t, for it 5o-$% 'i6e me it# f-$$ re"$ity. B-t I .o-$% "$#o .on.ei6e
5hitene## 5hi$e 4re#.in%in' from it# %e'ree of inten#ity, in 5hi.h ."#e my .on.e4t
5o-$% on$y be im4erfe.t, for it 5o-$% not 'i6e me the f-$$ re"$ity. hi# im4erfe.t
.on.e4t m"y be .ommon to th"t 4"rti.-$"r 5hitene## "n% to other#, b-t the 4erfe.t
.on.e4t, i. e., the one in.$-%in' "$#o the %e'ree of inten#ity, i# 4ro4er to th"t 4"rti.-$"r
re"$ity "$one. Hen.e there m-#t be " %i#tin.tion bet5een th"t from 5hi.h " .ommon
.on.e4t i# %eri6e% "n% th"t from 5hi.h " 4ro4er .on.e4t i# %eri6e%. S-.h " %i#tin.tion
i# not " %i#tin.tion $i2e th"t bet5een one re"$ity "n% "nother, b-t $i2e th"t bet5een "
re"$ity "n% it# 4ro4er "n% intrin#i. mo%e. It i# in thi# 5"y th"t bein' "n% it# mo%e# "re
to be -n%er#too%. Ibid#, n. 1). Er. GI
,B*,
i# m-.h e"#ier "n% m-.h more 4erfe.t. I# not thi# f".t eno-'h to #-44ort the o4inion of
tho#e 5ho .$"im th"t the e##en.e of m"teri"$ thin'# i# the 4ro4er obJe.t of the h-m"n
inte$$e.tL
D-n# S.ot-# .on.e%e# th"t the int-iti6e 2no5$e%'e of bein' be$on'# to m"n by ri'ht.
Hen.e the more 4erfe.t " thin' i#, the e"#ier, the more 4$e"#"nt, "n% the more 4erfe.t
#ho-$% be it# -nion 5ith o-r inte$$e.t. Ho5e6er, thi# i# not the ."#e, be."-#e of the
.on%ition# in 5hi.h the h-m"n inte$$e.t fin%# it#e$f "t 4re#ent. 9In hi# 5i#%om, ;o% h"#
%e.ree% th"t in it# 4re#ent #t"te o-r inte$$e.t #ho-$% -n%er#t"n% on$y tho#e thin'# 5ho#e
im"'e i# ref$e.te% in the 4h"nt"#m. hi# i# either in 4-ni#hment for ori'in"$ #in or
be."-#e of the n"t-r"$ h"rmony e7i#tin' "mon' the #o-$3# 4o5er# in their o4er"tion#.
h-# 5e #ee th"t the #-4erior 4o5er .on.ern# it#e$f 5ith the #"me obJe.t "# the inferior
4o5er, 4ro6i%e% both 4o5er# ".t in " 4erfe.t m"nner. In f".t, it #o h"44en# to -# th"t the
".t by 5hi.h the min% thin2# the -ni6er#"$ i# "$5"y# "..om4"nie% by "n ".t of o-r
im"'in"tion. Ho5e6er, thi# 4re#ent h"rmony of o-r f".-$tie# %oe# not "ri#e from the
n"t-re of the h-m"n inte$$e.t, either be."-#e it i# "n inte$$e.t or be."-#e it i# " h-m"n
inte$$e.t, th"t i#, "n inte$$e.t -nite% to the bo%y. If thi# 5ere #o, then #-.h " h"rmony
#ho-$% e7i#t e6en in the '$orifie% bo%y, 5hi.h i# f"$#e. 9
@

5o thin'# "re .ert"inF fir#t, th"t, for the re"#on# J-#t #t"te%, m"n3# inte$$e.t i# not by it#
6ery n"t-re en.$o#e% 5ithin the $imite% hori<on of m"teri"$ bein'#> #e.on%$y, th"t in o-r
4re#ent #t"te "$$ h-m"n 2no5$e%'e be'in# ne.e##"ri$y 5ith #en#ib$e thin'#, for they "$one
"re #-.h th"t they ."n mo6e "n% intere#t %ire.t$y o-r inte$$e.ti6e 4o5er. Yet it i# "n
-n%eni"b$e f".t of e74erien.e th"t 5e ."n "$#o ri#e to " .ert"in 2no5$e%'e of ;o% "n%
imm"teri"$ bein'#, J-#t "# it i# -n%eni"b$e th"t the n"t-r"$ 5"y of 2no5in' i# by
"b#tr".tion, th"t i#, " 4ro.e## 5hereby 5e form o-r .on.e4t# in .oo4er"tion 5ith #en#ib$e
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
@
+p# +.on#, I, %. B, =. B, n. 18.
,8C,
e74erien.e "n% t"2e o-r #t"rt from m"teri"$ thin'#. !ny 4hi$o#o4her 5i#hin' to 'i6e "
.om4$ete e74$"n"tion of h-m"n 2no5$e%'e m-#t t"2e into "..o-nt the#e t5o f".t#.
Con#e=-ent$y, " theory 5i$$ be J-%'e% 6"$i% "n% "..e4t"b$e on$y on .on%ition th"t it
f-rni#h " re"#on"b$e e74$"n"tion of the#e t5o f".t#.
he homi#ti. theory f"i$# to meet the#e re=-irement#, not be."-#e it "ffirm# th"t m"n
2no5# on$y "b#tr".ti6e$y, b-t be."-#e it 6"in$y .$"im# to fin% the ."-#e of thi# f".t in the
met"4hy#i."$ n"t-re of the h-m"n inte$$e.t. S-.h "n e74$"n"tion i# hi'h$y effe.ti6e "# f"r
"# the "b#tr".ti6e .h"r".ter of o-r .o'nition# i# .on.erne%, b-t it m"2e# "ny other 2in% of
h-m"n 2no5$e%'e im4o##ib$e. It for.e# m"n ine7or"b$y 5ithin the $imit# of #en#ib$e
e74erien.e, more or $e## "# /"nt %oe# 5hen he te".he# th"t 94-re re"#on9 i# b"rre% from
the 2no5$e%'e of 5h"t %oe# not enter the " 4riori int-ition# of #4".e "n% time.
It i# 4re.i#e$y to "..o-nt for the f".t th"t m"n ."n ri#e to #ome #ort of 2no5$e%'e of ;o%
"n% of imm"teri"$ bein'#, "n% ret"in "t the #"me time the 4o##ibi$ity of 2no5in' thin'# in
" %ifferent m"nner, th"t D-n# S.ot-# h"# re.o-r#e to hi# theory of the 4ro4er obJe.t of the
h-m"n inte$$e.t. hi# theory m-#t be f-rther e74$"ine% in the fo$$o5in' #e.tion.
IMPLICATIONS OF THE SCOTISTIC THEORY OF
THE PROPER OB$ECT OF THE HUMAN
INTELLECT
By it# n"t-re Ee. natura potentiaeG o-r inte$$e.t i# or%"ine% to 2no5 bein', bein' in "n
"b#o$-te #en#e "n% 5itho-t $imit"tion#. Ho5e6er, 5h"t mo6e# the inte$$e.t to 2no5 in it#
4re#ent .on%ition i# on$y the =-i%%ity of #en#ib$e thin'#, th"t i#, of thin'# 5hi.h 4re#ent
them#e$6e# to o-r #en#ib$e e74erien.e. !..or%in'$y, the#e thin'# "re the 4ro4er obJe.t of
o-r inte$$e.t in mo5endo or in ratione moti5i. If #omeone 5ere to "#2 5hy the h-m"n
inte$$e.t m-#t "$5"y# ".t in " 5"y th"t i# inferior
,8(,
to it# ."4".ity, he m-#t be remin%e% of the in#.r-t"b$e %i#4o#ition# of the %i6ine 5i#%om,
e6en more th"n of the .on#e=-en.e# of ori'in"$ #in.
*

hi# #o$-tion 4ermit# D-n# S.ot-# to 'i6e "n "..o-nt of both the f".t# he 5"# ."$$e% -4on
to e74$"in. he ens in ,uantum ens "# the 4ro4er obJe.t of the h-m"n inte$$e.t e. natura
potentiae,,in thi# re#4e.t the h-m"n inte$$e.t h"# the #"me fie$% of 6i#ion "# "ny other
inte$$e.t, for on the one h"n%, bein' i# by it# n"t-re inte$$i'ib$e Eens et 5erum
con5ertunturG, "n% on the other h"n%, the inte$$e.t i# e##enti"$$y "n% by it# 6ery
.on#tit-tion m"%e to 2no5 bein' 5hi.h i# th-# re6e"$e% to it,,m"2e# it .$e"r th"t m"n,
e6en tho-'h #-bmer'e% in the #e" of #en#ib$e, .h"n'e"b$e, "n% .ontin'ent bein'#, ."nnot
re#t "n% be #"ti#fie% 5ith it. He i# #4-rre% on by "n inner #tim-$-# to o6er.ome it "n%
mo6e -45"r% to the 2no5$e%'e of ;o% 5ith "$$ the me"n# "t hi# %i#4o#"$ "n% 5ith "
4er#e6er"n.e th"t %efie# time "n% error. Li2e5i#e, the f".t th"t the 4ro4er obJe.t of o-r
inte$$e.t in mo5endo or in ratione moti5i i# the =-i%%ity of " #en#ib$e thin' e74$"in# the
manner in 5hi.h m"n 2no5#, th"t i# to #"y, the nee% "n% im4ort"n.e of the "b#tr".ti6e
4ro.e##. hi# $"tter i# in t-rn re#4on#ib$e for "$$ the im4erfe.tion# of h-m"n 2no5$e%'e,
#in.e it i# on$y 5ith 're"t
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
*
hi# "44e"$ to %i6ine 5i#%om 5i$$ no %o-bt %i#4$e"#e the mo%ern min%. Ho5e6er, it i#
5orth notin' th"t D-n# S.ot-# 5i#he# to "n#5er " =-e#tion th"t, "# " 4hi$o#o4her, he
.o-$% ref-#e to "n#5er. !fter 4ro6in', on the one h"n%, th"t the h-m"n inte$$e.t i# not
en.$o#e% 5ithin the $imit# of m"teri"$ thin'#, "n% notin', on the other h"n%, th"t in it#
4re#ent #t"te it "$5"y# h"# to t"2e it# $e"% fron #en#ib$e thin'# "n% 5or2 o-t "b#tr".t
.on.e4t#, he .o-$% #im4$y "n#5er "nyone "#2in' the re"#on for #-.h " .ontr"#t th-#F It
i# #o, be."-#e m"n i# m"%e th"t 5"y. In other 5or%#, the my#tery $ie# 5ithin m"n
him#e$f> it i# not " f$"5 in D-n# S.ot-#3 theory. he "n#5er be$on'# to theo$o'y r"ther
th"n to 4hi$o#o4hy. Hen.e D-n# S.ot-# 5o-$% "'ree 5ith P"#."$3# #t"tement,,"$re"%y
#-b#t"nti"$$y .ont"ine% in St. Bon"6ent-re "n% St. !-'-#tine,,th"t on$y the Chri#ti"n
%o.trine ."n e74$"in the my#tery of m"n.
,81,
4"in "n% not 5itho-t -n.ert"inty th"t 5e "rri6e "t "n in%ire.t "n% 'ener"$ notion of ;o%
"n% imm"teri"$ bein'#.
It m"y not be 5itho-t intere#t to 4oint o-t to the re"%er, if he h"# f"i$e% to #ee it him#e$f,
th"t in the fir#t 4"rt of hi# #o$-tion,,th"t the 4ro4er obJe.t of the h-m"n inte$$e.t
.on#i%ere% from the #t"n%4oint of it# n"t-re i# bein' ,ua bein',,the S-bt$e Do.tor
"n#5er# the m"in %iffi.-$ty th"t $e% the !-'-#tini"n #.hoo$ to the %o.trine of inte$$e.t-"$
i$$-min"tion, n"me$y, the im4o##ibi$ity on the 4"rt of em4iri.i#m "n% the !ri#tote$i"n
%o.trine of "b#tr".tion to "..o-nt for m"n3# 2no5$e%'e of ;o% "n% #4irit-"$ bein'#. h"t
thi# %iffi.-$ty i# the f-n%"ment"$ re"#on for the !-'-#tini"n theory of inte$$e.t-"$
i$$-min"tion h"# been #-ffi.ient$y 4ro6e% e$#e5here 5here the #-''e#tion i# "$#o m"%e
th"t #-.h " theory im4$ie# " 6irt-"$ inn"ti#m of the i%e" of ;o%.
(C

!$tho-'h D-n# S.ot-# "..e4t# the b"#i. re=-irement for the %o.trine of i$$-min"tion, "n%
in thi# he i# f"ithf-$ to the #4e.-$"ti6e tr"%ition of hi# Or%er, 5hen he ".t-"$$y f".e# the
%o.trine, he ref-#e# to "..e4t it. F-rthermore, he reJe.t# the $o'i."$ .on#e=-en.e of the
%o.trine of i$$-min"tion, n"me$y, th"t ;o% i# the fir#t 2no5n obJe.t of the h-m"n
inte$$e.t. Doe# he "$#o e#."4e from e6ery #ort of 6irt-"$ inn"ti#mL It %oe# not #eem #o.
It m-#t be re.o'ni<e% th"t on thi# 4oint D-n# S.ot-# i# f"r
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(C
See .h"4. V of my 5or2, S# /ona5entura E Bre#.i"F L" S.-o$", (*88G, "n% e#4e.i"$$y
my "rti.$e, 9L" %ottrin" bon"6ent-ri"n" %e$$3i$$-min"<ione inte$$ett-"$e9, in 3i5ista di
ilosofia Neoscolastica, MMMVI E (*88G, (B*,A@. Hhe "-thor re"ffirm# hi# .on6i.tion
of the e7i#ten.e of " 96irt-"$ inn"ti#m9 of the i%e" of ;o% in St. Bon"6ent-re3# %o.trine
in hi# $"ter 5or2, Il -roblema della conoscibilit6 di Dio nella scuola francescana
E P"%-"F Ce%"m, (*ACG, 44. 1(8 ,81. Other inter4reter# 5o-$% $imit St. Bon"6ent-re3#
9inn"ti#m9 to "n innate facility m"n h"# to "tt"in the i%e" of ;o%. Cf. P. F. Q".h"ri"#
V"n %e &oe#tyne, O. F. M., Cursus -hilosophicus E M"$ine#F y4o'r"4hi" S.
Fr"n.i#.i, (*1AG, II, )CA,)C). r. G
,8B,
from bein' .$e"r "n% e74$i.it. o be #-re, he #t"te# in #e6er"$ 4$".e# th"t e6en the
-ni6o."$ .on.e4t of bein', 5hi.h m"2e# it 4o##ib$e for -# to "tt"in to ;o% "n% to #ome
#ort of 2no5$e%'e of Him, i# "b#tr".te% from #en#ib$e thin'#. Ho5e6er, 5e "re of the
o4inion th"t 5e #ho-$% .$in' not #o m-.h to the $etter of the te7t "# to the $o'i."$
.oheren.e of the %o.trine. Bein' .om4e$$e% to #t"rt from m"teri"$ bein', m"n ."nnot form
"ny .on.e4t 4rior to #en#ib$e e74erien.e. !..or%in'$y, e6en the .on.e4t of bein' i#
obt"ine% from #en#ib$e e74erien.e, "n% i# to th"t e7tent "n "b#tr".t .on.e4t. Ne6erthe$e##,
one #ho-$% not for'et th"t o-r .on.e4t of bein' tr"n#.en%# #en#e 2no5$e%'e, for the
#im4$e re"#on th"t the 4rim"ry "n% "%e=-"te obJe.t of the h-m"n inte$$e.t i# bein' ,ua
bein'. From thi# it fo$$o5# th"t o-r .on.e4t of bein', e6en tho-'h it i# obt"ine% from
#en#e e74erien.e, m-#t be bro"%er th"n the =-i%%ity of m"teri"$ thin'#. herefore, it ."n
be ri'ht$y "ffirme% th"t o-r inte$$e.t, in#of"r "# it i# m"%e to 2no5 bein' in it# tot"$ity, h"#
"$re"%y 5ithin it#e$f, #o to #4e"2, " .on.e4t of bein',,esse, or 9to be9,,5hi.h m"2e# it
4o##ib$e for m"n to -n%er#t"n% th"t m"teri"$ re"$ity i# not the 5ho$e re"$ity, n"y, th"t it i#
the mo#t im4erfe.t re"$ity.
In #-.h " ."#e, if m"n "rri6e# "t the 2no5$e%'e of ;o% "n% i# .om4e$$e% to "%mit the
e7i#ten.e of the "b#o$-te, it i# not be."-#e of 5h"t he #ee# in thin'#, b-t be."-#e of the
inn"te ten%en.y of hi# inte$$e.t to 2no5 not J-#t one 4"rti.-$"r bein', b-t bein' 5itho-t
=-"$ifi."tion, or " bein' #-.h th"t it# n"t-re tr"n#.en%# the $imit# of mere #en#ib$e
2no5$e%'e. h-# 5e "re not on$y "$$o5e% to #4e"2 of " .ert"in inn"ti#m. of the i%e" of
bein' b-t, in the 4hi$o#o4hy of D-n# S.ot-#, 5e m-#t %o #o. hi# ty4e of inn"ti#m m"y be
be#t %e#.ribe% "# 96irt-"$ inn"ti#m.9
Nor #ho-$% one for'et D-n# S.ot-#3 4ertinent #t"tement th"t in %i#tin.t 2no5$e%'e the
.on.e4t of bein' i# ne.e##"ri$y
,88,
the fir#t, #o th"t no %i#tin.t 2no5$e%'e i# 4o##ib$e e7.e4t thro-'h the .on.e4t of bein'.
((
On.e thi# i# 'r"nte%, the .on.e4t of bein' be.ome# the ne.e##"ry re=-i#ite "n% the
'ener"$ .on%ition for "$$ 2no5$e%'e. hi# ty4e of inn"ti#m #ho5# .$e"r$y the e7tent to
5hi.h the !-'-#tini"n #4e.-$"ti6e inherit"n.e i# #ti$$ "$i6e in D-n# S.ot-#3 tho-'ht.
N

h"t the inn"ti#m in =-e#tion refer# to the i%e" of bein' in 'ener"$ "n% not to the i%e" of
;o%,,thi# $"tter bein' tie% -4 5ith the .om4$e7 #tr-.t-re of the inte$$e.t-"$ i$$-min"tion ,,
i# .$e"r from the #te4# D-n# S.ot-# t"2e# to5"r% !ri#tote$i"n n"t-r"$i#m, " #y#tem better
%i#4o#e% to "..e4t " #o$-tion of the 4rob$em of 2no5$e%'e th"t i# more #im4$e, e"#ier to
'r"#4, "n% .$o#er to the e"rth$y .on%ition# of m"n.
In S.ot-#3 %o.trine, m"n3# ."4".ity to 2no5 ;o%, or better, the nee% "n% .r"6in' for the
%i6ine #o m-.h em4h"#i<e% by the !-'-#tini"n #.hoo$, i# 'i6en f-$$ .re%it. If o-r inte$$e.t
i# m"%e to 2no5 bein', "$$ bein', it i# e6i%ent th"t by it# n"t-re it #ho-$% be re"%y "n%
."4"b$e for e6ery "#.ent. S-.h " %e#tin"tion i# the 4rofo-n%, ine#."4"b$e ."$$ 5ith 5hi.h
;o% %r"5# m"n to Him#e$f, "n% 5ith m"n, "$$ .re"te% re"$ity.
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
N
he 96irt-"$ inn"ti#m9 of the i%e" of bein',,not of ;o%,,5hi.h the "-thor "ttrib-te# to
D-n# S.ot-# E" 4oint th"t he %efen%# e7ten#i6e$y in hi# other 5or2, Il -roblema della
conoscibilit6 di Dio nella scuola francescana, op# cit#, 44. B8@,AA, 5here he #t"te#,
ho5e6er, th"t hi# i# "n inter4ret"tion 9beyon% D"n# S.ot-#3 #t"tement#, 9 ibid#, 44.
B8@,8*G h"# not met 5ith the 'ener"$ "44ro6"$ of #.ho$"r#. imothy O. F. M. B"rth , in
hi# "rti.$e 9De -ni6o."tioni# enti# #.oti#ti."e intentione 4rin.i4"$i ne.non 6"$ore
.riti.o9, Antonianum, MMVIII E (*ABG, )1 , ((C , #-b#tit-te# the "-thor3# 96irt-"$
inn"ti#m9 5ith 9%yn"mi. inn"ti#m, 9 5hi.h he e74$"in# "$on' the $ine# of V"n %e
&oe#tyne E Cursus -hilosophicus, op# cit#, 1% e%., 6o$. I, 4. (8B G "# me"nin' "n inn"te
h"bit or ten%en.y to form 5itho-t %iffi.-$ty -ni6er#"$ .on.e4t#, "n% e#4e.i"$$y the
tr"n#.en%ent"$ .on.e4t#. Er. G
((
1ectura -rima, I. ()> Vin%obon"e, Bib$. N"t., Co%. L"t. (88*, f. (@ rb. F 9In or%er to
2no5 " thin' %i#tin.t$y, it i# ne.e##"ry fir#t to 2no5 bein', for bein' enter# into e6ery
.on.e4t.9
,8A,
he 4reo..-4"tion of '-"r"nteein' m"n3# ."4".ity to "rri6e "t ;o% in#4ire# the S.oti#ti.
theory of the 4ro4er obJe.t of the h-m"n min%, J-#t "# it in#4ire% "$$ the theorie# of
inte$$e.t-"$ i$$-min"tion 5or2e% o-t by the thirteenth,.ent-ry !-'-#tini"n#. hi# theory,
#tri.t$y $in2e% -4 to the %o.trine of -ni6o.ity, i#, in my o4inion, D-n# S.ot-#3 mo#t
#i'nifi."nt %o.trine. It i# thi#, fir#t, be."-#e in it 5e #ee the #o$-tion of the .ontro6er#y
bet5een the !-'-#tini"n "n% !ri#tote$i"n #.hoo$#, 5hi.h i# the #.o4e of "$$ hi#
4hi$o#o4hi. en%e"6or#> #e.on%$y, be."-#e thi# %o.trine offer# the 2ey to " f-$$
-n%er#t"n%in' of the S.oti#ti. #ynthe#i# both in it# #4irit "n% in it# inte$$e.t-"$
".hie6ement.
,8+,
II FINITE BEIN#
HE V!S fie$% of re"$ity, the 5ho$e of re"$ity, $ie# o4en before the min% of m"n. From
the fir#t #te4# of hi# Jo-rney to5"r% bein', m"n i# '-i%e% by "n i%e"$ 5hi.h mo6e# "n%
%ire.t# him, #o "# to 4re6ent him from #to44in' #hort of "tt"inin' hi# 'o"$ "n% f-$fi$$in'
hi# n"t-r"$ 6o."tion. hi# 6o."tion .on#i#t# in 2no5in', "n% therefore $o6in', not J-#t one
4"rti.-$"r thin' or bein', b-t bein' in it# tot"$ity.
he fir#t thin'# th"t .onfront m"n "re finite bein'#, th"t i#, n"t-re in the .om4$e7ity "n%
6"riety of it# "#4e.t# "n% $"5#. he 4hi$o#o4her, ho5e6er, %oe# not re#tri.t him#e$f to "
#t-%y of thin'# in their m"teri"$ #tr-.t-re> he e7ten%# hi# in=-iry to the mo#t -ni6er#"$ "n%
mo#t 4rofo-n% "#4e.t# of thin'#. No5, the mo#t -ni6er#"$ "#4e.t of the bein'# th"t
.on#tit-te the obJe.t of o-r e74erien.e i# their .h"n'e "n% be.omin'. !$$ thin'# .h"n'e>
in their o5n 5"y, "$$ thin'# "re born, 'ro5, %e.$ine, "n% %ie. Ho5 i# be.omin' 4o##ib$eL
Beyon% =-e#tion, thi# i# one of the fir#t 4rob$em# of 4hi$o#o4hy, "n% it i# not 5itho-t
re"#on th"t ;ree2 4hi$o#o4hy 5"# born "# " 4hi$o#o4hy of be.omin'.
D-n# S.ot-#, $i2e "$$ #.ho$"#ti.#, "'ree# #-b#t"nti"$$y 5ith the !ri#tote$i"n #o$-tion of the
4rob$em of be.omin', 5hi.h re#t# on the %-"$i#ti. theory of ".t "n% 4oten.y E'ener"$
theoryG,
,8),
m"tter "n% form E#-b#t"nti"$ .h"n'eG, "n% #-b#t"n.e "n% "..i%ent E"..i%ent"$ .h"n'eG.
Yet he "#.ribe# to !ri#tot$e %o.trine# th"t "re #$i'ht$y %ifferent from the %o.trine#
"ttrib-te% to him by St. hom"#. he#e %ifferen.e# .on.ern m"in$y the .on.e4t of
4rim"ry m"tter.
MATTER AND FORM
For both St. hom"# "n% D-n# S.ot-#, "$$ m"teri"$ bein'# "re .om4o#e% of m"tter "n%
form. M"tter i# the 4otenti"$ e$ement "n% the 4rin.i4$e of in%etermin"tion> form i# the
".t-"$ e$ement, "# 5e$$ "# the 4rin.i4$e of %etermin"tion. he t5o %o.tor# "$#o "'ree in
#"yin' th"t m"tter "n% form "re t5o %i#tin.t re"$itie#, #o th"t their .om4o#ition i# the
#ynthe#i# of t5o re"$$y %i#tin.t 4rin.i4$e#. B-t here "'reement en%# "n% %i6er'en.y of
o4inion #t"rt#. !$tho-'h for St. hom"# m"tter i# #omethin' re"$ "n% %i#tin.t from form,
it i# 4-re 4otenti"$ity, h"6in' no ".t of it# o5n. It# ".t i# the form, 5hi.h, by #4e.ifyin'
"n% %eterminin' it, "$#o m"2e# it e7i#t "# m"tter. !..or%in'$y, m"tter ."nnot e7i#t 5itho-t
form. It i# "b#-r% to #"y th"t it ."n, #in.e it ."nnot e6en be .on.ei6e% "# "n i%e". It e7i#t#
"n% i# 2no5n on$y thro-'h the form, to 5hi.h it i# $in2e% by " tr"n#.en%ent"$
re$"tion#hi4. In thi# theory both the re"$ity of the .om4o#ition "n% the ri'oro-# -nity of
the .om4o#ite "re #"6e%. he .om4o#ite i# not the re#-$t of t5o thin'#, b-t of t5o %i#tin.t
4rin.i4$e# of one "n% the #"me thin'.
D-n# S.ot-#3 %e4"rt-re from St. hom"#3 theory i# b"#e% on hi# .on6i.tion th"t 9it i#
.ontr"%i.tory to "ffirm th"t "nythin' h"# " 4-re$y 4otenti"$ bein' "n% th"t it e7i#t# in ".t.9
(1
In other 5or%#, it i# in.on.ei6"b$e for him th"t " thin' #ho-$% h"6e onto$o'i."$ re"$ity
5itho-t e7i#tin' in ".t. Either m"tter i# not " re"$ 4rin.i4$e, "n% then it h"# no %i#tin.t
re"$ity from form, or it i# " re"$ 4rin.i4$e, "n% then it m-#t h"6e " re"$ity
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(1
+p# +.on#, II, %. (1, =. 1, n. 1.
,8@,
in%e4en%ent of the form. ! thin' i# #"i% to be re"$ 5hen it e7i#t# o-t#i%e it# ."-#e, or h"#
the ".t of e7i#ten.e. Hen.e, if m"tter i# #omethin' re"$, it ."nnot be #-.h e7.e4t thro-'h
the ".t th"t m"2e# it to be m"tter by be#to5in' -4on it the re"$ity of m"tter. E6en St.
hom"# 'r"nt# th"t m"tter i# .re"te%> it m-#t therefore be #omethin' th"t e7i#t# in ".t.
&h"t e$#e i# .re"tion b-t the .omm-ni."tion of the ".t of e7i#ten.e to 5h"t 5"# mere$y
4o##ib$eLM"tter i# not in potentia obiecti5a b-t in potentia subiecti5a# o "ffirm th"t "
thin' i# in potentia obiecti5a i# t"nt"mo-nt to #"yin' th"t in re"$ity it i# nothin', b-t th"t "
."-#e e7i#t# 5hi.h ."n brin' it into e7i#ten.e. On the .ontr"ry, " thin' i# in potentia
subiecti5a in#of"r "# it h"# the ."4".ity to re.ei6e "n ".t or 4erfe.tion. E6i%ent$y, nothin'
."n be in potentia subiecti5a -n$e## it "$re"%y e7i#t# "n% i# "bo-t to re.ei6e " f-rther
4erfe.tion. he .on#e=-en.e# of thi# %o.trine "re ob6io-#, "n% D-n# S.ot-# 5"# f-$$y
"5"re of them. hey m"y be #-mm"ri<e% "# fo$$o5#F
(. M"tter ."nnot be #"i% to be 4-re 4otenti"$ity, in the #en#e th"t it h"# no ".t of it# o5n.
1. M"tter i# en%o5e% 5ith "n ".t, the ".t of bein' m"tter, in%e4en%ent$y of form. Hen.e
it i# not "b#-r% to .on.ei6e it "# e7i#tin' 5itho-t form.
B. he .om4o#ition of m"tter "n% form m-#t be -n%er#too% "# " .om4o#ition of t5o
entitie# r"ther th"n of t5o 4rin.i4$e#.
8. M"tter i# of it#e$f inte$$i'ib$e.
Of the#e .on#e=-en.e#, the thir% one i# by f"r the mo#t intere#tin' "n% the mo#t im4ort"nt
for tr".in' the 4rofo-n% me"nin' of S.oti#ti. tho-'ht. It i# the .on.e4t of the -nity of the
.om4o#ite th"t i# here "t #t"2e. he mo#t #erio-# .h"r'e $e6e$e% "'"in#t D-n# S.ot-# i#
th"t by hi# %o.trine he %e#troy# the -nity of the .om4o#ite. In f".t, St. hom"# "n% hi#
#.hoo$ m"int"in th"t bet5een t5o entitie# no #-b#t"nti"$ .om4o#ition
,8*,
i# 4o##ib$e. ! #-b#t"nti"$ .om4o#ition m-#t be bet5een t5o e$ement# 5hi.h h"6e "
m-t-"$ "ttr".tion "n% Join to'ether "# 4rin.i4$e#. hi# me"n# th"t the re"$ity of the
.om4o#ite h"# on$y one ".t of e7i#ten.e, the ".t th"t re#-$t# from the re.i4ro."$ -nion of
the t5o e$ement#. If the t5o e$ement# .o-$% e7i#t in%e4en%ent$y of e".h other, they 5o-$%
be of them#e$6e# .om4$ete bein'# or #-b#t"n.e#F their -nion 5o-$% no $on'er be #-.h "#
to form J-#t one #-b#t"n.e.
D-n# S.ot-# h"# " #ome5h"t %ifferent "n%, $et -# #"y, $e## ri'oro-# .on.e4t of #-b#t"nti"$
-nion. For him, to h"6e " #-b#t"nti"$ -nion of t5o e$ement#, it i# not ne.e##"ry th"t the
re"$ity of one e$ement %e4en% on the re"$ity of the other to #-.h "n e7tent th"t the re"$ity
of the t5o e$ement# i# Emet"4hy#i."$$yG 4o##ib$e on$y in the .om4o#ite. On the .ontr"ry,
for " re"$ .om4o#ition, it i# re=-ire% th"t e".h e$ement h"6e it# o5n %i#tin.t re"$ity,
in%e4en%ent "# #-.h from the re"$ity of the other. he -nion %oe# not thereby .e"#e to be
" #-b#t"nti"$ -nion, 4ro6i%e% th"t the t5o e$ement# "re or%ere% by n"t-re to .on#tit-te one
bein'. hi# n"t-r"$ %etermin"tion i# eno-'h to "##-re " met"4hy#i."$ -nity of the
.om4o#ite, "# 5e$$ "# bein' " #-ffi.ient .riterion for %i#tin'-i#hin' " #-b#t"nti"$ from "n
"..i%ent"$ -nity. !n "..i%ent"$ -nity i# in effe.t " -nion of t5o thin'# th"t %o not
m"nife#t " n"t-r"$ %etermin"tion of one to5"r% the other.
(B

Doe# thi# im4$y, then, th"t form i# not the ".t of m"tterL ! %i#tin.tion i# ne.e##"ry. If by
".t i# me"nt ".t-"$ity in 'ener"$, "# o44o#e% to 4-re 4otenti"$ity, then one m-#t #"y th"t
m"tter i# 4er #e in ".t 5itho-t the form. If by ".t i# me"nt th"t 5hi.h 'i6e# %etermin"tion,
"n% by 4oten.y th"t 5hi.h re.ei6e# it, then m"tter i# not in ".t b-t in 4otenti"$ity to the
form. In"#m-.h "# m"tter i# ."4"b$e of re.ei6in' "$$ form#"n% #-.h i# the n"t-re of
4rim"ry m"tter,,it i# on$y in 4oten.y.
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(B
9Cert"in thin'# h"6e "mon' them#e$6e# " -nity of or%er be."-#e they "re or%ere% ad
unum#( +p# +.on#, II, %. (1, =. (, n. (8.
,AC,
!# #-.h, it ."n ri'ht$y be ."$$e% 4oten.y to the -tmo#t %e'ree.
(8

he o44o#ite theory r-n# into " 6ery #erio-# %iffi.-$ty. If the re"$ity of 4rim"ry m"tter
%e4en%# entire$y on the form, it fo$$o5# th"t not on$y m"tter ."nnot e7i#t 5itho-t form in
'ener"$, b-t th"t no m"tter i# 4o##ib$e 5itho-t " 4"rti.-$"r form. &h"te6er e7i#t# i#
ne.e##"ri$y in%i6i%-"$. !..or%in'$y, the -nion th"t, in the o4inion of the %efen%er# of thi#
theory, m-#t ne.e##"ri$y e7i#t bet5een m"tter "n% form 5i$$ .ert"in$y not be " mere -nion
bet5een m"tter "n% form in 'ener"$, b-t bet5een m"tter "n% "n in%i6i%-"$ form. hi# i#
e=-i6"$ent to #"yin' th"t m"tter ."n ne6er be #e4"r"te% from the form by 5hi.h it i#
".t-"$i<e% here "n% no5,,"$$ of 5hi.h i# "'"in#t their te".hin'. Hen.e, if m"tter i# not
ne.e##"ri$y -nite% to "ny 4"rti.-$"r form, it fo$$o5# th"t neither i# it ne.e##"ri$y -nite% to
form in 'ener"$. If it ."n be 5itho-t thi# or th"t form, it ."n "$#o e7i#t 5itho-t "ny form "t
"$$. In other 5or%#, the bon% e7i#tin' bet5een m"tter "n% 4"rti.-$"r form# ."nnot be of "
%ifferent n"t-re from the bon% e7i#tin' bet5een m"tter "n% form in 'ener"$. hey "re
either both .ontin'ent or both ne.e##"ry.
In "$$ thi# %i#.-##ion, of 5hi.h on$y the f-n%"ment"$ 4oint# h"6e been mentione%, D-n#
S.ot-# .$"im# to inter4ret !ri#tot$e3# 'en-ine tho-'ht. hi# i# #o tr-e th"t to "n ob6io-#
obJe.tion r"i#e% "'"in#t him, n"me$y, th"t the St"'irite h"% "$#o %enie% to ;o% the 4o5er
to m"2e m"tter e7i#t 5itho-t form, the S-bt$e Do.tor "n#5er# th"t thi# i# 4erfe.t$y
-n%er#t"n%"b$e in the !ri#tote$i"n #y#tem. In f".t, in the or%er of n"t-re m"tter i# not
#e4"r"b$e from form, "n% the ".tion of the n"t-r"$ effi.ient ."-#e# h"# no %ire.t be"rin'
-4on 4rim"ry m"tter. hi# i#
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(8
Ibid#, n. ((F 9! bein' i# #"i% to be in 4oten.y, in"#m-.h "# the more " thin' i# $".2in'
in ".t-"$ %etermin"tion#, the more it i# in 4oten.y. Sin.e H4rim"ryI m"tter ."n re.ei6e
"$$ #-b#t"nti"$ "n% "..i%ent"$ form#, it i# in 4oten.y to the -tmo#t %e'ree in re'"r% to
them. Hen.e it# %efinition of " bein' in 4oten.y.9
,A(,
4o##ib$e to ;o% "$one. B-t ;o%, "..or%in' to !ri#tot$e, ne6er ".t# %ire.t$y -4on thin'#,
"n% ."n not, by re"#on of Hi# 4erfe.tion. He ".t# #o$e$y thro-'h the #e.on%"ry ."-#e#.
h-# ;o%3# ".tion in the 5or$% i# $imite% to the ".tion of the #e.on%"ry ."-#e#. It i# on$y
$o'i."$, therefore, for !ri#tot$e to %eny to ;o% the 4o5er to .re"te m"tter 5itho-t form.
It i# not 5ithin the #.o4e of thi# #t-%y to %etermine 5hether D-n# S.ot-#3 inter4ret"tion of
!ri#tot$e3# tho-'ht i# more f"ithf-$ to the St"'irite th"n th"t of St. hom"#. he im4ort"nt
4oint for -# i# to note th"t the S.oti#ti. .on.e4tion of 4rim"ry m"tter ref$e.t# the
f-n%"ment"$ .o#mo$o'i."$ i%e"# of the !-'-#tini"n #.hoo$. For D-n# S.ot-#, "# for St.
!-'-#tine, m"tter i# the mo#t im4erfe.t bein' .re"te% by ;o%. Ne6erthe$e##, "# "
termin-# of the .re"ti6e ".t, m"tter ."nnot be .on#i%ere% "# " 4-re$y ne'"ti6e 6"$-e in the
#en#e th"t ;ree2 4hi$o#o4hy .on#i%ere% it. For the ;ree2#, m"tter 5"# in effe.t #omethin'
$i2e the 4rin.i4$e of e6i$, the nonbein' of finite thin'#. In thi# ne5 .on.e4tion, the
re$"tion bet5een m"tter "n% form i# %ee4$y "ffe.te%, "# i# the .on.e4t of the -nity of the
.om4o#ite. Form $o#e# 4"rt of it# im4ort"n.e> it i# no $on'er the ".t of m"tter in "n
"b#o$-tte #en#e, for it i# re%-.e% to the 4re.i#e .on.e4t of 4erfe.tion of m"tter. he ".t
5hereby m"tter i# 5h"t it i#, on the other h"n%, i# " ne.e##"ry 4re%i#4o#ition th"t m"2e# it
fit to re.ei6e "$$ form#. hi# i# it# f-n%"ment"$ 4erfe.tion, by 5hi.h it e7i#t# "# "
re.e4ti6e ."4".ity for "$$ f-rther 4erfe.tion#.
(A

hi# e##enti"$ .h"r".teri#ti. of 4rim"ry m"tter ren%er# the theory of #emin"$ re"#on#
Erationes seminalesG -#e$e##. In"#m-.h "# m"tter i# by it# n"t-re " ten%en.y to5"r% "$$
form# "n% " .r"6in' for them, it .ont"in# them "$$ 6irt-"$$y, "n% .on.-r# effe.ti6e$y to
their 4ro%-.tion in .oo4er"tion 5ith the #e.on%"ry ."-#e#. None of the form# th"t
".t-"$$y %etermine
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(A
&uaestiones subtilissimae in 2etaphysicam Aristotelis, $ib. IM, =. (1, n. 1.
,A1,
m"tter e7h"-#t# the ."4".ity of thi# $"tter for f-rther 4erfe.tion. It i# tr-e th"t one form
m"y 4re4"re m"tter to re.ei6e " more 4erfe.t form. Ho5e6er, thi# i# not "$5"y# the ."#e.
&hen .ert"in m"tter i# %etermine% by " form, it# ."4".ity for 4erfe.tion i# re#tri.te%, #o
to #4e"2, 5ithin the $imit# of 4erfe.tion of the form it#e$f. he#e $imit# ."nnot be
o6er.ome by the 4o5er of n"t-r"$ "'ent# "$one, #in.e the#e "'ent# meet "n in6in.ib$e
re#i#t"n.e in the ".t-"$ form. M"n, for in#t"n.e, ."nnot tr"n#form " #tone into " 4$"nt, or "
4$"nt into "n "nim"$. B-t none of thi# i# im4o##ib$e to %i6ine omni4oten.e.
0-#t "# the ".t by 5hi.h m"tter e7i#t# %oe# not 4re6ent m"tter from re.ei6in' the f-rther
".t of the form, "n% e6en m"2e# it ."4"b$e of re.ei6in' it, #o the 4o##ibi$ity i# not
e7.$-%e% th"t one form m"y ".t-"$$y en"b$e m"tter to re.ei6e " more 4erfe.t form. hi#
$"tter form 5i$$ th-# be re.ei6e% in 6irt-e of the 4re.e%in' one. I# not thi# the %o.trine
th"t $ie# "t the bottom of the !-'-#tini"n theory of 4$-r"$ity of form#L
THE PROBLEM OF UNI/ERSALS
he 4rob$em of -ni6er#"$# be'"n "# " $o'i."$ 4rob$em, b-t it i# "$#o " met"4hy#i."$
4rob$em 5ho#e #o$-tion m"y he$4 .on#i%er"b$y to re6e"$ the #tr-.t-re of re"$ity. !# -#-"$,
D-n# S.ot-# "rri6e# "t hi# o5n #o$-tion of the 4rob$em "fter " thoro-'h %i#.-##ion of the
4rin.i4"$ #o$-tion# offere% by 4hi$o#o4her# 5ho 4re.e%e% him. ! ne5 "n#5er 5o-$% h"6e
been -#e$e## h"% the 4rob$em "$re"%y been #"ti#f".tori$y #o$6e%.
hree m"in #o$-tion# of the 4rob$em of -ni6er#"$# .onfronte% the S-bt$e Do.torF
nomin"$i#m, e7"''er"te% re"$i#m, "n% St. hom"#3 mo%er"te re"$i#m. he !n'e$i. Do.tor
i# ne6er mentione% e74$i.it$y by D-n# S.ot-# thro-'ho-t the %i#.-##ion, nor %oe# S.ot-#
.h"$$en'e hi# 4o#ition. He r"ther $imit# him#e$f to "n "n"$y#i# of the fir#t t5o #y#tem#,
nomin"$i#m "n% e7"''er"te% re"$i#m, #o "# to e74o#e their f-n%"ment"$ %o.trine# "n%
4oint o-t their -ni$"ter"$ .h"r".ter "n% in#-ffi.ien.y.
,AB,
In "ny "ttem4t to #o$6e the 4rob$em of -ni6er#"$#, one i# ne.e##"ri$y f".e% by thi# e6i%ent
f".tF .on.rete thin'# "re "$$ "n% "$5"y# #in'-$"r, 5hi$e the 2no5$e%'e 5e h"6e of them i#
in term# of -ni6er#"$ .on.e4t#. Ho5 i# thi# .ontr"#t bet5een the #in'-$"rity of thin'# "n%
the -ni6er#"$ity of .on.e4t# to be e74$"ine%L
he nomin"$i#t "n#5er i# th"t "$$ th"t e7i#t# i# ipso facto #in'-$"r, "n% the -ni6er#"$ ."n in
no 5"y be fo-n% in the re"$ity of thin'#. he -ni6er#"$ m-#t be on$y in the inte$$e.t "n%
from the inte$$e.t. If h-m"nity, 5hi.h i# in So.r"te#, Peter, "n% other men, 5ere -ni6er#"$,
then So.r"te#, Peter, "n% "$$ in%i6i%-"$ men 5o-$% be -ni6er#"$F in 5hi.h ."#e
-ni6er#"$ity "# #-.h 5o-$% be %e#troye%.
Defen%er# of e7"''er"te% re"$i#m "n#5er in their t-rnF " -ni6er#"$ i# th"t 5hi.h i#
4re%i."b$e of " 4$-r"$ity of thin'#. No5, on$y t5o "$tern"ti6e# "re 4o##ib$eF either thi#
"4tit-%e for 4re%i."tion i# to be fo-n% re"$$y in thin'#, or e$#e it i# be#to5e% -4on thin'#
by the inte$$e.t. If the #e.on% "$tern"ti6e i# tr-e, it rem"in# to be e74$"ine% ho5 the
inte$$e.t .onfer# thi# "4tit-%e on .ert"in thin'# "n% not on other#, on h-m"nity, for
in#t"n.e, "n% not on So.r"te# or So.r"teity. On the other h"n%, 5hen I #"y th"t So.r"te# i#
" m"n, or the hor#e i# "n "nim"$, my #t"tement h"# no me"nin' -n$e## h-m"nity i# re"$$y
in So.r"te# "n% "nim"$ity in the hor#e. Moreo6er, if thin'# "re on$y #in'-$"r, ho5 i# it th"t
I 2no5 them "# -ni6er#"$L Or i# my 2no5$e%'e of them " mere tr"6e#ty "n% %eform"tion
of re"$ityL
E6i%ent$y, nomin"$i#m %e#troy# the obJe.ti6ity of h-m"n 2no5$e%'e. E7"''er"te%
re"$i#m on the other h"n% %e#troy# -ni6er#"$ity, th"t i#, the 4re%i."bi$ity of one thin',
#in.e "$$ th"t e7i#t# i# ne.e##"ri$y thi# or th"t "n% 5h"t i# 4ro4er to e6ery in%i6i%-"$.
In D-n# S.ot-#3 o4inion the #o$-tion of thi# %i$emm" i# 4o##ib$e on$y thro-'h " better
-n%er#t"n%in' "n% .$"rifi."tion of the .on.e4t of -ni6er#"$. On the one h"n%, the
obJe.ti6ity
,A8,
of o-r 2no5$e%'e %em"n%# th"t the -ni6er#"$ be #omeho5 in the re"$ity of thin'#> on the
other h"n%, the -ni6er#"$ ."nnot be #omethin' re"$ 5itho-t $o#in' it# 6ery n"t-re of
-ni6er#"$ity. hi# 4rob$em ."n on$y be #o$6e% by .on#i%erin' the .om4$e7ity "n%
"mbi'-ity of the .on.e4t of -ni6er#"$.
By -ni6er#"$ m"y be -n%er#too%F E(G the re$"tion of 4re%i."bi$ity bet5een the .on.e4t "n%
the thin'# of 5hi.h it ."n be 4re%i."te%> E1G the #-bJe.t of 5hi.h it i# 4re%i."te%> or
fin"$$y, EBG the thin' in it#e$f 5hi.h i# 4re%i."te%.
(+
If the term 9-ni6er#"$9 i# t"2en in the
fir#t #en#e, nomin"$i#m i# .orre.t, for nomin"$i#m .on#i%er# the -ni6er#"$ mere$y "# "
4ro%-.t of the min%. If it i# t"2en in the thir% #en#e, then e7"''er"te% re"$i#m i# ri'ht.
Ho5e6er, both nomin"$i#m "n% e7"''er"te% re"$i#m f"i$ to .on#i%er the -ni6er#"$ in the
#e.on% #en#e.
hin'# "re #in'-$"r, b-t they "re not e7.$-#i6e$y #-.h. here "re, in%ee%, .ert"in "#4e.t#
of thin'# th"t m"2e them %i#tin.t from "$$ other thin'# "n% #o ren%er them -ni=-e. here
"re "$#o "#4e.t# th"t m"2e them re"$$y #imi$"r to m"ny other thin'# 5ith 5hi.h they #h"re
" -nity of 'en-# "n% #4e.ie#. &h"t m"2e# " thin' h"6e " 'eneri. or #4e.ifi. .omm-nion
5ith other# i# it# .ommon n"t-re Enatura communisG. Con#i%ere% in it#e$f, thi# .ommon
n"t-re, e. '., h-m"nity, i# neither -ni6er#"$ nor #in'-$"rF it i# in%ifferent to bein' re"$i<e%
in "n infinite n-mber of in%i6i%-"$# or in J-#t one in%i6i%-"$. &hi$e, no %o-bt, Peter3#
h-m"nity i# not So.r"te#3 h-m"nity, h-m"nity "# #-.h Ee. seG nee% not be in Peter "$one,
to the e7.$-#ion of "$$ other men. 0-#t "# it i# not in%i6i%-"$ by %efinition, #o it nee% not
be in " 4$-r"$ity of in%i6i%-"$#. hi# in%ifferen.e 4ro4er to " .ommon n"t-re m"y "..o-nt
for thi# $"tter3# ."4".ity to re.ei6e t5o %ifferent mo%e# of bein'F #in'-$"rity in .on.rete
thin'#, -ni6er#"$ity in the inte$$e.t. Hen.e " .ommon n"t-re, i. e., the #-m,tot"$ of tho#e
"#4e.t# by 5hi.h " thin' be$on'# to " #4e.ie# or " 'en-#, i# not -ni6er#"$. Ne6erthe$e##
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(+
&uaest# subt# in 2etaph# Arist#, $ib. VII, =. (@, n. +.
,AA,
it i# the 4hy#i."$ b"#i# for the -ni6er#"$,, D-n# S.ot-# ."$$# it the physical uni5ersal,,th"t
"##-re# the obJe.ti6ity of o-r .on.e4t#. &hen o-r inte$$e.t 'r"#4# "n obJe.t, it
.on.entr"te# it# "ttention -4on the 4otenti"$ in%ifferen.e of it# n"t-re> it 4oint# it o-t, "# it
5ere, "n% ".t-"$i<e# it. he in%etermin"tene## of " .ommon n"t-re i# " mere
nonre4-'n"n.e to bein' ".t-"$i<e% in m"ny thin'#, 5here"# the in%etermin"tene## of o-r
.on.e4t i# #omethin' 4o#iti6e. hi# i# #o tr-e th"t, 5hi$e " .ommon n"t-re be.ome#
#in'-$"r in e6ery in%i6i%-"$, it# .on.e4t ref-#e# to be.ome #o. ! .on.e4t i# of it# n"t-re
-ni6er#"$. It i# 9in%etermin"te in ".t, #o th"t #omethin' 5hi.h i# inte$$i'ib$e "n%
n-meri."$$y one i# 4re%i."b$e of e6ery #-bJe.t "n% i# tr-$y -ni6er#"$.9
()

h-# -ni6er#"$ity, or in%etermin"tene## in ".t, be$on'# on$y to the .on.e4t. It i# "
mo%"$ity th"t thin'# ".=-ire in"#m-.h "# they "re 2no5n> it i# the mo%e 4ro4er to
intention"$ bein'. Ho5e6er, #in.e it i# on$y in thi# .on%ition th"t 4hy#i."$ bein'# enter the
met"4hy#i.i"n3# %om"in, D-n# S.ot-# ."$$# the .ommon n"t-re " metaphysical uni5ersal#
hi# i# not " .ommon n"t-re "# it i# in 4hy#i."$ re"$ity, b-t in"#m-.h "# it i# "44rehen%e%
by the inte$$e.t "n% .$"%, "# it 5ere, in the mo%"$itie# 4ro4er to intention"$ bein'.
hi# #ti$$ %oe# not 'i6e -# the -ni6er#"$ in it# 4re.i#e form"$ "#4e.t, n"me$y, in the #tri.t
#en#e of the 5or%. In effe.t, -ni6er#"$ity .on#i#t# in the $o'i."$ re$"tion 5hereby "
.on.e4t ."n be 4re%i."te% of m"ny in%i6i%-"$#. he #t-%y of thi# 4"rti.-$"r 4ro4erty of
o-r .on.e4t#, 5ith their $imit# "n% $"5#, i# the 4ro4er obJe.t of $o'i.. he $o'i.i"n %oe#
not #t-%y thin'# %ire.t$y in their m"teri"$ity, "# the 4hy#i.i#t %oe#> nor %oe# he #t-%y them
in their e##en.e, "# the met"4hy#i.i"n 5o-$% %o. He .on#i%er# on$y their .on.e4t#, or
more #4e.ifi."$$y, thin'# "# they "re in hi# min%. !..or%in'$y, D-n# S.ot-# ."$$# the
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
()
Ibid#
,A+,
.on.e4t th"t i# 4re%i."b$e of m"ny in%i6i%-"$# " logical uni5ersal#
o #-m -4, the -ni6er#"$ m-#t h"6e t5o =-"$itie# or 4ro4ertie#F it m-#t be in m"ny "n% be
4re%i."te% of m"ny Eesse in multis et dici de multisG. he 5ho$e %iffi.-$ty in the 4rob$em
of -ni6er#"$# i# ho5 to re.on.i$e the#e t5o "44"rent$y .ontr"#tin' .h"r".ter#. In%ee%,
5h"t i# re"$$y in thin'# #eem#, by thi# 6ery f".t, to be in."4"b$e of bein' 4re%i."te% Edici
de multisG, 5hi$e th"t 5hi.h ."n be 4re%i."te% Eelici de multisG #eem# to be e7.$-#i6e$y
the 4ro%-.t of o-r inte$$e.t-"$ ".ti6ity.
D-n# S.ot-# #o$6e# the %iffi.-$ty by %i#tin'-i#hin' three %ifferent me"nin'# of the term
uni5ersal: E(G the -ni6er#"$, in"#m-.h "# it i# one in m"ny, i# the .ommon n"t-re, 5hi.h
by it#e$f i# not "4t to be 4re%i."te% of m"ny,,the physical uni5ersal7 E1G the "4tit-%e to be
4re%i."te% of m"ny 5hi.h the inte$$e.t .onfer# -4on .ommon n"t-re in the ".t of
2no5in' it,,the metaphysical uni5ersal7 EBG the ".t-"$ e7er.i#e of thi# "4tit-%e in#of"r "#
the .on.e4t, 5hi.h i# in 4otenti"$ity to be 4re%i."te% of m"ny, i# de facto 4re%i."te% in
actu secundo by o-r inte$$e.t,,the logical uni5ersal# hi# $"#t i# the re#-$t of the ".t of the
inte$$e.t 5hi.h ref$e.t# -4on the =-"$itie# of the .on.e4t, "n% by .on#i%erin' it# re$"tion
to it# #-bJe.ti6e 4"rt#, %i#.o6er# th"t it ."n be 4re%i."te% of m"ny in%i6i%-"$#.
he 4hy#i."$ -ni6er#"$ i# the re"$ fo-n%"tion of o-r .on.e4tF it "##-re# the obJe.ti6ity of
o-r 2no5$e%'e "# 5e$$ "# the re"$ -nity of the #4e.ie# "n% the 'en-#. hi# -nity i# ."$$e%
by D-n# S.ot-# " $e## ri'oro-# -nity th"n the n-meri."$ one Eminor unitate numeraliG,
be."-#e it %oe# not e7.$-%e the n-meri."$ m-$ti4$i.ity of the in%i6i%-"$#. he
met"4hy#i."$ -ni6er#"$, 5hi.h "ri#e# from the thin' "n% the inte$$e.t th"t 2no5# it,
re4re#ent# the ne.e##"ry $in2 bet5een .on.rete re"$ity "n% o-r $o'i."$ o4er"tion#, e6en
tho-'h it i# form"$$y in the inte$$e.t. he $o'i."$ -ni6er#"$ re"4# the fr-it# of th"t n"t-r"$
.o$$"bor"tion bet5een thin' "n% inte$$e.t in 5hi.h "b#tr".tion 4ro4er$y .on#i#t#. he
S.oti#ti. #o$-tion of the 4rob$em of -ni6er#"$# i#
,A),
th-# #-b#t"nti"$$y 5ithin the fr"me of mo%er"te re"$i#m. he -ni6er#"$ i# form"$$y in the
inte$$e.t, b-t it# fo-n%"tion i# in the re"$ity of thin'#.
COMMON NATURE AND THE PRINCIPLE OF INDI/IDUATION
In hi# en%e"6or to %etermine the 4re.i#e me"nin' of the fo-n%"tion of the -ni6er#"$, D-n#
S.ot-# e$"bor"te% the theory of the natura communis or the 4hy#i."$ -ni6er#"$. In #4ite of
the m"ny obJe.tion# th"t m"y be r"i#e% "'"in#t the S.oti#ti. natura communis, it ."nnot
be %enie% th"t thi# %o.trine re4re#ent# " rem"r2"b$e #te4 to5"r% 're"ter 4re.i#ion in the
term# in6o$6e% in the 4rob$em of -ni6er#"$#. It i# "$#o " #te4 for5"r% in the 4ro4o#e%
#o$-tion of mo%er"te re"$i#m. !nother "%6"nt"'e to be %eri6e% from #-.h " %o.trine i# "
better -n%er#t"n%in' of S.ot-#3 te".hin' on the met"4hy#i."$ #tr-.t-re of finite bein'. If,
in%ee%, the natura communis i# to be fo-n% "# #-.h in thin'#, it m-#t h"6e it# o5n re"$ity
"n% met"4hy#i."$ -nity in%e4en%ent$y of the #in'-$"rity of thin'#. D-n# S.ot-# "..e4t#
#-.h "n im4$i."tion 5hen he #t"te#F 9he n"t-re by it#e$f i# not #in'-$"r, b-t i# 4rior to the
mo%"$ity th"t .ontr".t# it to be thi# or th"t #in'-$"r thin'> "n% in"#m-.h "# by it#e$f it i#
4rior to the mo%"$ity th"t .ontr".t# it, it i# not re4-'n"nt to it to be 5itho-t th"t mo%"$ity.9
(@

hi# 4"##"'e, 5hi.h i# on$y one "mon' the m"ny th"t .o-$% be =-ote% in #-44ort of o-r
"##ertion, te$$# -# .$e"r$y th"t for D-n# S.ot-# " .on.rete thin' i# not mere$y " .om4o#ite
of m"tter "n% form, b-t "$#o " .om4o#ite of " #4e.ifi. .ommon n"t-re "n% of " 4rin.i4$e
5hi.h .ontr".t# n"t-re into #in'-$"rity. By it#e$f Ee. seG n"t-re, it i# 5orth re4e"tin', i#
neither -ni6er#"$ nor #in'-$"r. Ho5e6er, "# #-.h it %oe# not e7i#t. It e7i#t# r"ther "#
-ni6er#"$, th"t i#, "# "n intention"$ bein' in the
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(@
+p# +.on#, II, %. B, =. (, n. ).
,A@,
inte$$e.t, "n% "# #in'-$"r in .on.rete re"$ity, o-t#i%e the inte$$e.t. he ."-#e of
-ni6er#"$ity, "# 5i$$ be #een $"ter, i# therefore to be fo-n% in the inte$$e.t, 5hi$e the ."-#e
of the #in'-$"rity i# to be fo-n% in #omethin' 5ithin the thin' it#e$f. hi# i# 2no5n in
hi#tory "# the 4rob$em of, or the =-e#t for, the 4rin.i4$e of in%i6i%-"tion.
D-n# S.ot-# form-$"te# the 4rob$em in the#e term#F it i# not re4-'n"nt to the n"t-re or
e##en.e of " thin' to be 4"rti.i4"te% in by m"ny in%i6i%-"$# or to be %i6i#ib$e into m"ny
#-bJe.ti6e 4"rt#. Ho5e6er, on.e it i# ".t-"$i<e% in the in%i6i%-"$, it $o#e# it# %i6i#ibi$ity
"n% be.ome# in.omm-ni."b$e. In.omm-ni."bi$ity, or in%i6i#ibi$ity into #-bJe.ti6e 4"rt#,
i# in f".t the .h"r".teri#ti. th"t .on#tit-te# the in%i6i%-"$.
B-t 5h"t i# the ."-#e 5hi.h brin'# "bo-t th"t -nity 5hi.h the #4e.ie# ".=-ire# in the
moment it be.ome# ".t-"$i<e% in the in%i6i%-"$L hi# i# 4re.i#e$y the 4rob$em "t h"n%.
o "ffirm 5ith Henry of ;hent th"t in%i6i%-"tion %oe# not re=-ire " 4o#iti6e 4rin.i4$e
be."-#e the e##enti"$ .h"r".teri#ti.# of the in%i6i%-"$ "re ne'"ti6e, i. e., they .on#i#t in the
intrin#i. in%i6i#ibi$ity "n% in.omm-ni."bi$ity of the in%i6i%-"$ to other thin'#, i# not to
#o$6e the 4rob$em b-t to "6oi% it. For 5e "re tryin' to fin% o-t 4re.i#e$y 5h"t i# the ."-#e
th"t m"2e# the#e .h"r".teri#ti.# 4ro4er to the in%i6i%-"$ "n% not to the #4e.ifi. e##en.e.
Ne'"ti6e "# they m"y be, they m-#t be b"#e% on #omethin' re"$, n"me$y, the re"$
mo%ifi."tion th"t e74$"in# their "44e"r"n.e. Hen.e the 4rin.i4$e of in%i6i%-"tion m-#t be
#o-'ht in #omethin' 4o#iti6e. hi# i# the o4inion of ;o%frey of Font"ine#, ;i$e# of Rome,
"n% St. hom"# !=-in"#. D-n# S.ot-# "n"$y<e# their #o$-tion# "n% m"2e# hi# o5n
rem"r2# -4on them.
he homi#ti. #o$-tion, 5hi.h 4$".e# the 4rin.i4$e of in%i6i%-"tion in materia signata
,uantitate, i# 5e$$ 2no5n. ;o%frey of Font"ine# "n% ;i$e# of Rome "'ree #-b#t"nti"$$y
5ith St. hom"#> b-t 5here"# !=-in"# $"y# em4h"#i# on m"tter r"ther th"n on =-"ntity,
they .on#i%er =-"ntity r"ther th"n
,A*,
m"tter to be re#4on#ib$e for in%i6i%-"tion.
N
De#4ite the -n%eni"b$e %ifferen.e# bet5een
the #o$-tion of ;o%frey of Font"ine# "n% th"t of ;i$e# of Rome, the S-bt$e Do.tor for
4r".ti."$ 4-r4o#e# re%-.e# both #o$-tion# to one. Hi# .riti.i#m i# m"in$y b"#e% on the f".t
th"t =-"ntity i# "n "..i%ent. Hen.e the %i$emm"F either #-b#t"n.e i# i%enti."$ in "$$
in%i6i%-"$#, #o th"t the m-$ti4$i."tion of the in%i6i%-"$# 5ithin the #"me #4e.ie# i#
effe.te% on$y thro-'h the %ifferen.e in the =-"ntitie# th"t "$5"y# "..om4"ny m"teri"$
bein'#, or #-b#t"n.e i# by it# n"t-re #in'-$"r "n% m"nife#t# it# #in'-$"rity by %em"n%in'
"n "44ro4ri"te =-"ntity from 5hi.h it# m-$ti4$i."tion %eri6e#. In the fir#t ."#e, there i#
rene5e% the P$"toni. error of " #e4"r"te "n% 4erfe.t #4e.ifi. e##en.e, 5ith "$$ the
.on#e=-en.e# th"t fo$$o5 from it, the fir#t of 5hi.h 5o-$% be to re%-.e the 4rin.i4$e of
m-$ti4$i."tion of the in%i6i%-"$# to the $e6e$ of "n "..i%ent. In the #e.on% ."#e, #omethin'
e6en more "b#-r% i# "ffirme%, n"me$y, th"t " #-b#t"n.e, 5hi.h by it#e$f i# #in'-$"r, "n%
hen.e in%i6i#ib$e into #-bJe.ti6e 4"rt#, i# #o %ee4$y mo%ifie% by "n "..i%ent, i.e., =-"ntity,
th"t it be.ome# %i6i#ib$e into #-bJe.ti6e 4"rt#. h"t "n "..i%ent m"y .h"n'e the n"t-re of
" #-b#t"n.e i# #omethin' -nhe"r% of. F-rthermore, it i# .ontr"%i.tory.
he homi#ti. %o.trine, 5hi.h m"2e# the 4rin.i4$e of in%i6i%-"tion "n% %i#tin.tion 5h"t
by it# n"t-re i# in%etermin"te "n% in%i#tin.t, i# no better " #o$-tion th"n the 4re.e%in' one.
o "6oi% the#e %iffi.-$tie# "n% #"6e the %i'nity of the in%i6i%-"$, D-n# S.ot-# h"#
re.o-r#e to hi# theory of 9h"e..eity,9 or thi#ne##. he 4rin.i4"$ "r'-ment on 5hi.h he
b"#e# hi# #o$-tion i# thi#. he #4e.ie# 4o##e##e# " -nity of it# o5n, 5hi.h
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
N
;o%frey of Font"ine# m"int"in# th"t form i# the 4rin.i4$e of in%i6i%-"tion, not m"tter
or =-"ntity. 9Form"$i# r"tio h-i-#mo%i %i#tin.tioni#, =-" #.i$i.et -n-m in%i6i%--m in
m"teri"$ib-# "b "$io form"$iter %i#tin'-it-r . . . e#t form" #-b#t"nti"$i# -ni-#.-i-#=-e
in%i6i%-if.9 &uodlib# VII, =. A, e%. De &-$f,Pe$<er,Hoffm"n#, 1es -hilosophes /elges
ELo-6"in, (*C8,BAG, 6o$. III, 4. B18. E"r#G
,+C,
i# not on$y " $o'i."$ -nity b-t "$#o " n"t-r"$ one. It i# " -nity th"t, tho-'h e7.$-%in' "
%i6i#ion into e##enti"$ 4"rt#,,"ny mo%ifi."tion of the e##enti"$ e$ement# %e#troy# the
#4e.ie#,%oe# not e7.$-%e " %i6i#ion into #-bJe.ti6e 4"rt#, 5hereby the re4re#ent"ti6e# or
."rrier# of the #4e.ie# ."n be m-$ti4$ie% in%efinite$y.
he in%i6i%-"$ 4o##e##e# " -nity th"t i# more 4erfe.t th"n the #4e.ifi. -nity, for it
e7.$-%e# e6en the %i6i#ion into #-bJe.ti6e 4"rt#. he in%i6i%-"$ i# the on$y re4re#ent"ti6e
of it#e$f. No5 -nity "n% entity 4ro.ee% to'etherF " more 4erfe.t -nity %em"n%# " more
4erfe.t bein'. Hen.e the tr"n#ition from #4e.ifi. -nity to in%i6i%-"$ -nity ."nnot t"2e
4$".e 5itho-t the "%%ition of "n intrin#i. 4erfe.tion to bein' it#e$f. hi# ne5 ".t, or
entit"ti6e 4erfe.tion, th"t i# "%%e% to the #4e.ie# i# 5h"t S.ot-# ."$$# 9h"e..eity.9 It i# not
" ne5 form"$ e$ement in the #en#e th"t the #4e.ifi. %ifferen.e %etermine# the 'en-#, b-t
"n entity 95hi.h %etermine#, "# by "n ".t, th"t 5hi.h m"y be ."$$e% " 4o##ib$e "n%
4otenti"$ re"$ity of the #4e.ie#.9
(*
In other 5or%#, the h"e..eity i# not J-#t " 4erfe.tion
"%%e% to the form "n% 5ithin the form, b-t " ne5 mo%e of bein' th"t "ffe.t# m"tter, form,
"n% the .om4o#ite, i. e., the 5ho$e .ommon n"t-re, 5hi.h i# thereby .ontr".te% "n%
for.e% to .ome o-t of th"t #ort of in%etermin"tion 5hi.h i# 4ro4er to the #4e.ifi. n"t-re.
1C
It i# on the 4$"ne of ".t, "n% therefore " re"$ 4rin.i4$e, 5itho-t bein' " form"$ e$ement.
hi# i# not in.on#i#tent 5ith D-n# S.ot-#3 4hi$o#o4hy, "..or%in' to 5hi.h m"tter, "#
4re6io-#$y #t"te%, h"# "n ".t of it# o5n in%e4en%ent of the form.
he h"e..eity i# not "n enri.hment of the form in it# =-i%%it"ti6e bein' Ein esse
,uidditati5oG b-t r"ther the $"#t #te4 or the -$tim"te 4re4"r"tion of the form, "n% therefore
of the 5ho$e .om4o#ite, to5"r% "n% for re"$ e7i#ten.e. 9hi# re"$ity
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(*
+p# +.on#, II, %. B, =. +, n. (1.
1C
Ibid#, n. (A.
,+(,
of the in%i6i%-"$ Hi. e., th"t 5hi.h m"2e# #omethin' to be in%i6i%-"$I ."n ne6er be
-n%er#too% "# " ne5 form b-t r"ther "# the -$tim"te re"$ity of the form.9
1(
hi# h"e..eity
i# tot"$$y %ifferent from, "n% h"# nothin' in .ommon 5ith, other h"e..eitie#, 9be."-#e
e6ery in%i6i%-"$ entity i# r"%i."$$y %ifferent from "ny other entity.9
11
Herein $ie# the
re"#on for the im4re%i."bi$ity of the in%i6i%-"$, 5hi.h ."n re.ei6e "$$ 4re%i."te# b-t
."nnot in t-rn it#e$f be.ome " 4re%i."te.
Loo2e% "t from thi# 4oint of 6ie5, the in%i6i%-"$ #-b#t"n.e #h"re# in one .h"r".teri#ti. of
m"tter. It ."n be #"i% th"t h"e..eity, $o'i."$$y .on#i%ere%, .on#tit-te# the in%i6i%-"$ in it#
re.e4ti6e .h"r".ter Ein ratione subiicibilisG, "n% .on#e=-ent$y in it# m"teri"$ bein' Ein
esse materialiG. In%ee%, on$y th"t 5hi.h i# 4re%i."b$e h"# the .h"r".ter of form Ehabet
rationem formaeG.
1B
hi# e74$"in# 5hy !ri#tot$e ne6er %i#Join# the in%i6i%-"$ from the
.on.e4t of m"tter.
In #hort, one #ho-$% not .on.ei6e the .om4o#ition of .ommon n"t-re "n% h"e..eity,
5hi.h .ontr".t# it, "# " re"$ .om4o#ition, "n"$o'o-# to the .om4o#ition th"t re#-$t# from
the -nion of m"tter "n% form. H"e..eity i# not " re"$$y %i#tin.t 4rin.i4$e, b-t mere$y the
-$tim"te entity of form, or it# -$tim"te ne.e##"ry 4erfe.tion in the or%er of bein'.
Common n"t-re ."n ne6er e7i#t 5itho-y h"e..eity, nor i# it re$"te% to it "# one thin' to
"nother, b-t "# re"$ity to re"$ity, th"t i#, "# " mo%e of bein' to " mo%e of bein' of one "n%
the #"me thin'.
18
Bet5een them there i# on$y " form"$ %i#tin.tion.
It i# time no5 to .on#i%er the im4ort"nt .on#e=-en.e# %eri6in' from the S.oti#ti.
%o.trine of the 4rin.i4$e of in%i6i%-"tion. he fir#t of the#e i# " r"%i."$ 6in%i."tion of the
6"$-e of the in%i6i%-"$ "'"in#t the %e4re.i"tin' ten%en.ie# of ;ree2
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
1(
Ibid#, n. (1.
11
Ibid#
1B
Ibid#, n. (B.
18
Ibid#, n. (+.
,+1,
4hi$o#o4hy. For P$"to the on$y re"$itie# in the f-$$ me"nin' of the term 5ere i%e"$
e##en.e#. he m-$ti4$i.ity of in%i6i%-"$# 5"# for him " %e'r"%"tion "n% %e6"$-"tion from
5hi.h, =-ite in.on#i#tent$y, m"n "$one .o-$% re%eem him#e$f. !ri#tot$e, too, %i% not
%e4"rt on thi# 4oint from the $o'i."$ .o-r#e of P$"toni. met"4hy#i.#. He t"-'ht, in f".t,
th"t on$y the form or e##en.e i# inte$$i'ib$e, 5hi$e the in%i6i%-"$ i# the re#-$t of "
#ome5h"t my#terio-# .ont"min"tion of bein' EformG "n% nonbein' Em"tterG. F-rthermore,
thro-'h hi# %o.trine of " #e4"r"te "'ent inte$$e.t, !ri#tot$e, more .on#i#tent$y th"n P$"to,
e6en re%-.e% the in%i6i%-"$ m"n to " feeb$e in."rn"tion of the #4e.ie#. In #o %oin', he
en%e% -4 by betr"yin' the met"4hy#i."$ in#i'ht 5hi.h h"% m"r2e% the #t"rtin' 4oint of
hi# tho-'ht, n"me$y, th"t thin'# e7i#t on$y "# in%i6i%-"$#, "n% therefore 9the in%i6i%-"$
E"n% not the #4e.ie#G i# bein' "n% one in the mo#t tr-e #en#e.9
It i# h"r% to -n%er#t"n% ho5 #t"tement# of thi# 2in% ."n h"6e " re"$ me"nin', -n$e## on
entit"ti6e 4erfe.tion #-4erior to the 4erfe.tion of the #4e.ifi. e##en.e i# re.o'ni<e% in the
in%i6i%-"$. he "%mi##ion of thi# f-rther 4erfe.tion in the in%i6i%-"$ #eem# "$#o to be the
ne.e##"ry re=-irement for #"$6"'in' the 6"$-e of h-m"n 4er#on"$ity, 5hi.h i# one of the
4o#t-$"te# of Chri#ti"nity. Here i# 5here the tr-e me"nin' of the S.oti#ti. %o.trine of
h"e..eity i# to be fo-n%. hi# %o.trine "im# 4re.i#e$y "t 4ointin' o-t the in%i6i%-"$3#
're"ter ri.hne## of 4erfe.tion in .ontr"#t to the #4e.ie#, "n% "t e74$"inin' ho5 thin'#
."nnot e7i#t e7.e4t "# in%i6i%-"$#. In%i6i%-"$ity, in S.ot-#3 #y#tem, i# the -$tim"te
4erfe.tion of thin'#F it en"b$e# them to re.ei6e in them#e$6e# the ".t of e7i#ten.e. On$y
th-# they be.ome real in the f-$$ #en#e of the term.
If the in%i6i%-"$ i# " more 4erfe.t bein' th"n the #4e.ifi. e##en.e, it 5i$$ not on$y h"6e "
're"ter -nity, b-t "$#o " 're"ter %e'ree of tr-th "n% 'oo%ne##. he in%i6i%-"$ 5i$$ be
.o'ni<"b$e in it#e$f. If o-r inte$$e.t %oe# not #-..ee% in 4enetr"tin' the 5ho$e ri.hne## of
re"$ity en.$o#e% in it, th"t i# e7.$-#i6e$y
,+B,
be."-#e of it# 5e"2ne##. B-t ;o% 2no5# it, "n% to e".h in%i6i%-"$ He h"# "##i'ne% "
%efinite 4$".e in the h"rmonio-# .om4$e7ity of re"$ity. E".h in%i6i%-"$ i# $i2e " note in
the 'r"n% #ym4hony of .re"tion "n% f-rni#he# ne5 e6i%en.e of ;o%3# m"'nifi.en.e "n%
bo-nty. !# D-n# S.ot-# 4-t# it, 9In%i6i%-"$# "# #-.h "re "$#o 5i$$e% by the fir#t ."-#e, not
"# en%#,,for ;o% "$one i# the en%,,b-t "# #omethin' or%ere% to the en%. Hen.e ;o%
m-$ti4$ie% the in%i6i%-"$# 5ithin the #4e.ie# in or%er to .omm-ni."te Hi# 'oo%ne## "n%
Hi# be"tit-%e.9
1A

Fin"$$y, $et -# not for'et th"t S.ot-#3 %o.trine of the 4rin.i4$e of in%i6i%-"tion i# "
tr"n#.en%ent"$ %o.trine. !# #-.h, it embr".e# "$$ bein'# "n% i# not $imite% "# i# the
homi#ti. %o.trine, to m"teri"$ bein'#.
N
On.e "'"in the S-bt$e Do.tor "44e"r# to be in
h"rmony 5ith the e7i'en.ie# of the !-'-#tini"n #.hoo$. Hi# theory of h"e..eity i# "n
"ttem4t to brin' forth "n% 'i6e more .on.rete #h"4e to #ome of the tho-'ht# -n%er$yin'
!-'-#tini"n %o.trine# .on.ernin' the #4e.ifi. "# 5e$$
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
N
St. hom"# "44$ie# hi# %o.trine of the 4rin.i4$e of in%i6i%-"tion "$#o to the #o-$, b-t
on$y in#of"r "# the #o-$ i# re$"te% to the bo%yF 9"nim" non in%i6i%-"t-r 4er m"teri"m
e7 =-" #it, #e% #e.-n%-m h"bit-%inem "% m"teri"m in =-" e#t.9 De Anima, "rt. +, "%
(B. Con.ernin' the homi#ti. "n% S.oti#ti. %o.trine# on the 4rin.i4$e of in%i6i%-"tion,
H"n# Meyer 5rite#F 9he homi#ti. 4rin.i4$e of in%i6i%-"tion h"# e6o2e% m-.h
.riti.i#m, not on$y be."-#e St. hom"# 5"# -n.ert"in "bo-t it or be."-#e it 5"#
im4ro4er$y -n%er#too%, b-t e#4e.i"$$y be."-#e of the inherent 5e"2ne## of the
homi#ti. 4o#ition.9 "he -hilosophy of St# "homas A,uinas, tr"n#. Re6. Fre%eri.
E.2hoff E St. Lo-i#F Her%er Boo2 Co., (*8@G, 4. )+. 9&hen St. hom"# 4$".e% the
4rin.i4$e of in%i6i%-"tion for imm"teri"$ thin'# in the form, "n% for m"teri"$ thin'# in
m"tter, e#t"b$i#hin' " %o-b$e e74$"n"tion, he m"%e 2no5n hi# in"bi$ity to fin% "
-niform b"#i# for the #o$-tion. S.ot-# 5"# %i#t-rbe% by
1A
Ibid#, =. ), n. (C.
,+8,
"# in%i6i%-"$ m-$ti4$i.ity of the "n'e$# "n% the 4o##ibi$ity of 2no5in' the #in'-$"r#.
ESSENCE AND E5ISTENCE
In or%er to -n%er#t"n% the met"4hy#i."$ #tr-.t-re of finite bein', one more #te4 m-#t be
t"2enF 5e m-#t .on#i%er the ".t of e7i#ten.e. D-n# S.ot-# reJe.t# e74$i.it$y the i%e" th"t
the ".t of e7i#tin' m"y be tho-'ht of "# the 4rin.i4$e of in%i6i%-"tion. H"e..eity i# #ti$$
on the 4$"ne of e##en.e> it .on#tit-te# the -$tim"te 4erfe.tion of the in%i6i%-"$ e##en.e.
&h"t 4"rti.i4"te# in the notion of e##en.e i# not in.$-%e% in the notion of e7i#ten.e.
E7i#ten.e m"2e# " mere 4o##ib$e bein' to be "n ".t-"$ bein'> it ".t-"$i<e# e##en.e, b-t it
%oe# not mo%ify it. It# re$"tion to e##en.e i# f"r from bein' " 4re%i."ment"$ re$"tion, for
e7i#ten.e i# neither #-b#t"n.e nor "..i%ent, neither n"t-re nor in%i6i%-"$ity. E7i#ten.e i#
re$"te% to e##en.e in "n entire$y %ifferent m"nner.
!re e##en.e "n% e7i#ten.e in " finite bein' re"$$y %i#tin.t from one "notherL Before
'i6in' S.ot-#3 o4inion on thi# 4oint, $et -# m"2e it .$e"r th"t the e##en.e in =-e#tion i# not
" 4o##ib$e e##en.e, b-t " re"$ one, "n% by re"$ e##en.e 5e me"n "n e##en.e 5hi.h i#
o-t#i%e of it# ."-#e Ee.tra causam suamG. Hen.e the 4rob$em m"y be #t"te% thi# 5"yF ."n
"n e##en.e be re"$ 5itho-t it# ".t of e7i#ten.eL D-n# S.ot-# %oe# not tre"t thi# =-e#tion
#4e.ifi."$$y> ho5e6er, .ert"in #t"tement# in hi# 5or2# $e"6e no %o-bt "# to hi# o4inion on
the m"tter. 9h"t "n e##en.e be o-t#i%e of it# ."-#e "n% h"6e no re"$ity to m"2e it th"t
4"r,
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
thi# %efi.ien.y, "n%, $"ter on, it $e% the yo-thf-$ Leibnit< to reJe.t the homi#ti.
#o$-tion.9 Ibid#, 4. )). 9S.ot-# h"$te% the tren% of tho-'ht fo#tere% by the te".hin'# of
!ri#tot$e "n% St. hom"# 5hi.h ten%e% to %e'r"%e the in%i6i%-"$ in f"6or of the
-ni6er#"$.9 Ibid#, 4. )*. Er. G
,+A,
ti.-$"r e##en.e Enon habeat ali,uod esse ,uo sit essentiaG i# for me " .ontr"%i.tion.9
1+

D-n# S.ot-# h"# often been .riti.i<e% for not h"6in' -n%er#too% the !ri#tote$i"n,
homi#ti. .on.e4t of 4oten.y "# #omethin' %e4ri6e% of "ny 2in% of ".t-"$ity. o "
.ert"in e7tent thi# i# tr-e. In f".t, he 5"# ne6er "b$e to -n%er#t"n% ho5 " 4oten.y .o-$% be
#"i% to be re"$, i. e., o-t#i%e it# ."-#e, "n% "t the #"me time h"6e no ".t of it# o5n to
.on#tit-te it "# " re"$ 4oten.y, be it 4rim"ry m"tter or e##en.e. hi# "44"rent $".2 of
-n%er#t"n%in' i# .ommon to the 5ho$e !-'-#tini"n #.hoo$. No .riti. of S.ot-#, ho5e6er,
h"# e6er tho-'ht of "#2in' him#e$f 5hether #-.h " $".2 of -n%er#t"n%in' mi'ht not be
"ttrib-te% to the %iffi.-$tie# inherent in the 6ery notion of the !ri#tote$i"n 4oten.y,
e#4e.i"$$y 5hen #-.h " notion i# 6ie5e% from the #t"n%4oint of the .re"tioni#t theory.
M"y not D-n# S.ot-# 4erh"4# be ri'ht 5hen he #"y# th"t #-.h " notion in6o$6e# "
.ontr"%i.tionL &h"te6er the ."#e m"y be, one thin' m-#t be borne in min%F it i# 4re.i#e$y
in thi# .ontr"#t of 6ie5# th"t $ie# the root of "$$ the %ifferen.e# th"t %i#tin'-i#h D-n#
S.ot-#3 met"4hy#i.# from the met"4hy#i.# of !ri#tot$e.
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
1+
+p# +.on#, II, %. (1, =. (, n. (+. Hh"t D-n# S.ot-# i# o44o#e% to the re"$ %i#tin.tion
bet5een e##en.e "n% e7i#ten.e in re"$ thin'# i# "$#o m"nife#t from the fo$$o5in' te7t#F
9Nescio enim istam fictionem* ,uod esse est ,uid super5eniens essentiae.9 +p# +.on#,
IV, %. ((, =. B, n. 8+. 9Simpliciter falsum est* ,uod esse sit aliud ab essentia.9 Ibid#, %.
(B, =. (, n. B@. 9# # # propositio est falsa: sicut se habet esse ad essentiam* ita operari
ad potentiam* ,uia esse est idem realiter cum essentia.9 Ibid#, II, %. (+, =-"e#t. -ni.",
n. (C. H"n# Meyer #eem# to "'ree 5ith D-n# S.ot-# 5hen he #t"te#F 9he theory of the
re"$ %i#tin.tion m"int"in# th"t the e7i#tin' e##en.e of " thin' i# re"$$y %i#tin.t from it#
e7i#ten.e, 5hi.h i# .ontr"%i.tory.9 "he -hilosophy of St# "homas A,uinas, 4. *+.
Er. GI
,++,
III
MAN
HE DIVER;ENCE of o4inion bet5een St. hom"# "n% D-n# S.ot-# 5ith re'"r% to the
.on.e4t of 4oten.y h"# " be"rin' on the f-n%"ment"$ 4rob$em of 4#y.ho$o'y, the
re$"tion#hi4 bet5een #o-$ "n% bo%y. he S.oti#ti. #o$-tion i# .h"r".teri<e% by the theory
of the form of .or4oreity Eforma corporeitatisG.
THE FORM OF CORPOREITY
It i# 5e$$ 2no5n th"t in the mi%%$e "'e# bio$o'y 5"# f"r from bein' the hi'h$y %e6e$o4e%
"n% "..-r"te #.ien.e th"t it i# "t 4re#ent. Yet me%ie6"$ #.ho$"r# -n%er#too% th"t $ife i# "
6ery #4e.i"$ 4ro.e## th"t ."nnot be re%-.e% to m"tter or e74$"ine% in term# of 4hy#i."$
"n% .hemi."$ $"5# "$one. he #o-r.e or 4rin.i4$e of $ife i# 5h"t they ."$$e% 9#o-$.9
Ho5e6er, it 5"# fe$t th"t for the #o-$ to be 4re#ent "n% to ".t, there 5"# nee% for m"tter
"$re"%y 4re4"re% by #ome 2in% of mi7t-re "n% or'"ni<"tion of the m"teri"$ e$ement#. he
b"#i. %ifferen.e bet5een mo%ern 6it"$i#ti. bio$o'y "n% me%ie6"$ bio$o'y .on#i#t#
4re.i#e$y in thi#, th"t for -# to%"y or'"ni. ".ti6ity i# #ynonymo-# 5ith $ife, #o th"t it i#
im4o##ib$e to .on.ei6e the or'"ni<"tion of " $i6in' bo%y 5itho-t the 4o#iti6e ".tion of
,+),
" 6it"$ 4rin.i4$e or #o-$. Moreo6er, the #o-$ i# be$ie6e% to be 4re#ent in the 6ery moment
of the form"tion of the fir#t $i6in' .e$$ of " bein' "# " 6it"$i#ti. im4-$#e for "$$ the or'"ni.
4ro.e##e#. In the mi%%$e "'e#, on the .ontr"ry, it 5"# .ommon$y "'ree% th"t the #o-$
.o-$% not m"2e it# "44e"r"n.e -nti$ m"tter 5"# "%e=-"te$y 4re4"re% by the ".tion of
#-..e##i6e form#. Ho5e6er, thi# #-..e##ion of form# 5"# %ifferent$y .on.ei6e% by the
!-'-#tini"n "n% the !ri#tote$i"n,homi#ti. #.hoo$#. &here"# St. hom"# be$ie6e% th"t
the more 4erfe.t form 6irt-"$$y .ont"ine% 5ithin it#e$f the 4o5er# of the inferior form#,
5hi.h 5o-$% therefore be.ome -#e$e## "n% .e"#e to e7i#t -4on the "44e"r"n.e of "
#-4erior form, the fo$$o5er# of the !-'-#tini"n #.hoo$ m"int"ine% th"t thi# $"#t form
5o-$% not %e#troy the 4re.e%in' one# b-t on$y #-bor%in"te their ".tion to it# o5n. h-#
for St. hom"# the -nity of the h-m"n .om4o#ite 5"# 5"rr"nte% by the -ni.ity of the
form, 5here"# for hi# o44onent# the -nity of the h-m"n .om4o#ite 5"# #-ffi.ient$y
'-"r"ntee% by the n"t-r"$ #-bor%in"tion of the $o5er form# to " #-4erior "n% more 4erfe.t
one.
D-n# S.ot-# %oe# not .om4$ete$y "..e4t either 4oint of 6ie5. He "'ree# 5ith the
homi#ti. 4rin.i4$e th"t it i# -#e$e## to "%mit the 4re#en.e of " 4$-r"$ity of form# 5hen
the more 4erfe.t form .ont"in# 5ithin it#e$f the 4o5er# of the inferior one#. !t the #"me
time he be$ie6e# th"t thi# 4rin.i4$e of met"4hy#i."$ e.onomy, n"me$y, th"t bein'# "re not
to be m-$ti4$ie% 5itho-t ne.e##ity, ."nnot be 5ho$$y "44$ie% to the ."#e of m"n "n% $i6in'
bein'# in 'ener"$. Life i# #omethin' entire$y %ifferent "n% m-#t be e74$"ine% in "n
entire$y %ifferent m"nner. 9he form of $ife i# by it# n"t-re more nob$e th"n "ny or'"ni.
form of the .om4o-n% Eforma mi.tionisG. Hen.e the 4rin.i4$e of $ife m-#t be more 4erfe.t
th"n the 4rin.i4$e of or'"ni<"tion .on#i%ere% "# #-.h. Con#e=-ent$y, e6en tho-'h in the
6e'et"ti6e "n% "nim"$ 2in'%om# the #"me #-bJe.t tr"n#mit# both .or4ore"$ e$ement# "n%
#o-$, there "re in it, "# it 5ere, t5o "'ent#, for
,+@,
it 4erform# t5o ".tion#, one of 5hi.h i# "b#o$-te$y more 4erfe.t th"n the other.9
1)

! $i6in' bo%y i# not mere$y " .om4o#ite #-b#t"n.e $i2e " m"teri"$ bein', b-t " #-b#t"n.e
th"t, in "%%ition to bein' .om4o#ite, i# "$#o en%o5e% 5ith $ife. here m-#t therefore be
t5o %i#tin.t 4rin.i4$e#, one to e74$"in .om4o#ition Eforma mi.tionisG, "n% the other to
e74$"in $ife Eforma 5itaeG, for $ife i# " 6ery #4e.i"$ f".t of " hi'her or%er 5hi.h #im4$y
tr"n#.en%# "ny 4-re$y m"teri"$ .om4o#ition. he %i#tin.tion bet5een the#e t5o 4rin.i4$e#
"n% the irre%-.ibi$ity of $ife to " #im4$e .om4o#ition of e$ement# ."n be ob#er6e% "t the
moment of %e"th. De"th, 5hi.h i# the #e4"r"tion of bo%y "n% #o-$, the $"tter bein' here
-n%er#too% in the 'ener"$ #en#e of 6it"$ 4rin.i4$e or forma 5itae, %oe# not in6o$6e
imme%i"te %e#tr-.tion of the bo%y "# " m"teri"$ .om4o-n%. he bo%y rem"in# in it#
4hy#i."$ inte'rity "# " bo%y of th"t 4"rti.-$"r $i6in' bein' e6en "fter %e"th. &h"t i# it,
then, th"t .onfer# on the .or4#e of " $o6e% one the ".t-"$ity of bein' the .or4#e of " m"n
r"ther th"n of " be"#t, of bein' the .or4#e of " .ert"in be$o6e% 4er#on r"ther th"n of
"notherL &h"t i# it th"t .ontin-e# to mo-$%, #o to #4e"2, the m"nifo$% of e$ement# th"t
.on#tit-te the %e"% bo%y "n% th"t 4re#er6e# in it the "44e"r"n.e "n% the 4"rti.-$"r fe"t-re#
th"t m"2e it %e"r to meL It ."nnot be the #o-$, "n#5er# D-n# S.ot-#, for the #o-$ h"#
"$re"%y %e4"rte% from the bo%y> it m-#t therefore be the form of .or4oreity. hi# i# not
J-#t the form of .or4oreity in 'ener"$, $i2e th"t "%mitte% by the o$%er !-'-#tini"n #.hoo$,
b-t " %etermine%, #4e.ifi., "n% in%i6i%-"$ form 4ro4er to the bo%y of e".h $i6in' bein'. It
i# the 2in% of form th"t .onfer# on " .ert"in m"teri"$ .om4o-n% the ".t-"$ity of bein' the
bo%y of thi# or th"t 4"rti.-$"r m"teri"$ bein'.
he form of .or4oreity i# the -$tim"te %i#4o#ition of m"tter th"t en"b$e# it to re.ei6e the
#o-$. It i# therefore " form 4rior
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
1)
+p# +.on#, IV, %. ((, =. B, n. 8A.
,+*,
to the #o-$ to 5hi.h it i# or%ere% "n% 5ith 5hi.h it rem"in#. It i# "n in%i#4en#"b$e
4erfe.tion th"t m"2e# " m"teri"$ .om4o-n% "b$e to be informe% by the #o-$ "# the forma
5itae#
If the form of .or4oreity i# the 4erfe.tion %i#4o#in' the bo%y to be ".t-"$$y informe% by
the #o-$, %oe# it not fo$$o5 th"t on.e the #o-$ or $ife 5ith%r"5# from the bo%y, the
%i#4o#in' ".tion of the form of .or4oreity on the m"teri"$ .om4o-n% "$#o .ome# to "
#t"n%#ti$$L Ho5 ."n the form of .or4oreity rem"in 5itho-t the #o-$L Doe# it not .e"#e to
e7i#t e6en before the #o-$3# %e4"rt-reL In "n#5er to thi# obJe.tion D-n# S.ot-# #t"te# th"t
the form of the .om4o-n% Eforma mi.tionisG, 4re.i#e$y be."-#e it i# by it# n"t-re or%ere%
to the #o-$, ".t# in " 4erfe.t 5"y "n% 5ith "$$ it# 4o5er on$y 5hen it i# -nite% to the #o-$.
It th-# .omm-ni."te# to the .om4o-n% "n% m"int"in# in it the h"rmony of =-"$itie# "n%
4ro4ortion# ne.e##"ry for the 6e'et"ti6e, #en#iti6e, "n% inte$$e.ti6e $ife. &hen for one
re"#on or "nother thi# e=-i$ibri-m of %i#4o#ition# in the .om4o-n% i# bro2en, "n% the
#o-$, no $on'er fin%in' the in%i#4en#"b$e .on%ition# for it# 4erm"nen.e in the bo%y,
5ith%r"5# from it, or .e"#e# to e7i#t, "# i# the ."#e 5ith 4$"nt# "n% br-te#, the form of the
.om4o-n% Eforma mi.tionisG #ti$$ rem"in#, b-t it be.ome# feeb$e "n% 5e"2. hi# e74$"in#
5hy the 4ro.e## of %i##o$-tion of the .om4o-n% into it# e$ement#, 5hi.h 5e ."$$
4-tref".tion, #t"rt# "$mo#t imme%i"te$y "fter %e"th.
DOCTRINE OF PLURALITY OF FORMS
On the b"#i# of the fore'oin' %o.trine, there "re in m"n, "# in "ny other $i6in' bein', t5o
form#, the form of .or4oreity "n% the #o-$. Moreo6er, the form of .or4oreity i# or%ere%
"n% #-bor%in"te% to the #o-$. It i# not ne.e##"ry, ho5e6er, to %i#tin'-i#h bet5een "
6e'et"ti6e, #en#iti6e, "n% inte$$e.ti6e #o-$, for the inte$$e.ti6e #o-$ h"# 5ithin it#e$f the
4o5er# of the $o5er #o-$#. &i$$ not thi# %o.trine en%"n'er the -nity of the h-m"n
.om4o#iteL Unity fo$$o5# bein', "n% bein' i# one. It
,)C,
i# th"t #4e.ifi. bein' 4re.i#e$y be."-#e of it# form, 5hi.h m-#t be -ni=-e for e".h thin'.
hi# i# the m"in "r'-ment "%6"n.e% by -4ho$%er# of the homi#ti. theory of -ni.ity of
form. &ere there #e6er"$ form#, there 5o-$% "$#o be #e6er"$ ".t# of bein', "n% therefore
#e6er"$ bein'#.
It i# eno-'h to re."$$ 5h"t h"# been #"i% in the 4re.e%in' .h"4ter in or%er to 2no5 D-n#
S.ot-#3 "n#5er. In f".t, he mere$y re4e"t# 5h"t he h"# "$re"%y #t"te%F I ."nnot .on.ei6e
ho5 " thin' ."n be re"$ 5itho-t it# ".t of e7i#ten.e, th"t i#, 5itho-t e7i#tin'. If "
#-b#t"n.e i# .om4o#e% of re"$ 4"rt#, it ."nnot h"6e J-#t one ".t of bein', #in.e e".h 4"rt,
in or%er to be re"$, m-#t h"6e it# o5n ".t of bein'. Hen.e, the ".t-"$ity of the .om4o-n%
i# .on#e=-ent -4on the ".t-"$ity of "$$ the 4"rt#. 9I %o not -n%er#t"n% 5hy the esse 5hi.h
i# "%%e% to " .om4o#ite e##en.e ."nnot be it#e$f .om4o#ite. R"ther, the esse of the 5ho$e
.om4o-n% in.$-%e# the esse of "$$ the 4"rt#, "# 5e$$ "# the m"ny 4"rti"$ esse of the m"ny
4"rt# or form# Hby 5hi.h it i# .om4o#e%I, J-#t "# " bein' th"t .ont"in# m"ny form#
in.$-%e# "$$ tho#e 4"rti"$ ".t-"$itie#.9
1@

For the -nity of the .om4o-n% it i# of .o-r#e ne.e##"ry for one form, the $"#t "n% mo#t
4erfe.t one, to .ontro$ "n% 4erfe.t by it# ".t-"$ity the ".t-"$ity of the 4"rti"$ form#, #o "#
to 2ee4 them to'ether "# by " n"t-r"$ bon%. If there 5ere no #-.h #-bor%in"tion, "n% if "$$
the form# of " .om4o-n% 5ere on the #"me $e6e$ of 4erfe.tion "n% im4ort"n.e, the -nity
of the .om4o-n% 5o-$% be im4o##ib$e. B-t thi# i# not the ."#e.
o #-m -4, the -nity of the .om4o-n% %oe# not re=-ire -ni.ity of form, b-t on$y " n"t-r"$
#-bor%in"tion of 4"rti"$ form# to the -$tim"te "n% mo#t 4erfe.t form, in 5hi.h the
4erfe.tion of the bein' they he$4 to .on#tit-te i# .om4$ete%.
1*

DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
1@
+p# +.on#, IV, %. ((, =. B, n. 8+.
1*
Ibid#
,)(,
If thi# i# the ."#e, 5i$$ not "$$ %i#tin.tion bet5een #-b#t"nti"$ form "n% "..i%ent"$ form be
r-$e% o-tL S-b#t"nti"$ form i# the form th"t 'i6e# esse simpliciter to 5h"t 5"# on$y in
4oten.y> "..i%ent"$ form i# the form th"t mo%ifie# "n "$re"%y e7i#tent thin'. It %oe# not
'i6e esse simpliciter, b-t on$y " .ert"in esse, "n esse secundum ,uid or =-"$ifie% esse#
No5, if the theory of #-bor%in"tion of form# in the .om4o-n% 5ere tr-e, the $"#t
4erfe.tin' form .o-$% not be ."$$e% " #-b#t"nti"$ form, for it %oe# not 'i6e esse to the
.om4o-n% in the #im4$e #en#e of the term. It mere$y mo%ifie# the esse of the 4"rt#,
in"#m-.h "# it ."-#e# it to be.ome " #-bor%in"te esse#
D-n# S.ot-# "n#5er# thi# obJe.tion by f-rther .$"rifyin' the me"nin' of the term esse
simpliciter# Form %oe# not 'i6e esse simpliciter, if by th"t i# me"nt the ".t of e7i#ten.e
5hereby " thin' e7i#t# o-t#i%e of it# ."-#e "n% emer'e# from nothin'ne##, "# 4re6io-#$y
#t"te%. Prime m"tter, for e7"m4$e, e7i#t#, th"t i#, it i# beyon% nothin'ne##, e6en before it
re.ei6e# "ny form. Form .onfer# on$y the form"$ esse7 it %oe# not ."-#e " thin' to e7i#t
simpliciter, b-t on$y to e7i#t "# #-.h, th"t i#, 5ith "$$ it# 'eneri., #4e.ifi., "n% in%i6i%-"$
%etermin"tion#. It i# " #-b#t"nti"$ form 5hen it i# ".t-"$$y the root of tho#e e##enti"$
%etermin"tion# 5itho-t 5hi.h " thin' ."nnot be th"t thin'> it i# "n "..i%ent"$ form 5hen
it .onfer# on$y #-.h %etermin"tion# "# m"y or m"y not be in the thin' 5itho-t thi# $"tter
.e"#in' to be 5h"t it i#, i.e., m"n, 4$"nt, hor#e, So.r"te#, et.. Sin.e it i# thro-'h the
#-b#t"nti"$ form th"t " thin' i# 5h"t it i# simpliciter, 5here"# thro-'h the "..i%ent"$ form
it e7i#t# in " 4"rti.-$"r mo%ifie% 5"y, it m"y be #"i% th"t #-b#t"nti"$ form .onfer# esse
simpliciter, 5here"# " 4"rti.-$"r form .onfer# esse secundum ,uid# One #ho-$% ne6er
for'et, ho5e6er, th"t in thi# ."#e the esse simpliciter i# "$5"y# form"$ bein'F it i# esse
simpliciter on$y in " more re#tri.te% #en#e.
It h"# been ne.e##"ry to re6ie5 the#e 6"rio-# 4oint# of S.ot-#3 "n#5er, for in them 5e
fin% not on$y " J-#tifi."tion of the
,)1,
form of .or4oreity, b-t "$#o the %o.trine of 4$-r"$ity of form# in 'ener"$. E6en tho-'h
D-n# S.ot-#, in .onformity 5ith the $"5 of met"4hy#i."$ e.onomy 4re6io-#$y mentione%,
"44$ie# thi# %o.trine on$y to $i6in' bein'#, "n% to m"n in 4"rti.-$"r, it i# 5orth 4ointin'
o-t the f".t th"t thi# S.oti#ti. %o.trine i# 4o##ib$e on$y on the b"#i# of 'ener"$ 4rin.i4$e#
.ommon to the !-'-#tini"n #.hoo$. !$$ th"t D-n# S.ot-# brin'# to it i# 're"ter 4re.i#ion
of .on.e4t# "n% form-$"#.
THE INTELLECTI/E SOUL AS FORM OF MAN
he h-m"n #o-$ i# #4irit-"$ or imm"teri"$. hi# i# not on$y the .ommon te".hin' of the
be#t 4hi$o#o4hi."$ tr"%ition#, b-t "$#o " %o.trine th"t ."n be 4ro6e% by " ri'oro-# r"tion"$
%emon#tr"tion. D-n# S.ot-#3 "ttit-%e to5"r% thi# 4rob$em i# .h"r".teri<e% by " t5ofo$%
.on.ern. If, in%ee%, "$$ 4hi$o#o4her# "'ree% th"t the 4rin.i4$e of inte$$e.t-"$ o4er"tion
m-#t be #4irit-"$, not "$$ of them 5ere of the o4inion th"t thi# 4rin.i4$e m-#t be$on'
form"$$y to m"n. !t the time of D-n# S.ot-#, !6erroi#m h"% not yet $"i% %o5n it# "rm#.
9h"t .-r#e% !6erroe#, 9 to -#e S.ot-#3 5or%#, 9in hi# fi.tion of De Anima, $ib. B, 5hi.h
i# in.om4rehen#ib$e to him#e$f "n% to other#, 9 "ffirme% 4re.i#e$y 9th"t the inte$$e.t i# "
#e4"r"te #-b#t"n.e th"t ."n be -nite% to -# thro-'h the 4h"nt"#m#.9
BC
It i# not eno-'h,
therefore, for D-n# S.ot-# to %emon#tr"te th"t -n%er#t"n%in' i# " #4irit-"$ o4er"tion> he
m-#t "$#o #ho5 th"t it i# "n o4er"tion 4ro4er to m"n. he t5o thin'# "re e=-"$$y
im4ort"nt.
!n " 4riori #t-%y of m"n3# n"t-re i# im4o##ib$e. he on$y 5"y 5e ."n 2no5 it i# by
#t-%yin' it# ".t# "n%, by 5"y of ."-#"$ity, "rri6e "t their "%e=-"te 4rin.i4$e#.
!..or%in'$y, the theme of the the#i# 5i$$ be e74re##e% in the#e term#F 9Un%er#t"n%in' i#
"n o4er"tion 4ro4er to m"n> "# #-.h, it m-#t .ome
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
BC
+p# +.on#, IV, %. 8B, =. 1, n. A.
,)B,
from hi# form. Sin.e thi# form i# of "n inte$$e.t-"$ n"t-re, the inte$$e.ti6e form i# the
4ro4er form of m"n.9
B(
Demon#tr"tion of thi# the#i# ten%# to e#t"b$i#h, fir#t, th"t m"n3#
.o'niti6e ".ti6ity ."nnot be re%-.e% entire$y to #en#e 2no5$e%'e> "n% #e.on%, th"t if m"n
i# ."4"b$e of #4irit-"$ ".t# "n% o4er"tion#, he m-#t h"6e 5ithin him#e$f " 4rin.i4$e of
#4irit-"$ ".ti6ity "# hi# e##enti"$ 4erfe.tion.
o 4ro6e the fir#t 4oint, it i# .-#tom"ry to #tre## the imm"teri"$ .h"r".ter of o-r
2no5$e%'e. Ho5e6er, the term 9imm"teri"$, 9 rem"r2# D-n# S.ot-#, i# not #o .$e"r "# to
m"2e "n e74$"n"tion -nne.e##"ry. Imm"teri"$ity, for e7"m4$e, mi'ht be t"2en mere$y to
me"n " 4"rti.-$"r or'"n3# in%e4en%en.e in ".tin'. Stri.t$y #4e"2in', #-.h "n imm"teri"$
o4er"tion %oe# not "# yet re=-ire " #4irit-"$ form. It .o-$% 6ery 5e$$ be the o4er"tion not
#im4$y of " #4e.i"$ or'"n b-t of the 5ho$e .or4ore"$ .om4o-n%. he term 9imm"teri"$9
."n "$#o be t"2en to me"n ine7ten%e%. In thi# #en#e -n%er#t"n%in' 5o-$% h"6e nothin' in
.ommon 5ith m"tter.
h"t h-m"n -n%er#t"n%in' ".t-"$$y 4o##e##e# thi# 4rero'"ti6e ."n be %emon#tr"te%, fir#t
of "$$, by the f".t th"t 5e ."n ref$e.t -4on o-r o5n ".t#, "n% #e.on%$y, by =-"$itie# 4ro4er
to the obJe.t of o-r inte$$e.t-"$ 2no5$e%'e. &h"t i# e7ten%e% i# in."4"b$e of ref$e.tion,
#in.e the ".t of ref$e.tion %em"n%# " .om4$ete "n% 4erfe.t fo$%in' b".2 -4on it#e$f, "n%
thi# i# in.om4"tib$e 5ith the 4re#en.e of =-"ntit"ti6e 4"rt#. Moreo6er, m"n re"#on# "bo-t
bein' in the f-$$ e7tent of the term, "n% %oe# not $imit hi# .on#i%er"tion# to bein' "# it i#
4re#ente% to thi# or th"t #en#e, nor to #en#e 4er.e4tion in 'ener"$. He 2no5# the -ni6er#"$
"# 5e$$ "# the re$"tion#hi4# e7i#tin' bet5een the e##en.e# of thin'#. He "$#o 2no5#
inferenti"$$y thin'# th"t he %oe# not 4er.ei6e thro-'h hi# #en#e#. !$$ the#e form# of
.o'nition "re in.on.ei6"b$e in " bein' 5ho#e 4o5er %oe# not e7ten% beyon% the #en#ib$e
$e6e$. he #en#e# ."nnot re".h beyon%
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
B(
Ibid#, n. +.
,)8,
obJe.t# %etermine% here "n% no5 in their e7i#tenti"$ ".t-"$ity.
h"t the#e inte$$e.t-"$ ".t# "re tr-$y o-r o5n ".t# i# e6i%ent from o-r .on#.io-#ne## of
them, the 2in% of interior int-ition th"t m"2e# -# #-re of #omethin' e6en tho-'h 5e
."nnot 4ro6e it, #im4$y be."-#e it i# #e$f,e6i%ent. If "nyone .h"$$en'e% the tr-th of the
fore'oin' #t"tement, D-n# S.ot-# 5o-$% #im4$y #"yF 9F-rther %i#.-##ion 5ith #-.h " m"n
i# -#e$e## "n% 5e m-#t te$$ him th"t he i# " mere "nim"$, J-#t "# 5e 5o-$% not "r'-e 5ith
" m"n 5ho %enie# he #ee# " .o$or 4re#ent to hi# #en#e# b-t 5o-$% te$$ him hi# eye# "re
#i.2 or he i# .om4$ete$y b$in%.9
B1

herefore, it i# m"n th"t 2no5# by ref$e.tion hi# o5n ".t#> it i# m"n th"t 2no5# bein' "#
bein', the -ni6er#"$, the re$"tion# "mon' e##en.e#> it i# m"n th"t %e6e$o4# "n% 5i%en# hi#
2no5$e%'e by re"#onin'. Yet the#e ".t# "re not "b#o$-te$y i%enti."$ 5ith hi# e##en.e. hi#
i# #o tr-e th"t 5e ."n be men 5itho-t ".t-"$$y 2no5in', 5hi.h me"n# th"t the 4ro7im"te
#-bJe.t of the#e ".t# i# on$y " 4"rt of m"n. It ."nnot be "n or'"n, nor ."n it be the h-m"n
.om4o#ite "# #-.h, #in.e they "re both e7ten%e% "n% in."4"b$e of ine7ten%e% ".t#. It m-#t
be #omethin' ine7ten%e%, n"me$y, the inte$$e.ti6e #o-$.
h"t the re$"tion#hi4 bet5een m"n "n% the inte$$e.ti6e #o-$ i# i%enti."$ 5ith the
re$"tion#hi4 bet5een " thin' "n% it# form i# m"nife#t from 5h"t h"# J-#t been #"i%F it i#
m"n, in the form"$ #en#e of the term, th"t 2no5#. &ere it not #o, I .o-$% ne6er #"y, 9I
2no5, 9 b-t 5o-$% h"6e to #"y, 9It i# the #o-$ in me th"t 2no5#.9 I 5o-$% th-# 'o "'"in#t
the interior e6i%en.e referre% to.
BB

h-# f"r D-n# S.ot-# h"# not m"%e "ny #-b#t"nti"$ inno6"tion on 5h"t i# fo-n% in the
%o.trine of St. hom"#. Hi#
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
B1
Ibid#, n. ((.
BB
Ibid#, n. (1F 9he inte$$e.ti6e 4o5er i# inherent in -# "# " form> other5i#e, it .o-$% not
be #"i% th"t 5e -n%er#t"n% in the tr-e #en#e of the term.9
,)A,
ori'in"$ity .on#i#t# r"ther in the 4"r"$$e$ "r'-ment th"t he %eri6e# from the .on#i%er"tion
of the ".t# of o-r 5i$$. he e##enti"$ .h"r".teri#ti. of o-r 6o$ition"$ ".t# i# their free%om,
th"t i#, the 4o5er to .hoo#e bet5een t5o o44o#ite thin'#, "n% to re6o2e the .hoi.e on.e it
h"# been m"%e. Vo$ition"$ ".t# m-#t therefore be roote% in " %ifferent form th"t
tr"n#.en%# "$$ #en#ib$e form#. Hen.e the #o-$, "n ine7ten%e% "n% imm"teri"$ form, re6e"$#
it#e$f to -# "# the 4rin.i4$e of inte$$e.t-"$ "n% 6o$ition"$ ".t#. It i# inte$$e.t "n% 5i$$.
RELATIONSHIP BETEEN THE SOUL AND ITS FACULTIES
Ho5 m-#t the re$"tion#hi4 bet5een the #o-$ "n% it# t5o f".-$tie# "n% bet5een the t5o
f".-$tie# them#e$6e# be .on.ei6e%L D-n# S.ot-# i# of .o-r#e ".=-"inte% 5ith the
!ri#tote$i"n "n% !-'-#tini"n %o.trine#. St. hom"# te".he# th"t inte$$e.t "n% 5i$$ "re t5o
4ro4ertie# of the #o-$, "n% hen.e th"t the #o-$ be$on'# to the ."te'ory of #-b#t"n.e, 5hi$e
it# t5o f".-$tie# be$on' to the ."te'ory of "..i%ent#. hi# i# t"nt"mo-nt to #"yin' th"t
there i# " re"$ %i#tin.tion bet5een the #o-$ "n% it# f".-$tie#. St. hom"#3 f-n%"ment"$
"r'-ment for hi# the#i# i# thi#F 4oten.y "n% ".t "re in the #"me 'en-# or ."te'ory. B-t to
2no5 "n% to 5i$$ "re "..i%ent"$ ".t# th"t ."nnot be i%entifie% 5ith the #o-$, 5hi.h e7i#t#
e6en 5hen it %oe# not thin2 or 5i$$. herefore, the 4o5er to 2no5 "n% the 4o5er to 5i$$
"re "$#o in the ."te'ory of "..i%ent#.
D-n# S.ot-# t"2e# e7.e4tion to the m"Jor of the #y$$o'i#m. he term potentia, he
ob#er6e#, h"# t5o entire$y %ifferent me"nin'#. here i# " 4oten.y or 4o5er in the or%er of
".t or o4er"tion, "n% there i# " 4oten.y in the or%er of bein'. he fir#t i# %i6i%e% into
".ti6e "n% 4"##i6e 4oten.y, %e4en%in' on 5hether it i# "n effi.ient 4rin.i4$e or "
re.ei6in' 4rin.i4$e of o4er"tion. In thi# ."#e,,n"me$y, 5hen potentia i# .on#i%ere% in the
or%er of ".t or o4er"tion,,the m"Jor of the #y$$o'i#m i# f"$#e, 9be,
,)+,
."-#e "n "..i%ent i# imme%i"te$y roote% in the #-b#t"n.e, other5i#e there 5o-$% be "n
infinite re're##.9
B8
Some "..i%ent"$ mo%ifi."tion# m-#t ine6it"b$y be roote% in the
#-b#t"n.e 5itho-t "ny interme%i"ry f".tor. If e6ery mo%ifi."tion 4re#-44o#e% "nother
mo%ifi."tion, " #-b#t"n.e .o-$% ne6er be mo%ifie% or be the #-bJe.t of .h"n'e or
be.omin'. !t $e"#t in #ome ."#e#, therefore, it i# ne.e##"ry th"t 4oten.y or 4o5er rem"in
in the #"me ."te'ory of #-b#t"n.e, 5hi$e o4er"tion be$on'# in the ."te'ory of "..i%ent.
he m"Jor 4remi#e of the #y$$o'i#m i# on$y tr-e 5hen it refer# to 4oten.y t"2en in it#
#e.on% me"nin', n"me$y, "# " .on#tit-ti6e 4rin.i4$e, to'ether 5ith it# "%e=-"te ".t, of
#omethin' th"t i# either #-b#t"n.e or "..i%ent.
!# re'"r%# their ".t#, inte$$e.t "n% 5i$$ "re 4oten.ie# or 4o5er# t"2en in the fir#t #en#e of
the term. &hether they "re ".ti6e or mere$y 4"##i6e 4o5er# 5i$$ be #ho5n in the ne7t
.h"4ter. Hen.e there i# no met"4hy#i."$ ne.e##ity to for.e the#e t5o 4o5er# into the
."te'ory of "..i%ent# #im4$y be."-#e their ".t# be$on' to the ."te'ory of "..i%ent#.
N

he !-'-#tini"n o4inion, 5hi.h D-n# S.ot-#, "# -#-"$, e7"mine# in Henry of ;hent3#
form-$"tion, m"int"in# th"t in,
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
N
S.ot-#3 4oint i# to #ho5 th"t St. hom"#3 "r'-ment for the re"$ %i#tin.tion bet5een the
#o-$ "n% it# f".-$tie# i# not 6"$i%, or "t $e"#t it %oe# not "44$y to the 4rob$em "t i##-e.
Hen.e hi# %i#tin.tion of potentia .on#i%ere% "# " 4o5er "n% potentia .on#i%ere% in the
or%er of bein'. he #.ho$"#ti. "7iom, 4oten.y "n% ".t "re in the #"me 'en-# Eactus et
potentia sunt eiusdem generisG, i# 6"$i% for potentia .on#i%ere% in the or%er of bein'
on$y. &hen .on#i%ere% "# " 4rin.i4$e of o4er"tion, " 4o5er or potentia ."n be$on' to
one 'en-# or ."te'ory,,in o-r ."#e, the ."te'ory of #-b#t"n.e,,"n% it# ".t# to "nother
'en-# or ."te'ory, i. e., the ."te'ory of "..i%ent#. hi#, ho5e6er, %oe# not me"n th"t "
4o5er m-#t be i%entifie% 5ith the #-b#t"n.e or n"t-re of the bein' in 5hi.h it re#i%e#.
! %i#tin.tion i# .on.ei6"b$e bet5een #-b#t"n.e "n% 4o5er, the #o-$ "n% it# f".-$tie#.
he e7".t ty4e of thi# %i#tin.tion i# the #-bJe.t of the %i#.-##ion imme%i"te$y
fo$$o5in'. Er. G
B8
+p# +.on#, II, %. (+, =. -ni.", n. A.
,)),
te$$e.t "n% 5i$$ "re i%enti."$ 5ith the #o-$3# e##en.e. hey "re mere$y %ifferent 5"y# by
me"n# of 5hi.h the #o-$ e#t"b$i#he# it# .ont".t 5ith thin'#. Inte$$e.t i# the #o-$ in#of"r "#
it 2no5#> 5i$$ i# the #o-$ in#of"r "# it 5i$$#. D-n# S.ot-# be$ie6e# th"t thi# i# no #o$-tion
of the 4rob$em. he 4rob$em "t i##-e i# not the %i6er#ity of the ".t#, b-t the intrin#i. b"#i#
of thi# %i6er#ity "# 5e$$ "# the imme%i"te 4rin.i4$e of the ".t# them#e$6e#. he imme%i"te
4rin.i4$e of %ifferent ".t# ."nnot be form"$$y i%enti."$. here 5o-$% be no re"#on or
e74$"n"tion for #-.h " %i6er#ity.
Hen.e inte$$e.t "n% 5i$$ "re not re"$$y %i#tin.t from the e##en.e of the #o-$, b-t "t the
#"me time they ."nnot be i%entifie% 5ith it. he fir#t #o$-tion, th"t of St. hom"#, i# not
b"#e% on "r'-ment# of met"4hy#i."$ ne.e##ity> the #e.on% #o$-tion, th"t of Henry of
;hent, %oe# not #o$6e the 4rob$em. Bet5een the#e t5o #o$-tion# "nother i# 4o##ib$e
5hi.h ho$%# " mi%%$e 4$".e "n% "6oi%# the t5o e7treme#F inte$$e.t "n% 5i$$ "re %i#tin.t
from the e##en.e of the #o-$, b-t on$y formally# hi# i# the S.oti#ti. #o$-tion.
It i# not e"#y to 'r"#4 the me"nin' "n% 6"$-e of the form"$ %i#tin.tion met #o often in the
5or2# of D-n# S.ot-#. Form"$ %i#tin.tion #t"n%# bet5een re"$ %i#tin.tion "n% %i#tin.tion
of 4-re re"#on or $o'i."$ %i#tin.tion. here i# " re"$ %i#tin.tion bet5een t5o thin'#, 5hen
the one i# not .ont"ine% in the other either "# " fr-it i# .ont"ine% in the 'erm, "n effe.t in
the ."-#e, or #omethin' %i#tin.t i# .ont"ine% in #omethin' .onf-#e%F one thin' i# 4erfe.t
in it#e$f "4"rt from the other, #o th"t they "re t5o re"$$y %ifferent thin'#. he $o'i."$
%i#tin.tion, on the other h"n%, i# nothin' b-t " %i#tin.tion of .on.e4t# "# re'"r%# " thin'
th"t i# re"$$y "n% form"$$y i%enti."$. On the .ontr"ry, t5o entitie# "re form"$$y %i#tin.t
from one "nother 5hen, "$tho-'h one i# not .ont"ine% in the other in "ny of the three
5"y# mentione% in .onne.tion 5ith the re"$ %i#tin.tion, i. e., 4otenti"$$y, 6irt-"$$y, or
.onf-#e%$y, they ne6erthe$e## $".2 th"t -$tim"te 4erfe.tion 5hi.h 5o-$% m"2e them
,)@,
really different# It i# on$y be."-#e they "re -nite% to'ether th"t they .on#tit-te " re"$
thin'. Ho5e6er, they "re not 4"rt# or .on#tit-ent 4rin.i4$e# of the thin', b-t on$y %ifferent
form"$itie# of it.
! ty4i."$ e7"m4$e of S.ot-#3 form"$ %i#tin.tion i# fo-n% in bein' "n% it# tr"n#.en%ent"$#,
the one, the tr-e, "n% the 'oo%. Unity, tr-th, "n% 'oo%ne## "re not on$y .on.e4t#, b-t re"$
"#4e.t# %ifferent from the entity. hey "re in " .on.rete bein', b-t "re not .ont"ine% in
th"t entity, "# ".t i# in it# 4oten.y, or "# "n effe.t i# in it# ."-#e, or "# #omethin' %i#tin.t
i# in #omethin' .onf-#e%. hey "re "ttrib-te# th"t "ffe.t the .om4$ete entity, b-t e".h in
it# o5n 5"y, in 6irt-e, "# it 5ere, of "n inn"te ri'ht. hey "re %ifferent form"$itie#,
5itho-t bein' "t the #"me time either #-b#t"nti"$ or "..i%ent"$ form# of the entity. Bein'
i# .on#e=-ent -4on their -nion> yet they ."nnot be ."$$e% either 4"rt# of bein' or it#
4rin.i4$e#, J-#t "# their -nion ."nnot be ."$$e% .om4o#ition. hey "re m-t-"$$y re$"te%,
"n% one i# "b#o$-te$y nothin' 5itho-t the other#> yet none of them re.ei6e# "nythin' from
the other#. In the -nion e".h one 2ee4# int".t it# o5n form"$ity. Ho5e6er, the entity
enJoy# " 4rim".y th"t i# not on$y $o'i."$ b-t "$#o met"4hy#i."$ in re'"r% to -nity, tr-th,
"n% 'oo%ne## 5hi.h f$o5 from the entity 5itho-t bein' "..i%ent# of it. he te.hni."$
term n"min' thi# .h"r".teri#ti. re$"tion#hi4 bet5een bein' "n% it# tr"n#.en%ent"$# i#
passio: -nity, tr-th, "n% 'oo%ne## "re passiones entis#
BA
90-#t "# bein', 9 #"y# D-n#
S.ot-#, 9#-m# -4 in it#e$f the re"#on# for it# o5n -nity, tr-th, "n% 'oo%ne##, "n% yet %oe#
not thereby .onf-#e them, #o the #o-$ -nite# 5ithin it#e$f the#e 4o5er# Hinte$$e.t "n% 5i$$I,
e6en tho-'h they "re form"$$y %i#tin.t.9
B+

Form"$$y, the h-m"n #o-$ i# neither inte$$e.t nor 5i$$. In t-rn, inte$$e.t i# entire$y %ifferent
from 5i$$. Yet, 5itho-t inte$$e.t "n% 5i$$ " r"tion"$ #o-$ ."n neither h"6e " .on.rete
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
BA
Ibid#* n. ().
B+
Ibid#
,)*,
e7i#ten.e nor ."n it be .on.ei6e%. Simi$"r$y, inte$$e.t 5itho-t 5i$$, or 5i$$ 5itho-t
inte$$e.t, i# in.on.ei6"b$e. he re$"tion bet5een the #o-$ "n% it# f".-$tie# i# the #"me "#
the re$"tion e7i#tin' bet5een bein' "n% it# tr"n#.en%ent"$ "ttrib-te#. 0-#t "# bein' m"y be
.on#i%ere% in " fir#t moment,,the met"4hy#i."$ moment, not the 4#y.ho$o'i."$ moment,,
5itho-t it# "ttrib-te#, #o the #o-$ m"y be .on#i%ere% in it#e$f, "4"rt from inte$$e.t "n% 5i$$.
B-t "# #oon "# the ne.e##"ry o4er"tion# of the #o-$ "re "%6erte% to, the #o-$ re6e"$# it#e$f
to -# "# the #ynthe#i# of inte$$e.t "n% 5i$$.
B)

here "re %efinite "%6"nt"'e#, rem"r2# D-n# S.ot-#, in .on.ei6in' the re$"tion#hi4
bet5een the #o-$ "n% it# f".-$tie# in thi# f"#hion. he fir#t of the#e "%6"nt"'e# i# "n e"#ier
"n% more #im4$e e74$"n"tion of m"n3# r"tion"$ ".ti6ity. he -4ho$%er# of " re"$
%i#tin.tion bet5een the #o-$ "n% it# f".-$tie# intro%-.e into 4#y.ho$o'i."$ $ife "n
-nne.e##"ry m-$ti4$i.ity th"t im4"ir# the nobi$ity "n% 4erfe.tion of the #o-$. ! n"t-re3#
4erfe.tion i# in f".t me"#-re% by the ".t# th"t it i# "b$e to 4erform by it#e$f. No5 if
inte$$e.t "n% 5i$$ "re mere$y "..i%ent# of the #o-$, it fo$$o5# th"t the #o-$ i# -n"b$e of
it#e$f to thin2 "n% to 5i$$. !n% #in.e m"n3# h"44ine## .on#i#t# in 2no5$e%'e "n% $o6e,
inte$$e.t "n% 5i$$ 5o-$%, in #-.h " ."#e, fin% their h"44ine## in them#e$6e#, 5here"# the
#o-$ 5o-$% "tt"in it# h"44ine## on$y thro-'h it# f".-$tie# "n% per accidens#(
B@

!nother "%6"nt"'e to be %r"5n from the "..e4t"n.e of " form"$ %i#tin.tion bet5een the
#o-$ "n% it# f".-$tie# i# the
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
B)
9It m-#t therefore be tho-'ht th"t the #o-$ in the fir#t moment, "# it 5ere, of it# e##en.e
i# #im4$y th"t 4"rti.-$"r n"t-re, 5here"# in the #e.on% moment it i# o4er"ti6e, th"t i#,
."4"b$e of 4erformin' thi# or th"t o4er"tion, "n% th"t the 4o5er#, 5hi.h "re 4re.i#e$y
the 4rin.i4$e# of the#e o4er"tion#, "re .ont"ine% 'uniti5e' in the e##en.e.9 Ibid#* n. (@.
he term (uniti5e( i# re#er6e% by S.ot-# to in%i."te the m"nner in 5hi.h t5o or more
form"$itie# "re .ont"ine% in one thin'. he thin' i# in re$"tion to the form"$itie# "# the
tertium idem realiter#
B@
Ibid#* n. (A.
,@C,
.$"rifi."tion of .ert"in 4oint# .on.ernin' tho#e 4"rti.-$"r "#4e.t# on 5hi.h #tre## i# $"i%
by the other #o$-tion#. h"t inte$$e.t "n% 5i$$ "44e"r to be 5irtutes or o4er"ti6e 4o5er# of
the #o-$ "n% h"6e been tho-'ht of "# mere "..i%ent# ."n be e74$"ine% by the f".t th"t,
"$tho-'h not re"$$y %i#tin.t from the #o-$3# e##en.e, they "re ne6erthe$e## ,uasi passiones
or "ttrib-te# of it. hi# #"me f".t h"# been "..o-nte% for by 4hi$o#o4her# 5ho .$"im th"t
inte$$e.t "n% 5i$$ #h"re in the n"t-re of both #-b#t"nti"$ "n% "..i%ent"$ form# 5itho-t
bein' e7".t$y either one. o #"y th"t inte$$e.t "n% 5i$$ "re 4"rt# of the #o-$, "# #ome
4hi$o#o4her# %o, i# not "b#o$-te$y 5ron'. In f".t, neither inte$$e.t nor 5i$$, t"2en "$one,
e74re##e# the 5ho$e 4erfe.tion of the #o-$. F-rthermore, the form"$ %i#tin.tion m"2e# it
4$"in th"t one f".-$ty ."nnot be re%-.e% to the 4erfe.tion of the other, "n% m-.h $e## to
the 4erfe.tion of the 5ho$e #o-$, e6en tho-'h e".h f".-$ty i# re"$$y i%enti."$ 5ith the
#o-$.
St. Bon"6ent-re ."$$# inte$$e.t "n% 5i$$ .on#-b#t"nti"$ form# of the #o-$. By thi# term he
inten%# to em4h"#i<e the 6ery #4e.i"$ .h"r".ter of the re$"tion bet5een the #o-$ "n% it#
f".-$tie#, 5hi.h "re not "..i%ent# of the #o-$, "n% yet %o not .on#tit-te it# e##en.e, b-t
."n be i%entifie% 5ith it on$y (reducti5e#( If one .om4"re# St. Bon"6ent-re3# te".hin'
5ith the %o.trine of D-n# S.ot-# on thi# #.ore, he 5i$$ not f"i$ to "'ree 5ith the fo$$o5in'
#t"tementF D-n# S.ot-#3 %o.trine i# e##enti"$$y "n effort to %etermine in more 4re.i#e "n%
te.hni."$ $"n'-"'e the #ome5h"t 6"'-e "ffirm"tion# of the Ser"4hi. Do.tor. Hen.e hi#
#-b#tit-tion of ,uasi passiones animae for the Bon"6ent-ri"n consubstantiales "n% of
idem animae realiter* non tamen formaliter for St. Bon"6ent-re3# reducti5e#
INTELLECT AND ILL
!nother #.ho$"#ti. .ontro6er#y 5orth mentionin', not #o m-.h be."-#e of it# intrin#i.
im4ort"n.e "# be."-#e of the
,@(,
o44ort-nity it offer# of em4h"#i<in' the %ire.ti6e $ine# of S.oti#ti. tho-'ht, i# the
=-e#tion of the re$"tion#hi4 of %e4en%en.e "n% #-4eriority bet5een inte$$e.t "n% 5i$$. It
."nnot be %enie% th"t the 5i$$ %oe# not mo6e it#e$f, th"t i# to #"y, it %oe# not %etermine
it#e$f to ".t, -n$e## the inte$$e.t 4re#ent# it# obJe.t to it. he tr-th of the o$% #.ho$"#ti.
#"yin', Nihil 5olitum ,uin praecognitum* i# ".2no5$e%'e% by the S-bt$e Do.tor. !n ".t
of the 5i$$ i# "$5"y# 4re.e%e% by "n ".t of the inte$$e.t. Ho5e6er, #ome #.ho$"#ti.# "re
in.$ine% to #ee in thi# $"5 of 4#y.ho$o'i."$ %e4en%en.e "$#o " $"5 of met"4hy#i."$
%e4en%en.e of the 5i$$ on the inte$$e.t. he inte$$e.t-"$ ".t 5o-$% not on$y precede the
6o$ition"$ ".t, it 5o-$% "$#o be it# ."-#e. he 6o$ition"$ ".t i# in the 5i$$, b-t not from the
5i$$F the effi.ient ."-#e %eterminin' the ".t i# the obJe.t 4re#ent in the 4h"nt"#m
E ;o%frey of Font"ine#G, or in the inte$$e.t ESt. hom"#, Henry of ;hentG.
9he#e t5o o4inion#, 9 D-n# S.ot-# 4oint# o-t, 9"'ree in "%mittin' th"t the 5i$$ i# mo6e%
by "n e7trin#i. "'ent, b-t "re "t 6"ri"n.e, "# i# e6i%ent, in #4e.ifyin' it.9
B*

D-n# S.ot-# thin2# it ne.e##"ry to %e4"rt from the#e 4oint# of 6ie5 for t5o re"#on#. he
fir#t i# thi#. he obJe.t inf$-en.e# the 5i$$ in one 5"y on$yF it either "ttr".t# or re4e$# it.
On the .ontr"ry, the 4ro4er .h"r".teri#ti. of the 5i$$ i# it# "bi$ity to %etermine it#e$f either
4o#iti6e$y or ne'"ti6e$y in re'"r% to "ny obJe.t. hi# e##enti"$ in%etermin"tion ."n be
e74$"ine% on$y by "%mittin' th"t it i# the 5i$$ th"t ".t-"$$y %etermine# it#e$f to 5i$$ or not
to 5i$$. Se.on%$y, "n ".t th"t i# re.ei6e% on$y 4"##i6e$y m-#t be ."$$e% "n ".t of the "'ent
or of the ."-#e th"t %etermine# it, r"ther th"n "n ".t of the re.i4ient. Hen.e, if it 5ere the
obJe.t th"t %etermine# the 5i$$ to ".t, the 5ho$e effe.ti6e ."-#"$ity of the 6o$ition"$ ".t
#ho-$% be "ttrib-te% to the obJe.t. he ".t it#e$f 5o-$% be.ome "n ".t of the obJe.t r"ther
th"n "n ".t of the 5i$$.
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
B*
+p# +.on#, II, %. 1A, =. -ni.", n. A.
,@1,
he .on#e=-en.e# fo$$o5in' from #-.h " %o.trine "re not %iffi.-$t to #ee. Sin.e the
inf$-en.e of the obJe.t -4on the 5i$$ i# " n"t-r"$, ne.e##"ry one, i. e., #-.h th"t it "%mit#
of on$y one %ire.tion, " 4#y.ho$o'i."$ %etermini#m 5i$$ en#-e th"t ."n h"r%$y be
re.on.i$e% 5ith free%om.
8C

Hen.e, if it i# ri'ht to re.o'ni<e th"t the 5i$$ %oe# not %etermine it#e$f to ".t 4rior to the
4re#ent"tion of the obJe.t on the 4"rt of the inte$$e.t, it m-#t "$#o be "ffirme% th"t the
obJe.t #o 4re#ente% ne6er ne.e##"ri$y %etermine# the 5i$$ to ".t or not to ".t. he $"#t
%e.i#ion, the %efiniti6e one, be$on'# to the 5i$$. hi# "mo-nt# to #"yin' th"t the 4rin.i4"$
effi.ient ."-#e of the 6o$ition"$ ".t i# the 5i$$ it#e$f, 5hi$e the ".t of the inte$$e.t i# on$y "
ne.e##"ry .on%ition !conditio sine ,ua non$ or, "t mo#t, " 4"rti"$ ."-#e of it.
8(

On thi# 4remi#e, 5e "re no5 "b$e to m"2e " f-rther #te4 "n% e7"mine D-n# S.ot-#3
"n#5er to "nother f"mo-# #.ho$"#ti. =-e#tionF 5hi.h f".-$ty i# #-4erior, inte$$e.t or 5i$$
!utra potentia sit nobilior* intellectus an 5oluntas$8 I# m"n3# hi'he#t 4erfe.tion
re4re#ente% by inte$$e.t-"$ ".ti6ity or by the ".ti6ity of the 5i$$L D-n# S.ot-# "44ro".he#
thi# 4rob$em 5ith the 're"te#t ."re. He %e6ote# to it " #4e.i"$ =-e#tion, 5here he #et#
%o5n 6ery .$e"r$y, #i%e by #i%e, the "r'-ment# in f"6or of the 4rim".y of the inte$$e.t "n%
tho#e in #-44ort of the 4rim".y of the 5i$$.
81
Here 5e #h"$$ on$y to-.h -4on the #"$ient
4oint# of the %i#.-##ion "n% the "r'-ment# of " 4-re$y 4hi$o#o4hi."$ n"t-re.
From the inte$$e.t 4ro.ee% not on$y inte$$e.ti6e ".t# b-t "$#o ".t# of the 5i$$, "# the
4rin.i4$e nil 5olitum ,uin praecognitum in%i."te#. Hen.e the inte$$e.t, "ffirm the
inte$$e.t-"$i#t#, th"t i#, the -4ho$%er# of the 4rim".y of the inte$$e.t, i# "n e=-i6o."$
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
8C
Ibid#* n. +> IV, %. 8*, =. e7 $"tere, n. ().
8(
+p# +.on#, IV, =. e7 $"tere, nn. (+,(). he#e term# 5i$$ be e74$"ine% in the fo$$o5in'
.h"4ter.
81
Ibid# See the 5ho$e =-e#tion.
,@B,
effi.ient ."-#e "# re'"r%# the 6o$ition"$ ".t#. B-t the e=-i6o."$ effi.ient ."-#e,," ."-#e i#
."$$e% e=-i6o."$ 5hen it 4ro%-.e# effe.t# of " %ifferent n"t-re from it# o5n,,i# more
4erfe.t th"n it# effe.t#. herefore, the inte$$e.t i# more 4erfe.t th"n the 5i$$.
&hi$e intern"$ e74erien.e, rem"r2# D-n# S.ot-#, te$$# -# th"t e6ery ".t of the 5i$$ i#
4re.e%e% by 2no5$e%'e, it "$#o te$$# -# th"t the 5i$$ r-$e# o6er "$$ m"n3# interior 4o5er#. It
r-$e# o6er memory by for.in' it to re."$$ thin'#, "n% it r-$e# o6er the inte$$e.t by for.in'
it to .on.entr"te on one obJe.t r"ther th"n on "nother. Sh"$$ 5e not be "-thori<e%, then, to
#"y th"t the 5i$$ i# the e=-i6o."$ effi.ient ."-#e, "n% therefore " more 4erfe.t ."-#e, of
the inte$$e.ti6e ".t#L !.t-"$$y, neither i# the inte$$e.t the effi.ient "n% tot"$, i. e.,
"%e=-"te, ."-#e of the ".t of 5i$$in', nor i# the 5i$$ the effi.ient "n% tot"$ ."-#e of the ".t
of 2no5in'. Both the ".t of the 5i$$ "n% the ".t of the inte$$e.t "re 4rim"ri$y ".t# of the
f".-$ty on 5ho#e ."-#"$ effi.ien.y they m"in$y %e4en%. he tr-th i# th"t both inte$$e.t
"n% 5i$$ e7er.i#e " .ert"in ."-#"$ inf$-en.e on e".h other.
Yet inte$$e.t "n% 5i$$ "re not on the #"me 4$"ne. &hi$e the inte$$e.ti6e ".t i# #-bor%in"te
to the 6o$iti6e ".ti6ity, in#of"r "# it 4re4"re# it "n% th-# be.ome# " #-b#er6ient ."-#e to
the 5i$$ !causa subser5iens 5oluntati$* the 5i$$ .omm"n%# the inte$$e.t "# " #-4erior
.omm"n%# "n in inferior. It i# th-# " #-4erior ."-#e in re#4e.t to the ".t of the inte$$e.t
!hoc modo 5oluntas imperans intellectui est causa superior respectu actus eius$#
8B

Inte$$e.t-"$i#t# m"y obJe.t to thi# "r'-ment "n% #"yF 5e .on.e%e th"t the 5i$$ ."n
.omm"n% the inte$$e.t. hi# f".t, ho5e6er, 5i$$ ne6er %e#troy the n"t-r"$ %e4en%en.e th"t
the 6o$iti6e ".ti6ity h"# on 2no5$e%'e,," %e4en%en.e th"t e6en the 6o$-nt"ri#t# "re
5i$$in' to "%mit. No5 5h"t %e4en%# on "nother i#
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
8B
Ibid#* n. (+.
,@8,
ne.e##"ri$y inferior to it in 4erfe.tion. Hen.e the 5i$$ i# inferior to the inte$$e.t.
D-n# S.ot-#3 "n#5er to thi# obJe.tion i# th"t there "re %ifferent 2in%# of %e4en%en.e.
De4en%en.e in or%er of 'ener"tion, for e7"m4$e, %oe# not im4$y by "ny me"n# " 're"ter
4erfe.tion in 5h"t 4re.e%e# in re$"tion to 5h"t .ome# "fter5"r%#. !'"in, the en% .ome#
$"#t, "n% yet it i# more 4erfe.t th"n 5h"t $e"%# -4 to it. he form of m"teri"$ thin'#
%e4en%# on m"tter, yet it i# #-4erior to m"tter in 4erfe.tion. he %e4en%en.e of the 5i$$
on the inte$$e.t i# 4re.i#e$y " %e4en%en.e of thi# 2in%F the 6o$ition"$ ".t .ome# "fter the
inte$$e.ti6e ".t be."-#e the $"tter i# n"t-r"$$y or%ere% to the former, "# me"n# "re or%ere%
to en% "n% m"tter to form. 9In " 'ener"ti6e #-..e##ion thin'# th"t .ome $"ter %e4en% on
the 4re.e%in' one#, "n% yet they "re more 4erfe.t.9
88
If the 5i$$ e7i#te% "# 5i$$ in 6irt-e
of the inte$$e.t, it# %e4en%en.e 5o-$% of .o-r#e me"n "n inferiority of 4erfe.tion. hi# i#
e7".t$y 5h"t the 4o#ition of the inte$$e.t-"$i#t# "mo-nt# to. In f".t, they ob#er6e, if by "
4-re hy4othe#i# m"n 5ere en%o5e% 5ith inte$$e.t "$one, he 5o-$% #ti$$ be %efine% "# "
r"tion"$ "nim"$> b-t if he h"% 5i$$ 5itho-t inte$$e.t, he 5o-$% ipso facto $o#e hi# %i'nity of
r"tion"$ bein'. Left to it#e$f, 5i$$ i# nothin' b-t "n in.$in"tion #imi$"r to the ten%en.y
5hereby he"6y bo%ie# f"$$ to5"r%# their .enter of 'r"6ity.
o thi# D-n# S.ot-# "n#5er#F 9E6en if $o6e "$one rem"ine%, it 5o-$% not be mere$y "
ne.e##"ry ten%en.y $i2e 'r"6it"tion, b-t "n o4er"tion 5orthy of inte$$e.t-"$ n"t-re. In
f".t, to be "n o4er"tion, "n% to be #-.h "n o4er"tion, Hi# #omethin' th"tI $o6e %oe# not
%eri6e from the inte$$e.t> r"ther it i# #o in .onJ-n.tion 5ith the inte$$e.t.9
8A

From the fore'oin' %i#.-##ion it #eem# .$e"r th"t the b"#i# of the 5ho$e .ontro6er#y $ie#
in %ifferent .on.e4tion# of 5i$$.
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
88
Ibid#* n. (@.
8A
Ibid#* n. ().
,@A,
For D-n# S.ot-#, m"n3# 5i$$ i# r"tion"$ by n"t-re "n% %oe# not %eri6e #-.h "n e##enti"$
.h"r".teri#ti. from the inte$$e.t. 0-#t "# " thin' ."nnot be #e4"r"te% from it# o5n n"t-re,
#o 5i$$ "n% r"tion"$ity "re in#e4"r"b$e. Sin.e no tr-e r"tion"$ity i# 4o##ib$e 5itho-t
free%om, "n% #in.e free%om i# the 4ro4er .h"r".teri#ti. of the 6o$iti6e ".ti6ity,,
2no5$e%'e in it#e$f i# not free, for it i# ne.e##"ri$y %etermine% by the obJe.t,,it $o'i."$$y
fo$$o5# th"t the hi'he#t %e'ree of h-m"n 4erfe.tion $ie# in the 5i$$ r"ther th"n in the
inte$$e.t.
THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL
I# the h-m"n #o-$ immort"$L D-n# S.ot-# h"# no %o-bt th"t it i#. Ho5e6er, he be$ie6e#
th"t " ri'oro-# "n% "4o%i.ti. %emon#tr"tion of thi# %o.trine i# im4o##ib$e. here "re m"ny
4er#-"#i6e "r'-ment#, of .o-r#e, b-t none of them i# #o e6i%ent "# to for.e o-r "##ent.
8+

D-n# S.ot-# i# f-$$y "5"re of the 'r"6ity of #-.h " 4o#ition, 5hi.h re4re#ent# " bre"2
5ith the tr"%ition"$ te".hin' th"t h"% been 4"inf-$$y %e6e$o4e% %-rin' the t5e$fth "n%
thirteenth .ent-rie#. On the other h"n%, he %oe# not #eem to #h"re o-r fe"r in %enyin' to
h-m"n re"#on the 4o##ibi$ity of e#t"b$i#hin' by it# o5n 4o5er #-.h "n im4ort"nt tr-th.
R"ther he fin%# in thi# %efi.ien.y " ne5 moti6e for r"i#in' hi# min% to ;o% "n%
m"'nifyin' Hi# mer.y. 9From thi# it "44e"r# ho5 th"n2f-$ 5e #ho-$% be to ;o%3# bo-nty,
5ho '"6e -# thro-'h f"ith the 're"te#t "##-r"n.e "bo-t tho#e thin'# th"t .on.ern o-r
etern"$ %e#tiny, "n% "bo-t 5hi.h e6en the 're"te#t min%# ."n te$$ -# "$mo#t nothin'.9
8)

In the mi%%$e "'e#, 5hene6er " thin2er 5i#he% to $e"rn 5hether " .ert"in tr-th .o-$% be
"tt"ine% by the $i'ht of re"#on or on$y by f"ith, he 5o-$% .on#-$t, fir#t of "$$, the 5or2# of
!ri#tot$e "n% #ee if the 4hi$o#o4her h"% 2no5n "n% t"-'ht it.
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
8+
+p# +.on#, IV, %. 8B, =. 1, n. (+.
8)
Ibid#* n. BB.
,@+,
If he h"%, the =-e#tion 5"# $oo2e% -4on "# #o$6e%F re"#on it#e$f .o-$% "tt"in #-.h " tr-th.
If he h"% not, then " #tron' 4re#-m4tion, if not " %e.i#i6e "r'-ment, 5o-$% e7i#t th"t the
tr-th in =-e#tion .o-$% not be "tt"ine% by the $i'ht of re"#on -n"i%e% by re6e$"tion. h"t
i# 5hy in the %emon#tr"tion of the immort"$ity of the #o-$, the !ri#tote$i"n te7t# th"t
#eeme% to f"6or #-.h " %o.trine 5ere -#-"$$y bro-'ht forth.
&ith re'"r% to !ri#tot$e3# tho-'ht on thi# 4oint, D-n# S.ot-# 4oint# o-t th"t, "$on' 5ith
te7t# f"6orin' the immort"$ity of the #o-$, other# e7i#t 5hi.h #eem to in%i."te the
St"'irite3# o44o#ite 6ie5. It m-#t therefore be "%mitte% th"t .on.ernin' the 4rob$em of the
immort"$ity of the #o-$, !ri#tot$e %i% not h"6e .$e"r "n% %efinite i%e"#F #ometime# he
#eem# to f"6or it, "t other time# to %eny it. !t $e"#t it m-#t be .on.e%e% th"t "nyone
5i#hin' to b"#e hi# .on6i.tion# on !ri#tot$e3# 5or2# 5i$$ fin% it %iffi.-$t to m"2e " .$e"r,
.-t %e.i#ion for or "'"in#t the immort"$ity of the #o-$.
he "44"rent .ontr"%i.tion of thi# %o-b$e #erie# of te7t# ."n 4erh"4# be e74$"ine% by the
f".t th"t !ri#tot$e "$$o5e% him#e$f to be %omin"te% by the "r'-ment he 5"# h"n%$in' "t
e".h time, no m"tter 5hether the "r'-ment 5"# more f"6or"b$e to one #i%e of the
=-e#tion or the other !consonum uni parti magis ,uam alteri$# Ho5e6er, to be more
e74$i.it, the re"#on for #-.h " %o-b$e #t"n% $ie# in thi#F th"t the 5or2# of !ri#tot$e, "# the
5or2# of "$$ 4hi$o#o4her#, "re not "$$ of " 4-re$y 4hi$o#o4hi."$ .h"r".ter, nor "re they "
#erie# of #tri.t$y ri'oro-# "r'-ment#. here "re -#-"$$y 5e"2 4oint#, th"t i#, #t"tement#
th"t $o'i."$$y "re not 6ery #tron', or #-.h th"t they h"6e no other fo-n%"tion th"n "
.ert"in 4rob"bi$ity "n% the #-44ort of 4re.e%in' 4hi$o#o4her#. 9Sometime# 4hi$o#o4her#
"re #"ti#fie% 5ith 4er#on"$ .on6i.tion# th"t "re on$y 4rob"b$e, "n% #ometime# 5ith
.on.$-#ion# th"t %o not fo$$o5 ne.e##"ri$y from their 4rin.i4$e#.9
8@

DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
8@
Ibid#* n. (+.
,@),
In "%%ition to the "r'-ment# from %ire.t or in%ire.t "-thority, "r'-ment# from re"#on "re
-#-"$$y bro-'ht forth in #-44ort of the immort"$ity of the #o-$. Of the#e "r'-ment# #ome
"re "$on' the $ine# of the !ri#tote$i"n tren% of tho-'ht, other# "re more in .onformity 5ith
the !-'-#tini"n %o.trine. Let -# .on#i%er D-n# S.ot-#3 .riti.i#m of both ty4e# of
"r'-ment#, be'innin' 5ith tho#e mentione% by St. hom"#.
!# i# 5e$$ 2no5n, the !n'e$i. Do.tor 4ro6e# the immort"$ity of the #o-$ from it#
#4irit-"$ity. ! thin' ."n be .orr-4te% either be."-#e of the intern"$ %i##o$-tion of the 4"rt#
th"t .om4o#e it E.orr-4tion per seG, or be."-#e of the $o## of the in%i#4en#"b$e #-44ort for
it# esse E.orr-4tion per accidensG. B-t the h-m"n #o-$ ."n be .orr-4te% in neither 5"y. It
."nnot be .orr-4te% per accidens* for bein' in%e4en%ent of the bo%y in it# o4er"tion#, it
m-#t "$#o be in%e4en%ent in it# esse# he esse of the #o-$ #e4"r"te% from the bo%y i#
i%enti."$ 5ith the esse of the #o-$ -nite% to it. he on$y %ifferen.e i# th"t in thi# $"tter ."#e
the #o-$ 4"rti.i4"te# or .omm-ni."te# it# o5n e##e to the bo%y. It ."n be e"#i$y
-n%er#too%, then, th"t the bo%y ."n be #e4"r"te% from the #o-$ 5itho-t 4reJ-%i.in' the
#o-$3# e7i#ten.e.
he #o-$ ."nnot be .orr-4te% per se* be."-#e it i# #im4$e. o 4eri#h, the #o-$ 5o-$% h"6e
to #e4"r"te it#e$f from it#e$f, from it# o5n esse7 it 5o-$% h"6e to %e#troy it#e$f, 5hi.h i#
J-#t "# im4o##ib$e "# to 'i6e to it#e$f it# o5n esse#
In the fir#t 4$".e, D-n# S.ot-# %oe# not "'ree 5ith the #t"tement th"t the #o-$ h"# the esse
per se in the homi#ti. #en#e, 5hi.h im4$ie# the i%entifi."tion of the esse of the #o-$ 5ith
the e##e of the 5ho$e, i. e., of the h-m"n .om4o#ite. No %o-bt the #o-$ h"# it# o5n re"$ity,
it# o5n esse %i#tin.t from the esse of the bo%y. B-t in#of"r "# the #o-$ i# the form of the
bo%y 5ith 5hi.h it .on#tit-te# the h-m"n .om4o#ite, it# esse i# not %efiniti6e b-t or%ere%
to the esse of the 5ho$e, 5hi.h re#-$t# 4re.i#e$y from the -nion of the esse animae 5ith
the esse
,@@,
corporis#
8*
!..or%in'$y, the #o-$ h"# the esse per se* "# "$$ re"$ thin'# %o, if by the term
esse i# me"nt the ".t by 5hi.h " thin' e7i#t# o-t#i%e it# ."-#e> it %oe# not h"6e the esse
per se* if by thi# i# me"nt the -$tim"te "n% %efiniti6e ".t by 5hi.h " thin' e7i#t# in it#
n"t-r"$ .on.retene##. In other 5or%#, the esse per se be$on'# to the h-m"n .om4o#ite "n%
not to the #o-$.
he #o-$, ho5e6er, i# %ifferent from other form#, 9be."-#e it i# not immer#e% in m"tter,
nor i# it tot"$$y "b#orbe% by it, 9 "# m"nife#te% by the f".t 9th"t it 4o##e##e# o4er"tion#
"n% ener'ie# th"t "re 4ro4er to it#e$f, in%e4en%ent$y of the bo%y.9
AC
Hen.e it i# not
.orr-4tib$e per accidens "# other form# "re.
h-# D-n# S.ot-# ".2no5$e%'e# the in.orr-4tibi$ity of the #o-$ per accidens* b-t not on
the 'ro-n% of the homi#ti. 4rin.i4$e th"t the esse of the #o-$ i# i%enti."$ 5ith the esse of
the 5ho$e,,thi# 5i$$ "ffor% 4roof th"t the #o-$ can be immort"$, b-t not th"t it i# de facto
immort"$. &h"t 4re6ent# the tr"n#ition from mere 4o##ibi$ity to ".t-"$ity i# the f".t th"t
the #o-$ i# by n"t-re or%ere% to the esse of the 5ho$e .om4o#ite, "n% the #-#4en#ion of
thi# or%er or n"t-r"$ $"5 ."nnot be %emon#tr"te% by the $i'ht of re"#on "$one. E6ery
#-#4en#ion of " n"t-r"$ $"5 i# " mir".$e, "n% " mir".$e i# not #omethin' th"t h"44en# of
ne.e##ity. Hen.e, from the f".t th"t the esse of the #o-$ %oe# not %e4en% on the esse of the
bo%y, one ."nnot %r"5 the .on.$-#ion th"t the #o-$ h"# therefore it# esse 5itho-t the
bo%y.
A(

o in#i#t on the f".t th"t in 2no5$e%'e the #o-$ ".t# in%e4en%ent$y of m"tter, "t $e"#t to "
.ert"in e7tent, "n% to .on.$-%e from thi# to it# #e4"r"te e7i#ten.e, i# no better "r'-ment. If
it i# tr-e th"t the #o-$ i# the 4ro7im"te #-bJe.t of the r"tion"$ ".t, it i# "$#o tr-e th"t it i#
m"n, the 5ho$e m"n, th"t -n%er#t"n%# thro-'h the #o-$, hi# form. he ".t of
-n%er#t"n%in',
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
8*
&uodlibet#, =. *, n. (A.
AC
Ibid#* n. @.
A(
+p# +.on#, IV, %. 8B, =. 1, n. 1B.
,@*,
"# "$$ other ".t#, i# 4rim"ri$y "n ".t of the suppositum* "n% the suppositum i# not the #o-$
b-t the 5ho$e h-m"n .om4o-n%, e6en tho-'h it i# be."-#e of the #o-$, "n imm"teri"$
form, th"t m"n i# en%o5e% 5ith r"tion"$ ".ti6ity.
Here "'"in 5e m-#t t"2e noti.e of the #o-$3# n"t-r"$ or%in"tion to the .om4o#ite.
Phi$o#o4hy ."nnot 'o f-rther th"n th"t. he f".t th"t the #o-$, on.e it i# #e4"r"te% from
the bo%y, ."n -n%er#t"n% i# 2no5n to -# on$y by f"ith.
A1
It i# on$y by i%entifyin' the esse
of the #o-$ 5ith the esse of the 5ho$e th"t thi# i# 4o##ib$e> ho5e6er, "# "$re"%y 4ro6e%,
the esse animae i# not the esse totius#
he "r'-ment 5hi.h "ttem4t# to %emon#tr"te the e##enti"$ in.orr-4tibi$ity of the #o-$ i#
$i2e5i#e %efe.ti6e. r-e, the #o-$ i# "n imm"teri"$ "n% #im4$e form 5hi.h ."nnot be
.orr-4te% thro-'h the #e4"r"tion of 4"rt#> b-t it ."n be %e#troye% "n% "nnihi$"te% by ;o%.
he #o-$ i# in%e#tr-.tib$e by intrin#i. ."-#e# "n% by inferior e7trin#i. ."-#e#, b-t not by "
#-4erior e7trin#i. ."-#e. ;o% ."n "$5"y# %o 5h"t i# not "b#-r% "n% im4$ie# no
.ontr"%i.tion.
In .on.$-#ion, D-n# S.ot-# "%mit# the in.orr-4tibi$ity Ein the e7".t #en#e of 4o##ibi$ity of
in.orr-4tionG of the #o-$ per accidens7 b-t be."-#e of hi# o5n 4"rti.-$"r notion# of form
"n% the -nion of #o-$ "n% bo%y, he ref-te# the "r'-ment by 5hi.h St. hom"# trie# to
4ro6e the im4o##ibi$ity for the #o-$ to be .orr-4te% 5ith the bo%y. Li2e5i#e, he "%mit#
the in.orr-4tibi$ity of the #o-$ per se "# " 4o##ibi$ity, b-t be."-#e of hi# o5n .on.e4tion
of the re$"tion#hi4 bet5een %i6ine 5i$$ "n% .re"te% thin'#,,thi# i# to be e74o-n%e% in
"nother .h"4ter,,he %enie# th"t the ".t-"$ immort"$ity of the #o-$ ."n be e#t"b$i#he% on
the b"#i# of e6i%ent, or "t $e"#t ne.e##"ry, re"#on#. For him the on$y $e'itim"te .on.$-#ion
i# thi#F the h-m"n #o-$ by it# n"t-re ."n be immort"$.
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
A1
&uodlibet#, =. *, n. (8.
,*C,
E6i%ent$y, the b"#i. re"#onin' in S.ot-#3 .riti.i#m of the t5o homi#ti. "r'-ment# i#
e##enti"$$y the #"me. Ho5e6er, the reJe.tion of the fir#t "r'-ment ent"i$# more .om4$e7
.on#i%er"tion#.
he f"6orite "r'-ment of the !-'-#tini"n #.hoo$ i# b"#e% on m"n3# n"t-r"$ %e#ire for
immort"$ity. D-n# S.ot-# thin2# th"t thi# "r'-ment i# too 6"'-e. If #-.h " %e#ire 5ere
tr-$y n"t-r"$, no %o-bt it 5o-$% .on#tit-te " #o$i% fo-n%"tion for %emon#tr"tin' the
immort"$ity of the h-m"n #o-$. B-t in or%er to 2no5 th"t #-.h " %e#ire i# tr-$y n"t-r"$, it
i# ne.e##"ry fir#t to 2no5 th"t it i# tr-$y 'ro-n%e% in h-m"n n"t-re. hi# i# e=-i6"$ent to
#"yin' th"t 5e m-#t fir#t %emon#tr"te th"t m"n i# by n"t-re %e#tine% to be immort"$. In
#-.h " ."#e, 5e 5o-$% "##-me "# "$re"%y %emon#tr"te% 5h"t the "r'-ment i# #-44o#e% to
4ro6e.
On the other h"n%, if by n"t-r"$ %e#ire i# me"nt th"t #4ont"neo-# Joy 5ith 5hi.h m"n
5e$.ome# "ny 4romi#e of immort"$ity !actus elicitus$* then it m-#t be #"i% th"t, 5hi$e it i#
.om4"r"ti6e$y e"#y to "#.ert"in by e74erien.e the e7i#ten.e of #-.h " %e#ire in -#, it i#
not #o e"#y to %emon#tr"te th"t the %e#ire in =-e#tion i# the e74re##ion of " n"t-r"$
ten%en.y. It m-#t fir#t be e#t"b$i#he% on 'oo%, #o$i% 'ro-n%#, "# 4re6io-#$y #t"te%, th"t the
#o-$ h"# " n"t-r"$ ."4".ity for immort"$ity "n% i# n"t-r"$$y %e#tine% to it.
he #"me rem"r2# "re m"%e by D-n# S.ot-# on the other !-'-#tini"n "r'-ment, b"#e% on
m"n3# %e#ire for " #-4reme, "n% therefore e6er$"#tin', h"44ine##. he 6"$i%ity of thi#
"r'-ment re#t# on the 4o##ibi$ity of %emon#tr"tin' by "r'-ment# %e%-.e% from re"#on
"$one th"t the be"tifi. 6i#ion of ;o% i# the en% of m"n.
AB
hi# %emon#tr"tion i#
-n%er#t"n%"b$e to one 5ho "%mit# th"t ;o% i# the 4ro4er obJe.t of the h-m"n inte$$e.t,
b-t not to D-n# S.ot-#. From the f".t th"t the 4ro4er
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
AB
9For it m-#t be 2no5n to -# by n"t-r"$ re"#on th"t th"t ".t befit# -# "# o-r o5n en%.9
+p# +.on#, IV, %. 8B, =. 1, n. B1.
,*(,
obJe.t of the h-m"n inte$$e.t i# bein' "# bein', it %oe# not fo$$o5 th"t 5e m-#t 2no5 ;o%
4erfe.t$y> " .on.e4t-"$ 2no5$e%'e of Him i# #-ffi.ient. If ;o% 5ere the 4ro4er obJe.t of
o-r inte$$e.t, m"n 5o-$% be m"%e, "# it 5ere, on " %i6ine 4"ttern th"t 5o-$% %em"n% hi#
immort"$ity. B-t thi# i# not the ."#e, "n% #o no "r'-ment for the immort"$ity of the #o-$
."n be b-i$t on th"t 4remi#e.
,*1,
I/
!NOLED#E
M!N IS in " .ontin-o-# be.omin'. He %e6e$o4# hi# 6e'et"ti6e, #en#iti6e, inte$$e.t-"$,
"n% 6o$ition"$ 4o5er# on$y by .omin' in .ont".t 5ith thin'#. h-# the h-m"n bo%y
"tt"in# it# 4erfe.tion by -ti$i<in' the thin'# th"t #-rro-n% it in " #erie# of 4ro.e##e#, of
5hi.h the mo#t .h"r".teri#ti. i# n-trition. hi# i# not %iffi.-$t to -n%er#t"n%, #in.e 5e
h"6e here thin'# of the #"me n"t-re. More my#terio-# i# the re$"tion bet5een #o-$ "n%
thin'#, bet5een #4irit "n% m"tter, 5hi.h "re #o %ifferent from one "nother. !$$ the
%iffi.-$tie# .enter on the f".t of 2no5$e%'e, for it i# thro-'h 2no5$e%'e th"t thin'#
be.ome o-r# in " 6ery #4e.i"$ 5"y "n% no-ri#h, "# it 5ere, o-r #o-$3# $ife.
he 4rob$em of 2no5$e%'e .on#i#t# not #o m-.h in %i#.o6erin' the 4ro.e## by 5hi.h m"n
2no5#, "# in %eterminin' the ro$e# th"t both #o-$ "n% thin'# 4$"y in ."-#in' the .o'niti6e
".t. !$$ be.omin' fin%# it# e74$"n"tion in the inter4$"y of the fo-r ."-#e#, i. e., m"teri"$,
form"$, effi.ient, "n% fin"$. S.ho$"#ti.# in 'ener"$ "'ree in m"int"inin' th"t the m"teri"$
."-#e of the .o'niti6e ".t i# #en#e or inte$$e.t, the form"$ ."-#e i# re#4e.ti6e$y the
#en#ib$e #4e.ie# "n% the inte$$i'ib$e #4e.ie#, "n% the fin"$ ."-#e the 4erfe.tion 5hi.h i#
n"t-r"$$y %-e to m"n. Di#"'reement #t"rt# 5hen the effi.ient ."-#e i# to be %etermine%. It
i# the 4-r4o#e of thi# .h"4ter to e7"mine, on the
,*B,
b"#i# of S.oti#ti. te7t#, the f-n%"ment"$ 4oint# of the .ontro6er#y. hi# 5i$$ 4ro6i%e the
o44ort-nity for 4ointin' o-t D-n# S.ot-#3 #4e.-$"ti6e .ontrib-tion to the #o$-tion of the
4rob$em of 2no5$e%'e.
SENSATION
he fir#t .o'niti6e .ont".t bet5een m"n "n% thin'# i# thro-'h the #en#e#. D-n# S.ot-#
en%or#e# "n% m"2e# hi# o5n the %o.trine of the 4#y.ho$o'i."$ #tr-.t-re of #en#"tion, "#
form-$"te% by the !ri#tote$i"n #.hoo$. !..or%in' to thi# %o.trine, m"n h"# fi6e #en#e#,
e".h of them 5ith " 4"rti.-$"r or'"n 5hi.h i# mo%ifie% %ire.t$y or in%ire.t$y by e7tern"$
bo%ie#. he .ommon or .entr"$ #en#e h"# the t"#2 of .oor%in"tin' the %"t" of the e7tern"$
#en#e#. Sen#"tion .on#i#t# e##enti"$$y in " mo%ifi."tion of the or'"n# 4ro%-.e% by the
".tion of "n e7tern"$ bo%y -4on them. By D-n# S.ot-# "n% "$$ #.ho$"#ti. 4hi$o#o4her#
thi# mo%ifi."tion i# ."$$e% species sensibilis#
D-n# S.ot-#3 "'reement 5ith the !ri#tote$i"n #.hoo$ .ome# to "n en% 5hen the =-e#tion
"ri#e# 5hether in #en#"tion the #o-$ i# ".ti6e or 4"##i6e. M"ny !ri#tote$i"n# -#e% to t"2e
$iter"$$y the St"'irite3# #"yin' th"t sentire est ,uoddam pati7 .on#e=-ent$y, they "ttrib-te%
to the e7tern"$ bo%y "$$ the effi.ient ."-#"$ity of #en#"tion. D-n# S.ot-# i# of " %ifferent
o4inion. He be$ie6e# th"t the #en#iti6e 4o5er i# not mere$y 4"##i6e. For him #en#"tion ."n
on$y be e74$"ine% by the ".ti6e .on.-rren.e of both the e7tern"$ bo%y "n% the #en#iti6e
4o5er. Sin.e the "r'-ment# on 5hi.h he fo-n%# hi# o4inion on the n"t-re of the
.on.-rren.e in =-e#tion "re the #"me for #en#"tion "n% inte$$e.tion, they 5i$$ be
.on#i%ere% $"ter 5hen inte$$e.tion i# %i#.-##e%.
Sen#"tion brin'# m"n in .ont".t 5ith m"teri"$ thin'# "n% m"2e# him 2no5 them in their
imme%i"te, 4hy#i."$ re"$ity. hi# 2in% of 2no5$e%'e m"n h"# in .ommon 5ith "$$ other
"nim"$#. Ho5e6er, m"n h"# " m-.h more 4erfe.t 2no5$e%'e
,*8,
of thin'#> he h"# inte$$e.t-"$ 2no5$e%'e, 5hi.h tr"n#.en%# #en#ib$e 2no5$e%'e "n% i# of "
%ifferent n"t-re. hro-'h inte$$e.t-"$ 2no5$e%'e m"n 2no5# thin'# in their e##en.e "n%
in their ."-#e#> "t $e"#t to " .ert"in e7tent, he %i#.o6er# the me"nin' "n% the intim"te
#tr-.t-re of thin'# "n% the re$"tion# th"t bin% e6erythin' into " -ni=-e #y#tem of re"$ity.
hi# i# 4o##ib$e to -# in#of"r "# 5e ri#e from the 4"rti.-$"r to the -ni6er#"$. he tr"n#ition
from #en#ib$e 2no5$e%'e to inte$$e.t-"$ 2no5$e%'e i# %one thro-'h the 4ro.e## of
"b#tr".tion.
THE DOCTRINE OF ABSTRACTION
he 6"rio-# #te4# in the "b#tr".ti6e 4ro.e##, "# %e#.ribe% by the !ri#tote$i"n #.hoo$, "re
5e$$ 2no5n. hin'# e7i#t "# #in'-$"r, "n% "# #-.h they re6e"$ them#e$6e# to the #en#e#
thro-'h the #en#ib$e #4e.ie#. he inte$$e.t, ho5e6er, 2no5# them thro-'h the .on.e4t,
5hi.h i# -ni6er#"$. h-# -ni6er#"$ity i# #ynonymo-# 5ith inte$$i'ibi$ity. o "#2, then,
ho5 thin'# be.ome inte$$i'ib$e i# e=-i6"$ent to "#2in' ho5 %o .on.e4t# be.ome
-ni6er#"$. he tr"n#form"tion i# effe.te% by the inte$$e.t, more #4e.ifi."$$y by the "'ent
inte$$e.t, 5hi.h, by i$$-min"tin' the 4h"nt"#m, #tri4# it of it# in%i6i%-"tin' note# "n%
4ro%-.e# " ne5 #4e.ie#. hi# i# ."$$e% the inte$$i'ib$e #4e.ie#, be."-#e in it the thin' t"2e#
on the .h"r".teri#ti.# of -ni6er#"$ity "n% be.ome# inte$$i'ib$e, th"t i#, 2no5"b$e to the
inte$$e.t.
In D-n# S.ot-#3 4hi$o#o4hy the "b#tr".ti6e 4ro.e## ."n "$#o be re#o$6e% into the
tr"%ition"$ !ri#tote$i"n e$ement#. he #t"rtin' 4oint i# the 4"rti.-$"r .on.rete thin'
offere% by the 4h"nt"#m "n% the re#-$t i# the inte$$i'ib$e #4e.ie#, 5hi$e the ".t of
me%i"tion bet5een the t5o i# 4erforme% by the "'ent inte$$e.t. Yet, 5hen ."ref-$$y
#t-%ie%, the S.oti#ti. "b#tr".tion re6e"$# "t e6ery #te4 the ne5 #4irit of the #y#tem to
5hi.h it be$on'#. Let -# e7"mine it from it# 6ery #t"rtin' 4oint, the thin' "n% it#
4h"nt"#m.
,*A,
he 4h"nt"#m, $i2e the thin' from 5hi.h it i# 4ro%-.e%, i# #in'-$"r> b-t for D-n# S.ot-#
the #tr-.t-re of the #in'-$"r i# .ert"in$y not #-.h "# to be in 4erfe.t "'reement 5ith the
!ri#tote$i"n te".hin'. In f".t, "# 5e h"6e "$re"%y 4ro6e% in the .o-r#e of thi# #t-%y, the
in%i6i%-"$ i# for D-n# S.ot-# the #ynthe#i# of " .ommon n"t-re "n% h"e..eity. It m"y be
obJe.te%F if in the .on.rete thin' there ".t-"$$y i# " n"t-re %i#tin.t from the in%i6i%-"tin'
e$ement, 5i$$ not th"t ".tion by 5hi.h the inte$$e.t #tri4# " n"t-re of it# in%i6i%-"tin'
note# be -#e$e##L &i$$ not the n"t-re be 'r"#4e% %ire.t$y in the 4h"nt"#mL
o thi# obJe.tion D-n# S.ot-# "n#5er# by re."$$in' hi# o5n theory of .ommon n"t-re.
hi# n"t-re, he #"y#, i# .ommon, b-t not -ni6er#"$> it i# the re"$ fo-n%"tion for
-ni6er#"$ity b-t not -ni6er#"$ity it#e$f. he ".tion of the "'ent inte$$e.t i# re=-ire%
4re.i#e$y for the tr"n#form"tion of the 4hy#i."$ -ni6er#"$ into " met"4hy#i."$ -ni6er#"$.
he ."-#e by 5hi.h "n obJe.t obt"in# th"t 4o#iti6e in%etermin"tion in the inte$$e.t th"t
m"2e# it tr-$y -ni6er#"$,,"n in%etermin"tion 5hi.h i# 're"ter th"n the ne'"ti6e
in%etermin"tion 4ro4er to .ommon n"t-re,,."nnot be the obJe.t it#e$f, b-t the "'ent
inte$$e.t in 6irt-e of it# -ni6er#"$i<in' 4o5er.
Ho5 i# thi# -ni6er#"$i<in' ".tion of the "'ent inte$$e.t to be -n%er#too%L For one 5ho
m"int"in# th"t e6erythin' th"t e7i#t# in .on.rete re"$ity i# in%i6i%-"$, "n% on$y in%i6i%-"$,
the ".tion of the "'ent inte$$e.t ."nnot be -n%er#too% other. 5i#e th"n "# " 4ro.e## by
5hi.h the thin' i# #tri44e% of it# in%i6i%-"tin' note#. hi# i# %one by the ".ti6e inte$$e.t
in the ".t by 5hi.h it #he%# it# o5n $i'ht -4on the #en#ib$e 4h"nt"#m.
!'"in#t thi# 5"y of .on.ei6in' "b#tr".tion D-n# S.ot-# 4ro4o#e# t5o f-n%"ment"$
obJe.tion#. If the thin' i# in%i6i%-"$, "n% on$y in%i6i%-"$, he ob#er6e#, I %o not #ee ho5 it
."n be.ome -ni6er#"$ "# the re#-$t of 4-re i$$-min"tion. &hen I i$$-mine " thin', I #ee
better 5h"t the thin' i# in "$$ it# 4"r,
,*+,
ti.-$"r %et"i$#> no $i'ht, ho5e6er, ."n brin' forth 5h"t i# not in the thin' it#e$f. In or%er
th"t the i$$-min"tin' ".tion of the "'ent inte$$e.t m"y be "b$e to -ni6er#"$i<e, one m-#t
"%mit th"t there "$re"%y e7i#t# in the thin' the -ni6er#"$ "# #-.h. he f".t th"t the
-ni6er#"$ i# there in " more or $e## hi%%en #t"te, #o th"t it ."n be bro-'ht to $i'ht on$y by
the re6e"$in' ".tion of the inte$$e.t, by no me"n# mo%ifie# it# n"t-re "# " -ni6er#"$. Hen.e
one of t5o thin'# fo$$o5#. Either the fir#t "$tern"ti6e i# tr-e, n"me$y, th"t the thin' i# on$y
in%i6i%-"$ "n% in no 5"y .ont"in# the -ni6er#"$, "n% then 5e he"% to5"r% nomin"$i#m,
5hi.h m"2e# the -ni6er#"$ " fi.tion of the inte$$e.t. In thi# ."#e the inte$$e.t i# f-$$y
.re%ite% 5ith the form"tion of the .on.e4t. Or the #e.on% "$tern"ti6e i# "%mitte%, n"me$y,
th"t the -ni6er#"$ e7i#t# "# #-.h in the thin', "n% then 5e f"$$ into the theory of P$"toni.
i%e"#. he on$y %ifferen.e i# th"t the -ni6er#"$ e##en.e#, in#te"% of bein' 4$".e% in "
tr"n#.en%ent"$ 5or$%, "re to be fo-n% in the 6ery he"rt of #en#ib$e re"$ity.
he theory of .ommon n"t-re i#, in S.ot-#3 o4inion, the on$y theory th"t ."n #"6e -# from
the t5o e7treme# of nomin"$i#m "n% e7"''er"te% re"$i#m. he n"t-re i# " 4otenti"$
-ni6er#"$ 5hi.h re.ei6e# it# -$tim"te ".t-"$ity "# " -ni6er#"$ from the inte$$e.t. In thi#
."#e, ho5e6er, "b#tr".tion m-#t be .on.ei6e% in " #ome5h"t %ifferent m"nner. It 5i$$ no
$on'er be " =-e#tion of "n i$$-min"tin' ".tion of the "'ent inte$$e.t -4on the 4h"nt"#m,
from 5hi.h the inte$$i'ib$e #4e.ie# or -ni6er#"$ in ".t 5o-$%, "# it 5ere, .ome forth>
in#te"%, there 5i$$ be "n effe.ti6e .o$$"bor"tion bet5een the obJe.t 4re#ent in the
4h"nt"#m "n% the inte$$e.t in the 4ro%-.tion of the i%e". hro-'h the 4h"nt"#m, the obJe.t
%r"5# the "ttention of the inte$$e.t -4on the n"t-re, 5hi.h of it#e$f i# in%ifferent to
#in'-$"rity or -ni6er#"$ity. hi# n"t-re, -4on enterin' the intention"$ or%er, ".=-ire# the
mo%"$ity 4ro4er to thi# or%er, n"me$y, -ni6er#"$ity, "n% th-# be.ome# inte$$i'ib$e. he
-ni6er#"$i<in' ".tion of the "'ent inte$$e.t .on#i#t# 4re.i#e$y in
,*),
thi#F to en%o5 n"t-re 5ith thi# ne5 mo%"$ity. he re#-$t of thi# ".tion i# the 4ro%-.tion of
the inte$$i'ib$e #4e.ie# in the 4o##ib$e inte$$e.t.
he re"#on# th"t $e% D-n# S.ot-# to "%mit thi# intention"$ entity ."$$e% inte$$i'ib$e #4e.ie#
"re m"nifo$%, "n% they "re f-$$y e74$"ine% in one of the =-e#tion# in the +pus +.oniense.
A8
he 4rin.i4"$ "r'-ment i# b"#e% on " 4henomeno$o'i."$ #t-%y of o-r inte$$e.ti6e ".t.
here i# " moment in 5hi.h the obJe.t i# in%ifferent "n% of no intere#t to o-r inte$$e.t. o
thi# " #e.on% moment #-..ee%#, in 5hi.h the obJe.t #tir# -4 o-r inte$$e.ti6e 4o5er "n%
mo6e# it to -n%er#t"n% it. he ".t by 5hi.h the obJe.t i# ".t-"$$y -n%er#too% re4re#ent#
the thir% momentF the inte$$e.t t"2e# 4o##e##ion of the obJe.t "n% be.ome# intention"$$y
the obJe.t it#e$f.
! re"#on m-#t be fo-n% for the tr"n#ition from the fir#t moment, 5hen the obJe.t h"# not
"# yet #tirre% -4 the "ttention of the inte$$e.t, to the #e.on% moment, in 5hi.h the inte$$e.t
i# mo6e% to -n%er#t"n% it. E6i%ent$y, " .h"n'e h"# t"2en 4$".e. he obJe.t, of .o-r#e, %i%
not -n%er'o "ny .h"n'e, for it i# the #"me obJe.t before "n% "fter it i# 2no5n. H"# the
4h"nt"#m .h"n'e%L Cert"in$y not. !ny .h"n'e 5ithin the 4h"nt"#m 5i$$ "$5"y# be of "
#en#ib$e or%er, "n% the obJe.t, %e#4ite "$$ 4o##ib$e .h"n'e# in the 4h"nt"#m, 5i$$ ne6er be
tr"n#ferre% to the or%er of inte$$i'ibi$ity. Nor i# "ny .h"n'e 4o##ib$e in the "'ent inte$$e.t,
for nothin' ."n be re.ei6e% in the "'ent !nihil recipitur in agente$# h-# of "$$ the f".tor#
.on.-rrin' to the inte$$e.ti6e ".t, n"me$y, obJe.t, 4h"nt"#m, "'ent inte$$e.t, "n% 4o##ib$e
inte$$e.t, on$y thi# $"#t ."n be he$% re#4on#ib$e for the .h"n'e by 5hi.h " thin' 4"##e#
from it# remote 4otenti"$ity of inte$$i'ibi$ity to it# 4ro7im"te 4oten,
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
A8
+p# +.on#, I, %. B, =. +.
,*@,
ti"$ity of bein' -n%er#too%. &h"t i# the ne5 f".t th"t h"# t"2en 4$".eL It i# the 4ro%-.tion
of the inte$$i'ib$e #4e.ie#. By .ombinin' their 4o5er#, "'ent inte$$e.t "n% 4h"nt"#m
4ro%-.e 5ithin the 4o##ib$e inte$$e.t, 5hi.h ".t# "# " m"teri"$ ."-#e, " #4e.i"$ entity th"t
i# " similitudo* or the intention"$ .orre#4on%ent of the re"$ obJe.t in esse intelligibili "n%
in esse ob9ecti5o#
AA

!t thi# 4oint the =-e#tion n"t-r"$$y "ri#e#F 5h"t ."-#e# the n"t-re, 5hi.h in re"$ity i# on$y
" natura communis* to be.ome uni5ersal in the intention"$ or%erL
A+
hi# ."-#e ."nnot be
the obJe.t, #in.e thi# re6e"$# it#e$f on$y "# it i#> nor ."n it be the inte$$e.t "# 4"##i6e
f".-$ty, for "# #-.h it re.ei6e# b-t %oe# not tr"n#form. he ."-#e in =-e#tion ."n therefore
on$y be the inte$$e.t "# "n "'ent, "n% 4re.i#e$y in it# ."4".ity "# "'ent inte$$e.t. 9o
e74$"in 5hy the "'ent inte$$e.t, to'ether 5ith .ommon n"t-re, m"2e# the obJe.t -ni6er#"$,
there i# b-t one re"#onF the inte$$e.t i# th"t 2in% of " 4o5er. In $i2e m"nner fire he"t#
be."-#e it i# fire.9
A)

It ."n on$y be re'rette% th"t in hi# "n"$y#i# of the 4ro.e## of -ni6er#"$i<"tion D-n# S.ot-#
#to4# here. H"% he t"2en the $e"% from hi# o5n theory of the 4ro4er obJe.t of the inte$$e.t,
n"me$y, bein' "# bein',," theory th"t, "# 4re6io-#$y %emon#tr"te%, in.$-%e# " 6irt-"$
inn"ti#m of the i%e" of bein',,he
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
AA
Ibid#, n. (+F 9he 5"y I -n%er#t"n% it i# thi#. In the fir#t moment of the 4ro.e## the
obJe.t, either by it#e$f or thro-'h it# 4h"nt"#m, i# 4re#ent to the "'ent inte$$e.t. In the
#e.on% moment, in 5hi.h they Hthe obJe.t "n% the "'ent inte$$e.tI "re 4re#ent "# ".ti6e
."-#e to the 4o##ib$e inte$$e.t, 5hi.h i# therefore ".te% -4on, the species i# 4ro%-.e% in
the 4o##ib$e inte$$e.t. Fin"$$y, in the thir% moment, the obJe.t i# thro-'h the #4e.ie#
4re#ent "# inte$$i'ib$e.9
A+
2etaph# VII, =. (@, n. @F 9B-t 5h"t i# the ."-#e of th"t in%etermin"tion by 5hi.h the
obJe.t, "# #oon "# it i# 2no5n, be.ome# .om4$ete$y -ni6er#"$L9
A)
Ibid#
,**,
.o-$% h"6e 'i6en " more 4re.i#e "n% 4rofo-n% "n#5er to the 4rob$em "t i##-e.
A@
o fi7
the 4re.i#e 4oint# of %ifferen.e bet5een !ri#tote$i"n "b#tr".tion "n% S.oti#ti. "b#tr".tion,
the fo$$o5in' #t"tement# "re in or%erF
(. he %i#t"n.e bet5een the #t"rtin' 4oint "n% the 4oint of "rri6"$ in !ri#tot$e3#
"b#tr".ti6e 4ro.e## i# 're"ter th"n th"t in D-n# S.ot-#3 4ro.e##. &hi$e for !ri#tot$e
the 4ro.e## of "b#tr".tion be'in# 5ith the #in'-$"r, for D-n# S.ot-# it #t"rt# 5ith
.ommon n"t-re, 5hi.h 2ee4# " 4erfe.t b"$"n.e bet5een #in'-$"rity "n% -ni6er#"$ity.
1. Ho5e6er, 5hen the inte$$e.t3# .ontrib-tion to -ni6er#"$i<"tion i# .on#i%ere%, one
m-#t #"y th"t the 4"rt# "re in6erte%. he #te4 from .ommon n"t-re to the -ni6er#"$ i#
#horter, b-t it i# m"in$y the t"#2 of the inte$$e.t. &hi$e it i# tr-e th"t in the
!ri#tote$i"n #y#tem the #te4 from the #in'-$"r to the -ni6er#"$ i# $on'er, it i# $i2e5i#e
tr-e th"t the ".tion of the inte$$e.t i# $e## im4ort"nt. In f".t, the inte$$e.t mere$y
4oint# o-t by it# $i'ht the -ni6er#"$ or the form th"t i# in the thin'#. It %oe# not
.ontrib-te "nythin' of it# o5n, nor %oe# it .omm-ni."te it# n"t-re to the i%e", "#
S.ot-# te".he#. S.ot-# #"y# in effe.t th"t -ni6er#"$ity i# " ne5 mo%"$ity th"t the
inte$$e.t it#e$f .onfer# -4on the obJe.t.
B. h-# for D-n# S.ot-# "b#tr".tion i# not 4ro4er$y #4e"2in' " %em"teri"$i<"tion of the
obJe.t, or "n ".t by 5hi.h the form i# #et free from the in%i6i%-"tin' note# roote% in
m"tter> r"ther it i# "n ".t by 5hi.h the obJe.t t"2e# -4 " ne5 5"y of bein', i# r"i#e%
to the or%er of inte$$i'ibi$ity, or the i%e"$ or%er, "n% ".=-ire# the note of -ni6er#"$ity.
In thi# #en#e, it m-#t be re.o',
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
A@
For Ro#mini the $i'ht of the "'ent inte$$e.t i# the inn"te i%e" of bein'. o -ni6er#"$i<e
i# for him nothin' b-t to #ee " thin' in the $i'ht of the 4o##ib$e bein'. Cf. Nuo5o
saggio sull'origine delle idee, 6o$. II, 1n% 4"rt, .h"4. B, "rt. 1. In my o4inion thi#
Ro#mini"n theory ."n be .on#i%ere% "# " %e6e$o4ment "n% inte'r"tion of the S.oti#ti.
%o.trine of "b#tr".tion.
,(CC,
ni<e%, the ".ti6ity of the inte$$e.t i# for D-n# S.ot-# more %e.i#i6e "n% effi.".io-#.
THE EFFICIENT CAUSE OF !NOLED#E
o "b#tr".t i# not yet to -n%er#t"n%. he inte$$e.ti6e ".t .on#i#t#, 4ro4er$y #4e"2in', in
the $i6in' #ynthe#i# of the obJe.t, 4re#ent in the inte$$i'ib$e #4e.ie#, 5ith the inte$$e.t. It i#
from thi# #ynthe#i# th"t the .on.e4t or i%e", the 5erbum mentale* of the thin' 2no5n i#
'ener"te%.
Here "'"in the 4rob$em "ri#e#F i# -n%er#t"n%in' "n ".t of the #o-$ on$y be."-#e it i#
re.ei6e% in the inte$$e.ti6e f".-$ty, or i# it "n ".t of the #o-$ "$#o be."-#e it i# 4ro%-.e% by
the inte$$e.ti6e f".-$tyL In other 5or%#, i# the inte$$e.t on$y the m"teri"$ ."-#e of the ne5
re"$ity, the inte$$e.ti6e ".t, or i# it "$#o the effi.ient ."-#e of itL D-n# S.ot-#, "# -#-"$, i#
.onfronte% 5ith " 6"riety of #o$-tion# of the 4rob$em 5hi.h he h"# to f".e "n% e6"$-"te.
hi# he %oe# in " rem"r2"b$e =-e#tion of hi# 4rin.i4"$ 5or2,
A*
5here he m"2e# -# "##i#t
"t " %eb"te bet5een " 4#y.ho$o'y of 2no5$e%'e of P$"toni.,!-'-#tini"n ten%en.ie# "n% "
4#y.ho$o'y of 2no5$e%'e of the !ri#tote$i"n tren% of tho-'ht. He $i#ten# 4"tient$y to the
re"#on# of both .onten%"nt#, "n% then, ."$$in' "$$ b".2 to the re"$ 4oint of .ontro6er#y,
5hi.h i# the ".t of 2no5in', he rem"r2# th"t none of the #-''e#te% theorie# 'i6e# "
#-ffi.ient re"#on for "$$ the e74eriment"$ %"t" en.o-ntere% in h-m"n 2no5$e%'e. Hen.e
he 4ro4o#e# " ne5 #o$-tion, 5hi.h, he be$ie6e#, i# more $o'i."$ "n% .on#i#tent. &e "re
no5 'oin' to t"2e 4"rt in thi# %eb"te, "n% 5e m"y J-%'e for o-r#e$6e# 5ho i# the 5inner.
T(e Platon&c3A*.*st&n&an T(eor)" !# -#-"$, D-n# S.ot-# .hoo#e# Henry of ;hent "#
the e74onent of the P$"toni.,
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
A*
+p# +.on#, I, %. B, =. )F 9:trum pars intellecti5a* 5el ali,uid eius sit causa gignens 5el
ratio gignendi notitiam actualem#9
,(C(,
!-'-#tini"n #.hoo$. he the#i# th"t Henry of ;hent 4ro4o#e# to %emon#tr"te i#
form-$"te% by the S-bt$e Do.tor in the#e term#F 9Con.ernin' thi# =-e#tion, there i# "n
o4inion th"t "ttrib-te# the 5ho$e ".ti6ity of -n%er#t"n%in' to the #o-$ "$one. hi# o4inion
i# "ttrib-te% to St. !-'-#tine.9
+C
!..or%in' to thi# 6ie5, the on$y re"$ effi.ient ."-#e of
the .o'niti6e ".t i# the inte$$e.t. he %emon#tr"tion i# b"#e% m"in$y on the t5o fo$$o5in'
"r'-ment#. In the fir#t 4$".e, one ."nnot %eny the f".t th"t the ".t of -n%er#t"n%in' i# "
#4irit-"$ ".t, "n ".t th"t be$on'# to the 6ery $ife of o-r #o-$. Li2e5i#e, the 4rin.i4$e m-#t
be "%mitte% th"t no effe.t ."n be more 4erfe.t th"n it# ."-#e. No5, if the obJe.t "n% not
o-r inte$$e.ti6e f".-$ty 5ere the ."-#e of the ".t of -n%er#t"n%in', #-.h "n ".t .o-$% not
be ."$$e% " $i6in' ".t of o-r #o-$. F-rthermore, 5e 5o-$% r-n into the "b#-r%ity of h"6in'
"n effe.t #-4erior to it# ."-#e.
In the #e.on% 4$".e, the ".t of -n%er#t"n%in' i# "n imm"nent o4er"tionF it 5o-$% not be
#-.h if it 5ere not "n ".t of the f".-$ty in 5hi.h it i# imm"nent. Moreo6er, the ".t i# of
the one 5ho 4erform# it, not of him 5ho re.ei6e# it. Hen.e, if the inte$$e.ti6e ".t 5ere the
4ro%-.t of #omethin' e7trin#i. to the 2no5in' f".-$ty, th"t i#, of the obJe.t, it 5o-$% no
$on'er be 4o##ib$e to #4e"2 of "n imm"nent o4er"tion. he ".t it#e$f, r"ther th"n "n ".t of
the #o-$, #ho-$% be ."$$e% "n ".t of the obJe.t, 5hi.h i# e6i%ent$y f"$#e. he ".t of
-n%er#t"n%in' i# therefore "n ".t of the #o-$ not on$y be."-#e it t"2e# 4$".e in the soul*
b-t "$#o be."-#e it .ome# from the soul#
!# to the ro$e 5hi.h the obJe.t 4$"y# in the 4ro%-.tion of the inte$$e.ti6e ".t, Henry of
;hent, #"y# D-n# S.ot-#, h"# no .$e"r i%e". Sometime# he #4e"2# in term# of " causa
sine ,ua non7 "t other time# he #t"te# th"t the obJe.t 4re#ent in the 4h"nt"#m h"# the ro$e
of #tim-$"tin' "n% %i#4o#in' the inte$$e.t to
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
+C
Ibid#, n. 1.
,(C1,
2no5. h-#, r"ther th"n " ."-#e, the e7tern"$ obJe.t m-#t be ."$$e% the occasion for the
".t of -n%er#t"n%in', "n o.."#ion, tho-'h, th"t i# in%i#4en#"b$e for the 4erform"n.e of the
".t.
In D-n# S.ot-#3 o4inion thi# 5"y of re"#onin' r-n# "'"in#t in#-4er"b$e %iffi.-$tie#. he
4rin.i4"$ %iffi.-$ty 5i$$ be .$e"r from " #im4$e ref$e.tion -4on the met"4hy#i."$ %o.trine
of the fo-r ."-#e#. !$$ re"$ity ."n be #-ffi.ient$y e74$"ine% thro-'h it# fo-r ."-#e#. &hen
the fo-r ."-#e# "re 4re#ent "n% not im4e%e%, the effe.t 5i$$ fo$$o5 ne.e##"ri$y in the ."#e
of n"t-r"$ ."-#e#> if "$$ or one of the ."-#e# i# free, the effe.t m"y "$#o fo$$o5. For th"t
m"tter, it i# eno-'h th"t the effi.ient ."-#e "n% the m"teri"$ ."-#e be 4re#ent in 4erfe.t
.on%ition in or%er to 4ro%-.e the effe.t. hi# i# 4o##ib$e be."-#e the form, in"#m-.h "# it
i# the termin-# of the 4ro%-.tion, i# #omeho5 .ont"ine% in the effi.ient ."-#e> the fin"$
."-#e in t-rn i# either " .on#e=-en.e of the 4ro%-.tion, or, if it 4re.e%e# it, it i# #im4$y the
moti6e th"t mo6e# the effi.ient ."-#e 5ith 5hi.h it ."n be i%entifie%. he form"$ "n%
fin"$ ."-#e# "re th-# b-t 4erfe.tion# 5hi.h .om4$ete "n% inte'r"te the effi.ient ."-#e. !
4erfe.t effi.ient ."-#e "n% "n "%e=-"te m"teri"$ ."-#e "re, "$one, the f-n%"ment"$
effi.ient ."-#e# of " re"$ity.
No5, if 5e "44$y thi# %o.trine to the f".t of 2no5$e%'e "# -n%er#too% by Henry of ;hent,
5e 5i$$ #ee imme%i"te$y the 5e"2 4oint in hi# theory. For him the #o-$ i# by it#e$f the
effi.ient ."-#e of the ".t of -n%er#t"n%in'. It i# "$#o it# m"teri"$ ."-#e, in"#m-.h "# it i#
the re.i4ient of the 6ery ".t of -n%er#t"n%in'. h-# in the #o-$ "$one 5e 5o-$% h"6e "$$
th"t i# re=-ire% for 2no5$e%'eF the .on.-rren.e of " 4erfe.t effi.ient ."-#e "n% of "
#-ffi.ient$y "%e=-"te m"teri"$ ."-#e. hi# .on.-rren.e, 4re.i#e$y be."-#e it i# roote% in
the 6ery n"t-re of the #o-$, i# .ontin-o-#. he effe.t, then, m-#t "$#o be .ontin-o-#,
5hi.h i# e=-i6"$ent to #"yin' th"t the #o-$ 5i$$ be .on#t"nt$y thin2in' "n% -n%er#t"n%in'.
It 5o-$% "t $e"#t
,(CB,
be .on#t"nt$y thin2in' of, "n% -n%er#t"n%in', it#e$f. hi# i# in .ontr"#t 5ith o-r o5n
e74erien.e, 5hi.h te$$# -# th"t the inte$$e.ti6e ".t t"2e# 4$".e on$y 5hen the #o-$ i#
4re#ente% 5ith "n obJe.t.
o e74$"in thi# ne.e##"ry %e4en%en.e of the inte$$e.ti6e ".t -4on it# obJe.t by #"yin' th"t
the 4re#en.e of the obJe.t i# " conditio sine ,ua non* or the in%i#4en#"b$e o.."#ion for the
".t of -n%er#t"n%in', "mo-nt# to thi#F either the #o-$ i# "n effi.ient ."-#e 5hi.h i# both
im4erfe.t "n% in#-ffi.ient, or, in "%%ition to the fo-r ."-#e#, there m-#t be " fifth ."-#e. If
Henry of ;hent "..e4t# the fir#t "$tern"ti6e, he %e#troy# hi# o5n theory> if he "..e4t# the
#e.on% "$tern"ti6e, he 4-t# him#e$f in .ontr"#t 5ith the .ommon %o.trine "n% the tr-th.
B-t there "re other %iffi.-$tie#. If the inte$$e.ti6e ".t i# the 4ro%-.t of the #o-$ "$one, ho5
#h"$$ 5e e74$"in the f".t th"t the i%e" i# "n im"'e EsimilitudoG of the obJe.t, 5ho#e n"t-re
it re6e"$# in the intention"$ or%erL On$y " ."-#"$ %e4en%en.e ."n e74$"in the %e4en%en.e
in esse of one thin' -4on "nother. Moreo6er, the inte$$e.ti6e ".t i# the more 4erfe.t "# it#
obJe.t i# more 4erfe.t. It i# on the b"#i# of thi# 4rin.i4$e th"t !ri#tot$e "ffirm# th"t
h"44ine## .on#i#t# in the 2no5$e%'e of ;o%. If the obJe.t 5ere not .on.-rrin' "# " tr-e
"n% 4ro4er ."-#e in the 4ro%-.tion of the ".t of 2no5$e%'e "n% the 5ho$e ."-#"$ity 5ere
%-e to o-r inte$$e.t, the 're"ter or $e##er 4erfe.tion of the ".t 5o-$% no $on'er be
4ro4ortione% to the obJe.t 2no5n, b-t on$y to the 're"ter or $e##er inten#ity of the 4o5er I
4-t into the ".t of 2no5$e%'e. Con#e=-ent$y, the ".t by 5hi.h I 2no5 " f$y .o-$% be
e=-"$$y 4erfe.t 5ith, or e6en more 4erfe.t th"n, the ".t by 5hi.h I 2no5 ;o%.
On the other h"n%, if the theory of Henry of ;hent 5ere .orre.t, one #ho-$% .on.$-%e th"t
the ".ti6ity of o-r inte$$e.t i# infinite. 5o thin'# "re in effe.t 5orth notin'F fir#t, th"t o-r
inte$$e.t i# ."4"b$e of 2no5in' "n infinite n-mber of thin'#, "n% hen.e i# ."4"b$e of
infinite ".t# of -n%er#t"n%in'>
,(C8,
#e.on%, th"t e".h ".t of 2no5$e%'e 4re#-44o#e# " $imite% "mo-nt of ".ti6ity "n%
4erfe.tion. o infinite 4erfe.tion# m-#t therefore .orre#4on% infinite "mo-nt# of ".ti6ity.
If the 5ho$e ".ti6ity of 2no5in' be$on'e% to the inte$$e.t, the h-m"n inte$$e.t 5o-$% h"6e
"n infinite ".ti6ity, "n% hen.e "n infinite 4erfe.tion. &e 5o-$% then h"6e the "b#-r%ity of
"n infinite in 4oten.y.
T(e Ar&stotel&an3T(o-&st&c T(eor)" Let -# no5 t-rn to the %efen%er# of the 4#y.ho$o'y
of 2no5$e%'e of the !ri#tote$i"n #.hoo$. D-n# S.ot-# here t"2e# into .on#i%er"tion the
%o.trine# of ;o%frey of Font"ine#, ;i$e# of Rome, "n% St. hom"# !=-in"#. heir b"#i.
tenet# "re 'ro-n%e% in met"4hy#i.#. H-m"n 2no5$e%'e i# " mo6ement, or r"ther "
4"##"'e, from 4otenti"$ity to ".t-"$ity. !# #-.h, it i# #-bJe.t to the $"5# of be.omin'. he
f-n%"ment"$ $"5 of be.omin' i# thi#F ,uid,uid mo5etur ab alio mo5etur* 5hi.h me"n#
th"t the 4"##i6e 4rin.i4$e "n% the ".ti6e 4rin.i4$e of mo6ement m-#t be %i#tin.t "n%
%ifferent from one "nother. h"t o-r inte$$e.t i# the 4"##i6e 4rin.i4$e in the ".t of
-n%en#t"n%in' i# 'r"nte% by e6eryone. h-#, on the b"#i# of the "fore#"i% $"5, it ."nnot
be "t the #"me time the ".ti6e 4rin.i4$e of -n%er#t"n%in'. !..or%in'$y, the ".ti6e
4rin.i4$e m-#t be %i#tin.t from o-r #o-$ "n% ."n on$y be the obJe.t,,-n$e## 5e 5i#h to
"%mit the inter6ention of ;o% or of the Inte$$i'en.e of !r"bi"n 4hi$o#o4hy.
F-rther, e6ery ".t of -n%er#t"n%in' i# " re"$ity 5ithin the or%er of the inte$$i'ib$e# Ein
genere intelligibiliumG. 0-#t "# in the or%er of bein'# Ein genere entiumG " re"$ity re#-$t#
from the -nion of m"tter "n% form, #o "$#o in the intention"$ or%er, 5here the h-m"n
inte$$e.t f-n.tion# "# m"tter. !# 4rim"ry m"tter i# 4-re 4otenti"$ity in the re"$ or%er, #o
the inte$$e.t i# 4-re 4otenti"$ity or tabula rasa in the intention"$ or%er. In "n "n"$o'o-#
m"nner, J-#t "# the ".t-"$ity of bein'# i# from the form, #o the 5ho$e ".t-"$ity of
-n%er#t"n%in' i# from the
,(CA,
#4e.ie#, 5hi.h -nite# it#e$f to o-r inte$$e.t "n% %etermine# it to ".t.
N

o D-n# S.ot-# thi# 5"y of .on.ei6in' the inte$$e.ti6e ".t #eem# to be "n "##"-$t on the
%i'nity of the h-m"n #o-$. Hi# .riti.i#m f$o5# #o n"t-r"$$y from hi# 4en "# to $e"6e no
%o-bt of hi# "6er#ion for #-.h " theory. 9Ho5 5o-$% re"#onin' be 4o##ib$eL Ho5 5o-$%
ref$e.tion be 4o##ib$eL Ho5 5o-$% the re$"tion# of re"#on or $o'i."$ intention# "ri#eL
Ho5 5o-$% it be 4o##ib$e to m"int"in "# tr-e " f"$#e #t"tement if the inte$$i'ib$e #4e.ie#
'ener"te% by the 4h"nt"#m 5ere the on$y form"$ re"#on for "ny ".t of -n%er#t"n%in'L9
+(
If the entire ".t-"$ity of the ".t of -n%er#t"n%in' i# on the 4"rt of the obJe.t, o-r f".-$ty
5i$$ be $eft 5ith no initi"ti6e 5h"t#oe6er in re'"r% to i%e"#. It 5i$$ not e6en be "b$e to
mo%ify or e$"bor"te 5h"t it re.ei6e# from the obJe.tF it 5i$$ be re.e4ti6e, "n% nothin'
e$#e. Yet it i# 4$"in th"t the obJe.t, of it#e$f, ."n f-rni#h the inte$$e.t on$y 5ith the
inte$$i'ib$e #4e.ie#> it ."nnot #-44$y it 5ith the notion of their re$"tion#hi4 or "ny f-rther
$o'i."$ %e6e$o4ment th"t the inte$$i'ib$e #4e.ie# re.ei6e in the inte$$e.t. In #-.h " ."#e
2no5$e%'e 5o-$% be nothin' b-t the mirrorin' of re"$ity. It 5o-$% be h"r% to -n%er#t"n%
ho5 it .o-$% be the or'"ni<"tion "n% -nifi."tion of re"$ity thro-'h re"#onin'
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
N
he "..-r".y of D-n# S.ot-#3 4re#ent"tion of the !ri#tote$i"nhomi#ti. 6ie5 on the
ro$e th"t the obJe.t "n% the 4o##ib$e inte$$e.t 4$"y in 2no5$e%'e m"y be =-e#tione%.
h-#, "$tho-'h St. hom"# #4e"2# re4e"te%$y of 4o##ib$e inte$$e.t "# " 4"##i6e "n%
re.e4ti6e 4o5er E.f., for e7"m4$e, Sum# "heol#, I, =. )*, ". 1 .> ibid#, ". 8, "% 8> ibid#, ".
) .G, he .re%it# it 5ith the 4ro%-.tion of the species intelligibilis e.pressa or 5erbum
mentis# Ho5e6er, it m-#t be "%mitte% th"t in their e74$"n"tion of the 4ro.e## of
i%eo'ene#i#, both St. hom"# "n% the fo$$o5er# of the !ri#tote$i"n #.hoo$ $"y em4h"#i#
on the ".ti6e ro$e of the obJe.t "n% the "'ent inte$$e.t, 5hi.h they .on#i%er "# the
4rin.i4"$ ."-#e# of 2no5$e%'e. D-n# S.ot-# i# for " more ".ti6e ro$e of the 4o##ib$e
inte$$e.t. E"r#G
+(
+p# +.on#, I, %. B, =. ), nn. (( "n% (+.
,(C+,
"n% the $o'i."$ intention# 5hi.h fo$$o5 -4on the inte$$e.t3# ref$e.tion on the apprehensio#
here 5o-$% be no 4$".e for error, for error i# not to be fo-n% in "44rehen#ion or the
#im4$e 'r"#4in' of the obJe.t b-t in the J-%'ment "n% it# %e6e$o4ment thro-'h re"#onin'.
Nor i# it 4o##ib$e to e#."4e thi# .on.$-#ion by "44e"$in' to the ".ti6ity of the "'ent
inte$$e.t in the "b#tr".ti6e 4ro.e##. hi# ".ti6ity i# on$y "n i$$-min"tion of the 4h"nt"#m
%ire.te% to %i#.o6erin' "n% brin'in' forth into $i'ht the -ni6er#"$ 5hi.h i# "$re"%y
.ont"ine% im4$i.it$y in the obJe.t it#e$f. On$y the S.oti#ti. "b#tr".tion .ont"in# 6irt-"$$y
"n% m"2e# 4o##ib$e #-.h %e6e$o4ment#, not the 2in% of "b#tr".tion th"t i# -n%er#too% by
#tri.t !ri#tote$i"n#. For the S.oti#ti. "b#tr".tion i# the re#-$t of "n initi"ti6e th"t the
inte$$e.t t"2e# in re'"r% to the obJe.t -4on 5hi.h it .onfer# the ne5 .h"r".ter of
-ni6er#"$ity 5hi.h the obJe.t, of it#e$f, %oe# not "n% ."nnot 4o##e##.
In "%%ition to the fore'oin' .on#i%er"tion#, it #ho-$% be borne in min% th"t if the obJe.t
5ere to %etermine o-r f".-$ty to -n%er#t"n%, one .o-$% no $on'er #"y, #tri.t$y #4e"2in',
th"t -n%er#t"n%in' i# "n ".t of o-r f".-$ty. !n e7"m4$e 5i$$ .$"rify o-r 4oint. he he"tin'
or b-rnin' of " 4ie.e of 5oo% in .ont".t 5ith fire i# the m"nife#t"tion of " 4erfe.tion th"t
i# in the fire, not in the 4ie.e of 5oo%> for it i# "n e##enti"$ 4ro4erty of fire to 5"rm,
5here"# it i# 4-re$y "..i%ent"$ for " 4ie.e of 5oo% to -n%er'o the ".tion of the fire. If it
5ere tr-e th"t the 5ho$e ".t-"$ity of -n%er#t"n%in' be$on'e% to the obJe.t, o-r inte$$e.t
5o-$% h"6e the #"me re$"tion#hi4 to -n%er#t"n%in' "# 5oo% to b-rnin'. &e 5o-$% then
be "b$e to #"y th"t o-r inte$$e.t -n%er#t"n%#, not be."-#e of "n inherent, ".ti6e ."4".ity to
"##imi$"te thin'# intention"$$y, b-t be."-#e of the ."4".ity of the obJe.t to m"2e it#e$f
-n%er#too%. h-# the ".t of -n%er#t"n%in' 5o-$% be " 4erfe.tion of the obJe.t r"ther th"n
" 4erfe.tion of the #o-$.
+1

DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
+1
Ibid#, nn. * "n% ().
,(C),
here i# "nother %"t-m of o-r intern"$ e74erien.e th"t #eem# to .onf$i.t 5ith the
!ri#tote$i"n,homi#ti. theory. &hen t5o men "re 4re#ente% 5ith the #"me obJe.t, one
m"n m"y 'et " better -n%er#t"n%in' of it th"n the other, %e4en%in' on the ."4".ity of hi#
inte$$e.t, "# 5e$$ "# the 're"ter or $e##er "mo-nt of "ttention th"t he 'i6e# to it. If my
inte$$e.ti6e ".t %e4en%e% entire$y on the obJe.t for it# 4ro%-.tion, it# %e'ree of 4erfe.tion
.o-$% no $on'er %e4en% on the %ifferent ."4".ity of the inte$$e.t, nor .o-$% it %e4en% on
the 're"ter or $e##er effort on the 4"rt of him 5ho -n%er#t"n%#F "n obJe.t 5o-$% be
-n%er#too% in "n e=-"$ m"nner by e6eryone.
+B
Li2e5i#e, it 5o-$% be im4o##ib$e to
e74$"in the form"tion 5ithin -# of "ny inte$$e.ti6e habitus* 5hi.h m"2e# e"#ier "n% more
effe.ti6e the min%3# .on"ti6e ".t in the ".=-i#ition of 2no5$e%'e. 9Simi$"r$y, ho5 ."n it
be #t"te%, 5itho-t %e'r"%in' the #o-$, th"t the 4h"nt"#m 4ro%-.e# effe.ti6e$y th"t n"t-r"$
".tion of the #o-$ 5hi.h i# thi# $"tter3# #4e.ifi. 4erfe.tionL9
+8
hi# ob#er6"tion ho$%# tr-e
"$#o for "ny %o.trine th"t 5o-$% #-b#tit-te for the 4h"nt"#m the inte$$i'ib$e #4e.ie# or the
obJe.t in 'ener"$.
D-n# S.ot-#3 "im in thi# #erie# of "r'-ment# i# to 6in%i."te the nobi$ity "n% 4erfe.tion of
the #o-$. He i# ri'ht$y .on6in.e% th"t in the #y#tem of tho#e 5ho o6er#tre## the 4"##i6ity
of the inte$$e.t, the #o-$3# nobi$ity "n% 4erfe.tion "re 're"t$y im4"ire%, if not .om4$ete$y
%e#troye%.
Here the .riti."$ 4"rt of S.ot-#3 "r'-ment"tion en%# "n% it# .on#tr-.ti6e 4"rt be'in#.
D*ns Scot*s' T(eor)" !nyone 5ho 5i#he# to 'i6e " #"ti#f".tory e74$"n"tion of the
inte$$e.ti6e ".t, D-n# S.ot-# 4oint# o-t, m-#t 2ee4 before him#e$f t5o e=-"$$y im4ort"nt
f".t#. he fir#t i# thi#F for -#, -n%er#t"n%in' i# " tr"n#ition from 4otenti"$ity to ".t-"$ity,
"n% #o it %em"n%# "n ".ti6e effi.ient
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
+B
Ibid#, n. ().
+8
Ibid#, n. ((.
,(C@,
."-#e. he #e.on% f".t i# th"t m"n -n%er#t"n%# 5hene6er he 5i#he# to, #o th"t in the ".t
of -n%er#t"n%in' there i# #ome 2in% of initi"ti6e on o-r 4"rt. hi# "mo-nt# to #"yin' th"t
the effi.ient ."-#e of the ".t of -n%er#t"n%in' m-#t #omeho5 be 4$".e% "$#o 5ithin -#,
for the 5i$$ h"# no 4o5er o6er 5h"t %oe# not be$on' to the #o-$. he theorie# 4re6io-#$y
e7"mine% "re -n"..e4t"b$e> they r-n into m"ny %iffi.-$tie# be."-#e their 4ro4onent# %i%
not t"2e into %-e "..o-nt the#e t5o f".t#. In hi# theory, Henry of ;hent 5e$$ e74$"in# the
#e.on% f".t, n"me$y the %e4en%en.e of the inte$$e.t on #ome initi"ti6e of o-r #o-$, b-t
%oe# not #-ffi.ient$y e74$"in the fir#t f".t. !ri#tote$i"n# e74$"in the fir#t f".t b-t not the
#e.on% one. 9hi# 5i$$ therefore be the #o$-tion of the 4rob$emF if neither the #o-$ nor the
obJe.t "$one ."n be the tot"$ ."-#e of the inte$$e.ti6e ".t, "n% if on$y the#e t5o "re
re=-ire% for the ".t of -n%er#t"n%in', it fo$$o5# th"t both f".tor# t"2en to'ether "re the
inte'r"$ ."-#e of 2no5$e%'e.9
+A

9Here "'"in it #eem# th"t both the #o-$ "n% the obJe.t 4re#ent Hto itI m-#t .on.-r to'ether
to form the inte$$i'ib$e #4e.ie#, or e$#e the obJe.t i# not 4re#ent "# "n inte$$i'ib$e obJe.t.9
++
B-t ho5 i# thi# 9.on.-rren.e9 of #o-$ "n% the obJe.t to be -n%er#too%, in or%er th"t they
m"y .on#tit-te the "%e=-"te effi.ient ."-#e of the inte$$e.ti6e ".tL D-n# S.ot-# i# "$mo#t
$"6i#h in hi# e74$"n"tion#. He 2no5# th"t he i# 4ro4o-n%in' " ne5 %o.trine,
+)
"n% #o he
form-$"te# it 5ith 're"t "..-r".y.
he .ommon %o.trine %i#tin'-i#he# fo-r ."-#e#F m"teri"$, form"$, effi.ient, "n% fin"$.
Ho5e6er, "n effe.t %oe# not "$5"y#
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
+A
Ibid#, n. 1C.
++
Ibid#
+)
!# I trie% to 4ro6e in my e##"y, 9R"44orti %ottrin"$i fr" M"tteo %3!.=-"#4"rt" e
;io6"nni D-n# S.oto9, Studi rancescani, #er. B. ", MV E (*8BG, ((B,BC, thi# %o.trine,
"$tho-'h form-$"te% 4hi$o#o4hi."$$y by the S-bt$e Do.tor, 5"# "$re"%y im4$i.it$y
.ont"ine% in the !-'-#tini"n i%eo$o'y, or "t $e"#t in St. Bon"6ent-re "n% M"tthe5 of
!.=-"#4"rt". It i# therefore " ne5 %o.trine, b-t not in the f-$$e#t #en#e of the term.
,(C*,
h"6e J-#t one effi.ient ."-#e> often the effi.ient ."-#e# "re t5o. In thi# ."#e the effi.".y
of the effi.ient ."-#e re#-$t# from the #-m,tot"$ of the ."-#"$ity of t5o 4"rti"$ effi.ient
."-#e#. he re$"tion#hi4 bet5een the#e t5o 4"rti"$ effi.ient ."-#e# i# not "$5"y# the
#"me. hey m"y be re$"te% to one "nother e##enti"$$y or "..i%ent"$$y. C"-#e# "..i%ent"$$y
re$"te% to one "nother %iffer from tho#e 5hi.h "re e##enti"$$y re$"te% in " three,fo$%
m"nner. In ."-#e# re$"te% e##enti"$$yF E(G the #e.on% ."-#e %e4en%# on the fir#t one for it#
."-#"tion> E1G one i# more 4erfe.t th"n the other> EBG they m-#t "$5"y# ".t
#im-$t"neo-#$y. On the other h"n%, ."-#e# re$"te% "..i%ent"$$yF E(G h"6e their o5n
."-#"$ity in%e4en%ent$y of one "nother> E1G they "re on the #"me 4$"ne of 4erfe.tion> EBG
they ."n ".t #-..e##i6e$y. he root of the#e %ifferen.e# $ie# in thi#F 5hi$e the .on.-rren.e
of ."-#e# 5hi.h "re "..i%ent"$$y re$"te% ."n be e$imin"te% by 4ro4ortion"$$y in.re"#in'
the 4o5er of one of them,," 6ery #tron' hor#e ."n 4-$$ " $o"% th"t t"2e# t5o hor#e# of
or%in"ry #tren'th,,the ."#e of the e##enti"$$y re$"te% ."-#e# i# =-ite %ifferent. !mon'
the#e the effi.ien.y of one, no m"tter ho5 m-.h it m"y be in.re"#e%, ne6er e$imin"te# the
nee% for the ".tion of the other. h-# no m"tter ho5 4erfe.t " m"n m"y be, he 5i$$ ne6er
be "b$e to %o 5itho-t " 5om"n in the 4ro.e## of 'ener"tion.
In t-rn, the e##enti"$ #-bor%in"tion of t5o 4"rti"$ effi.ient ."-#e# 4re#ent# " t5o,fo$%
4o##ibi$ity. Of the t5o ."-#e# .on.-rrin' to'ether to the 4ro%-.tion of " #in'$e effe.t, it
m"y h"44en th"t one re.ei6e# it# ."-#"$ity from the other Ethe .-e mo6e# the b"$$ on$y
in#of"r "# it i# mo6e% by the h"n%G, or it m"y "$#o be th"t e".h one of the t5o ."-#e# i# "
."-#e in it# o5n ri'ht, in%e4en%ent$y of the other. hi# i# 5h"t h"44en# in the 4ro.e## of
'ener"tion, 5here neither the 'ener"ti6e 4o5er of the m"$e %e4en%# on the fem"$e
e$ement, nor th"t of the fem"$e %e4en%# on the m"$e. E".h e$ement brin'# it# o5n ori'in"$
ne.e##"ry .ontrib-tion, in #-.h " 5"y th"t neither ."n ".t 5itho-t the .on.-rren.e of the
other. It i# 5ithin thi#
,((C,
ty4e of 4"rti"$ effi.ient ."-#e# th"t the .o$$"bor"tion bet5een inte$$e.t "n% obJe.t in the
4ro%-.tion of the inte$$e.ti6e ".t m-#t be 4$".e%. he ".t of -n%er#t"n%in' i# the re#-$t of
the#e t5o f".tor#, 5hi.h .on.-r in it# 4ro%-.tion "# t5o 4"rti"$ effi.ient ."-#e#
e##enti"$$y re$"te% to one "nother, e".h one h"6in' " ."-#"$ effi.ien.y 4ro4ortione% to it#
o5n n"t-re. Inte$$e.t "n% obJe.t 9"re therefore ."-#e# e##enti"$$y re$"te% in thi# $"#t
m"nner, th"t i# to #"y, one i# #im4$y more 4erfe.t th"n the other, b-t in #-.h 5i#e th"t
both "re 4erfe.t "n% in%e4en%ent of one "nother in#of"r "# their o5n ."-#"$ity i#
.on.erne%.9
+@

Of the t5o ."-#e#, inte$$e.t "n% obJe.t, the more ".ti6e, the one -4on 5hi.h re#t# 're"ter
re#4on#ibi$ity, or, "# D-n# S.ot-# #"y#, the causa principalior of the ".t of -n%er#t"n%in',
i# the inte$$e.t. hi# i# not on$y be."-#e the inte$$e.t i# by n"t-re more 4erfe.t th"n the
m"teri"$ obJe.t, b-t "$#o be."-#e in e6ery ."#e the ".t of -n%er#t"n%in' %e4en%#
4rin.i4"$$y on o-r f".-$ty. he re"#on# for thi# ."-#"$ #-4eriority of the inte$$e.t o6er the
obJe.t "re e"#y to -n%er#t"n%> yet D-n# S.ot-# %oe# not f"i$ to 4oint them o-t in " 6ery
#hort =-e#tion of the +pus +.oniense#
+*

he fir#t re"#on i# th"t the obJe.t .on.-r# effe.ti6e$y on$y in the 4ro%-.tion of th"t
inte$$e.ti6e ".t 5hi.h h"# referen.e to it#e$f, 5here"# o-r inte$$e.ti6e f".-$ty, in"#m-.h "#
it i# the in%i#4en#"b$e ."-#e for "$$ 4o##ib$e inte$$e.ti6e ".t#, 5hi.h "re infinite or
$imit$e##, i# in #ome 5"y "n -n$imite% ".ti6e 4o5er. he #e.on% re"#on #tem# from the
4e.-$i"r .h"r".ter of o-r -n%er#t"n%in', 5hi.h D-n# S.ot-# ne6er f"i$# to #tre##F it#
6it"$ity. he ".t of -n%er#t"n%in', 4re.i#e$y be."-#e it i# " 6it"$ ".t, i# "bo6e "$$ "n ".t of
o-r #o-$. &hen the obJe.t i# #"i% to ".t to'ether 5ith the inte$$e.t, the e74re##ion 9".t
to'ether9 me"n# re"$$y 9to he$4.9 E6i%ent$y, the one 5ho he$4#
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
+@
+p# +.on#, I, %. B, =. ), n. 1(.
+*
Ibid#, =. @.
,(((,
i# ne6er the 4rin.i4"$ "'ent, e6en if in " 4"rti.-$"r ."#e hi# he$4 i# ne.e##"ry. In
em4h"#i<in' thi# 4oint D-n# S.ot-# 'oe# #o f"r "# to "##ert th"t the obJe.t i# "$mo#t $i2e
"n in#tr-ment of the inte$$e.t E,uasi instrumentum ipsius intellectusG.
)C

he #t-%y of D-n# S.ot-#3 %o.trine on 4"rti"$ effi.ient ."-#e# h"# %efinite "%6"nt"'e#.
!mon' other thin'#, it he$4# -# -n%er#t"n% the ro$e# 4$"ye% re#4e.ti6e$y by the obJe.t
4re#ente% by the inte$$e.t "n% the 5i$$ in the 6o$ition"$ ".t, the thin' "n% the #en#iti6e
f".-$ty in #en#"tion, "n% the 4h"nt"#m "n% the "'ent inte$$e.t in the 4ro%-.tion of the
inte$$i'ib$e #4e.ie#. he#e "re "$$ ."#e# in 5hi.h the .o$$"bor"tion bet5een t5o 4"rti"$
effi.ient ."-#e# e74$"ine% "bo6e i# .on.rete$y re"$i<e%.
)(
he .on#e=-en.e of thi#
S.oti#ti. theory i# th"t the ".ti6ity of o-r inte$$e.t i# 'i6en more em4h"#i#. hro-'h it, 5e
re"$i<e more .$e"r$y th"t the ".t of -n%er#t"n%in' %e4en%# 4rin.i4"$$y on the #-bJe.t, not
on the obJe.t.
!'"in#t #-.h "n ".ti6i#ti. .on.e4tion of the h-m"n inte$$e.t #t"n%# the "-thority of
!ri#tot$e, 5ho "ffirm# th"t intelligere est pati# D-n# S.ot-#, the .hi$% of hi# time#, ."nnot
e"#i$y be"r the tho-'ht of bein' in %i#"'reement 5ith the St"'irite, "n% he trie# to 'i6e to
!ri#tot$e3# #t"tement "n inter4ret"tion th"t i# .om4"tib$e 5ith hi# o5n %o.trine. !ri#tot$e,
he #"y#, #4e"2# here of the 4o5er# of the #o-$ .on#i%ere% from " 4"rti.-$"r 4oint of 6ie5.
o 'r"#4 the e7".t me"nin' of hi# #t"tement#, one m-#t "$5"y# t-rn to hi# te".hin' "# "
5ho$e "n% the 'ener"$ .onte7t from 5hi.h the #t"tement# "re t"2en. !$$ ".t# of o-r
4o5er# ."n be .on#i%ere% either in the moment they "re bein' forme%, or in the moment
they "re re.ei6e%, "# it 5ere, into o-r #o-$ on.e they "re .om4$ete%. !# re'"r%# the ".t#
.on#i%ere% in thi# #e.on% moment, o-r 4o5er# "re
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
)C
Ibid#, n. 1.
)(
hi# S.oti#ti. theory ."n "$#o fin% it# "44$i."tion in the #o$-tion of other 4rob$em#,
#-.h "# the .o$$"bor"tion bet5een #o-$ "n% bo%y, 5i$$ "n% 'r".e, the in%i6i%-"$ "n%
#o.iety.
,((1,
4"##i6e. he ".t# "re in effe.t re.ei6e% into the 4o5er .on.erne% "# it# %etermin"tion# or
4erfe.tion#, "n% "re re$"te% to it "# form i# to m"tter. &hen !ri#tot$e #t"te# th"t intelligere
est pati, he %oe# not .on#i%er the inte$$e.ti6e ".t in the moment it i# bein' forme% thro-'h
the .on.omit"nt ".tion of the inte$$e.t "n% the obJe.t, b-t on$y in the moment in 5hi.h it
i# re.ei6e% "# " 4erfe.tion of the inte$$e.t. hi# e6i%ent$y $e"6e# int".t the =-e#tion of the
".ti6ity or non".ti6ity of the inte$$e.t in the 4ro%-.tion of the .o'niti6e ".t, 5hen thi#
$"tter i# .on#i%ere% "# " .om4$ete 4ro.e## "n% not J-#t "# " 4"rti.-$"r moment of it. o be
#-re, !ri#tot$e ne6er #"y# th"t the inte$$e.t i# "n effi.ient ."-#e of the ".t of
-n%er#t"n%in', "n% 5e h"6e #een the re"#on for it. It i# "$#o tr-e th"t he ne6er #"y# th"t
the inte$$e.t i# in no 5"y ".ti6e. In their inter4ret"tion of hi# tho-'ht !ri#tote$i"n# 'o
f-rther th"n !ri#tot$e him#e$f "n% m"2e him re#4on#ib$e for #t"tement# he ne6er m"%e.
)1

Yet D-n# S.ot-# %oe# not 5"nt to t"2e " %efinite #t"n%, "n% m"2e# .ert"in re#er6"tion# on
the 6"$i%ity of hi# !ri#tote$i"n e7e'e#i#F (hic tamen non determinando dico ,uod
-hilosophus locutus est* etc# (
)B
In other 5or%#, thi# i# "n "..e4t"b$e inter4ret"tion
"imin' "t the re.on.i$i"tion of !ri#tot$e3# tho-'ht 5ith hi# o5n theory. In the #-44o#ition
th"t !ri#tot$e h"% " %ifferent 4oint of 6ie5, D-n# S.ot-# i# not thereby 5i$$in' to #".rifi.e
hi# o5n #o$-tion of the 4rob$em "t i##-e, for to him it h"# "$$ the "44e"r"n.e# of " tr-e
#o$-tion. hi# i# " 5on%erf-$ e7"m4$e of D-n# S.ot-#3 e6"$-"tion of the "r'-ment# from
"-thority "n% of hi# "ttit-%e to5"r% !ri#tot$e.
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
)1
9he#e =-ot"tion#, therefore, 4oint to the f".t th"t the inte$$e.t i# 4"##i6e, for they %o
not .on#i%er the inte$$e.t from the #t"n%4oint of it# ".ti6ity b-t on$y in#of"r "# it i# the
re.i4ient of the inte$$e.ti6e ".t. Ho5e6er, they %o not te$$ -# th"t the inte$$e.t i# not
".ti6e "t "$$. he "r'-ment from "-thority ."nnot be -#e% ne'"ti6e$y Hi. e., for 5h"t it
%oe# not #"yI.9 +p# +.on#, I, %. B, =. ), n. B).
)B
Ibid#
,((B,
If the h-m"n inte$$e.t i# "n ".ti6e 4o5er, in#i#t the -4ho$%er# of the o44o#ite theory, ho5
#h"$$ 5e "..o-nt for the f".t th"t 5e 2no5 it on$y thro-'h it# ".t#, th"t i#, on$y "fter 5e
.ome to 2no5 other thin'#L More #4e.ifi."$$y, 5e %o not 2no5 "nythin' th"t i# not in ".t.
Hen.e the f".t th"t it i# not 4o##ib$e for -# to 2no5 o-r o5n inte$$e.t e7.e4t in#of"r "# it
h"# been ".t-"te% by the 2no5$e%'e of #ome other re"$ity o-t#i%e the #o-$ #eem# to
.onfirm the o4inion th"t o-r f".-$ty i# 4-re 4otenti"$ity in the or%er of inte$$i'ibi$ity Ein
genere intelligibiliumG, J-#t "# 4rim"ry m"tter i# in the or%er of bo%i$y thin'# Ein genere
corporaliumG.
he inte$$e.t, "n#5er# S.ot-#, e7i#t# "# "n inte$$e.t, "'ent or 4o##ib$e, e6en before it
2no5# "nythin'. It i# in actu primo, th"t i# to #"y, it h"# it# ".t-"$ity "# inte$$e.ti6e 4o5er
e6en before it ".=-ire# "ny 2no5$e%'e, "n% i# therefore 2no5"b$e by it# 6ery n"t-re. he
f".t th"t 5e %o not 2no5 it %ire.t$y b-t on$y in%ire.t$y thro-'h it# ".t# Ein actu secundo
"n% not in actu primoG %oe# not %e4en% on it# n"t-re "# 4-re 4otenti"$ity, b-t #o$e$y on the
$"5 th"t 'o6ern# h-m"n 2no5$e%'e. !..or%in' to thi# $"5, h-m"n 2no5$e%'e "$5"y#
t"2e# it# $e"% from the 4h"nt"#m.
)8

It 5i$$ be re"%i$y #een th"t thi# %o.trine i# the n"t-r"$ o-t.ome of D-n# S.ot-#3 notion of
4oten.y, " notion %ifferent from th"t of St. hom"#. If the h-m"n inte$$e.t i# " 2no5in'
4o5er, it m-#t, "..or%in' to S.ot-#, 4o##e## it# o5n e##enti"$ ".t-"$ity 5hereby it e7i#t#
"# " 4o5er ."4"b$e of "$$ 4o##ib$e inte$$e.tion#. Hen.e the inte$$e.t3# in%etermin"tion m-#t
not be -n%er#too% "# tho-'h the inte$$e.t h"% no ".t 5h"t#oe6er, b-t on$y "# "n
in%etermin"tion of ".ti6ity. In other 5or%#, the
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
)8
Ibid#, n. B@F 9he #t"tement th"t the inte$$e.t i# not #omethin' inte$$i'ib$e before it i#
".t-"te% in the ".t of 2no5in', m-#t not be -n%er#too% in the #en#e th"t o-r inte$$e.ti6e
f".-$ty i# 4-re 4oten.y, b-t r"ther in the #en#e th"t before 2no5in' "n obJe.t the
inte$$e.t ."nnot be 'r"#4e% %ire.t$y. hi# i# %-e to the f".t th"t in the 4re#ent #t"te
h-m"n 2no5$e%'e i# on$y 4o##ib$e thro-'h #en#ib$e e74erien.e.9
,((8,
inte$$e.t i# in%etermin"te Ei. e., it i# ."4"b$e of 2no5in' "$$ thin'#G not be."-#e it i# 4-re
4"##i6ity, b-t be."-#e it i# "n -n$imite% ".ti6ity. P-re 4"##i6ity i#, "# it 5ere, -n$imite%
4o6erty> -n$imite% ".ti6ity i#, on the .ontr"ry, bo-n%$e## 5e"$th. &h"t i# in%etermin"te in
the fir#t 5"y ."nnot ".t 5itho-t bein' ".t-"te% by #ome form 5hi.h, by .omm-ni."tin'
to it " n"t-re, .omm-ni."te# to it " 4rin.i4$e, " ."4".ity for ".tion#. &h"t i# in%etermin"te
in the #e.on% 5"y %oe# not nee% " form th"t .omm-ni."te# to it the ".ti6ity in or%er to
".t, b-t on$y the 4re#en.e of "n obJe.t 5hi.h #er6e# "# " termin-#, "n% offer# " ne.e##"ry
4oint of referen.e "n% "44$i."tion for the -n$imite% ener'y of the #4irit.
)A
Brief$y, the
obJe.t %oe# not 4erfe.t o-r f".-$ty by m"2in' it ".ti6e, b-t on$y by %eterminin' it,
thro-'h it# 4re#en.e, to 2no5 #omethin' in the .on.rete.
!t thi# 4oint " =-e#tion m"y "ri#e. If the h-m"n inte$$e.t i# ".ti6e by it# n"t-re, ho5 i# it
th"t 5itho-t the .on.-rren.e of the obJe.t it ."nnot 2no5, th"t i#, it i# in."4"b$e of
4ro%-.in' by it#e$f .on.rete ".t# of 2no5$e%'eL Ho5 ."n "n ".ti6ity be -n%er#too%
5itho-t ".t#L D-n# S.ot-# #o$6e# thi# %iffi.-$ty by 4ointin' o-t th"t the ".ti6ity of the
h-m"n inte$$e.t i# -n$imite% b-t not infinite. It i# -n$imite% in the #en#e th"t the inte$$e.t
h"# being as being "# it# 4ro4er "n% "%e=-"te obJe.t, "n% i# by it# n"t-re or%"ine% to
-n%er#t"n% the 5ho$e bein'. Ho5e6er, not bein' "n infinite inte$$e.t, it %oe# not h"6e
5ithin it#e$f the 5ho$e bein', "n% m-#t #ee2 o-t#i%e it#e$f, i. e., in thin'#, in other bein'#,
the ne.e##"ry inte'r"tion of it# o5n 4o5er. On$y "n infinite tho-'ht i# by n"t-re 4erfe.t$y
in ".t, for on$y in thi# ."#e tho-'ht "n% bein', #-bJe.t "n% obJe.t, "re -nite% in " 4erfe.t
"n% infinite -nity. 9he 4erfe.tion of the inte$$e.t .ombine% 5ith it# im4erfe.tion 'i6e#
ri#e to "n in#-ffi.ient ".ti6ity. It 5o-$% be " #-ffi.ient ".ti6ity ."4"b$e of 2no5in' "$$
obJe.t#, on$y if it h"% 5ithin it#e$f
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
)A
Ibid#, n. BC.
,((A,
the 5ho$e of bein'.9
)+
h-# h-m"n 2no5$e%'e fin%# it# #-ffi.ient ."-#e on$y in the
n"t-r"$ "n% ne.e##"ry -nion of the ".ti6ity of the #o-$ 5ith the obJe.t. Yet the obJe.t %oe#
not ".t on the #o-$ in "ny 5"y> it# .o$$"bor"tion .on#i#t# #im4$y in bein' 4re#ent to the
#o-$ "# the termin-# of it# inte$$e.ti6e ".ti6ity.
It i# .ommon$y -n%er#too% th"t to be the obJe.t of " f".-$ty me"n# 4rin.i4"$$y th"t the
thin' im4re##e# it# o5n #4e.ie# on the f".-$ty. hi#, "ffirm# D-n# S.ot-#, i# "n erroneo-#
.on.e4tion. ! thin' i# in effe.t the obJe.t of " f".-$ty m"in$y be."-#e thi# $"tter ten%#
to5"r% it "# the termin-# of it# ".ti6ity.
))
Hen.e the inte$$e.ti6e ".t i# not the re#-$t of "
re.i4ro."$ ".tion of the obJe.t on the #o-$ "n% 6i.e 6er#", b-t #im4$y of " ."-#"$
.o$$"bor"tion bet5een them. It i# " n"t-r"$ "n% ne.e##"ry .o$$"bor"tion th"t fin%# it#
e74$"n"tion "n% fo-n%"tion in the f".t th"t tho-'ht i# by it# n"t-re or%"ine% to bein', J-#t
"# bein' i# or%"ine% to tho-'ht in 5hi.h it i# re6e"$e%. &h"t m"2e# the 4re#en.e of the
obJe.t to the #o-$ fe.-n% "n% effi.".io-# i# 4re.i#e$y thi# re.i4ro."$ tie e7i#tin' bet5een
bein' "n% tho-'ht, "n% #imi$"r$y, bet5een bein' "n% 5i$$. Be."-#e 2no5$e%'e i# thi#
fe.-n% meetin' of inte$$e.t E#-bJe.tG "n% obJe.t, in or%er to e74$"in it 5e m-#t "%mit th"t
both inte$$e.t "n% obJe.t 4"rti.i4"te ".ti6e$y in it# 4ro%-.tion. he meetin' of inte$$e.t
"n% obJe.t i#, in other 5or%#, " re.i4ro."$ im4-$#e of one to5"r% the other.
D-n# S.ot-# 4$".e# hi# #o$-tion -n%er the 4"tron"'e of St. !-'-#tine, 5ho in De
"rinitate, boo2 IM, 5rite# "# fo$$o5#F 9It i# .$e"r th"t e6erythin' 5e 2no5 .on.-r# in the
4ro%-.tion
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
)+
Ibid#, n. 1+.
))
2etaph#, VII, =. (@, n. ((F 9I re4$y th"t the fir#t #t"tement i# f"$#e, for it be$on'# to the
inte$$e.ti6e 4o5er not on$y to re.ei6e the #4e.ie# of the obJe.t b-t "$#o to ten% 5ith it#
".t to5"r% the obJe.t. hi# #e.on% "ttrib-te i# more e##enti"$ to the 4o5er th"n the fir#t
one. . . . he obJe.t i# "n obJe.t more be."-#e the 4o5er ten%# to5"r% it, th"n be."-#e
it im4re##e# -4on the 4o5er it# o5n #4e.ie#.9
,((+,
of it# i%e". In%ee%, 2no5$e%'e i# the 4ro%-.t of both the 2no5er "n% the thin' 2no5n.9
)@
hi# i# " mo#t im4ort"nt #t"tement. It #ho5# th"t D-n# S.ot-#, too, 5"# "5"re th"t hi#
'no#eo$o'y 5"# more in $ine 5ith !-'-#tini"n tho-'ht th"n 5ith !ri#tote$i"n 4hi$o#o4hy.
It #ho5# "$#o hi# .on6i.tion th"t h-m"n 2no5$e%'e i# neither entire$y " 4riori nor entire$y
" 4o#teriori, b-t r"ther the #ynthe#i# of both.
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
)@
+p# +.on#, I, %. B, =. ), n. 1C. HSt. !-'-#tine3# te7t referre% to by D-n# S.ot-# i# from
De "rinitate, $ib. IM, .h"4. (1, n. (@> PL 6o$. 81, .o$. *)CF 9Un%e $i=-i%o tenen%-m e#t
=-o% omni# re# =-"m.-m=-e .o'no#.im-#, .on'ener"t in nobi# notiti"m #-i. !b
-tro=-e enim notiti" 4"rit-r, " .o'no#.ente et .o'nito.9 Er.GI
,((),
/
EPISTEMOLO#ICAL PROBLEMS
M!N BY n"t-re %e#ire# to 2no5. He %e#ire# to ".=-ire not mere$y 2no5$e%'e in 'ener"$,
b-t #y#tem"ti. 2no5$e%'e of re"$ity #o "# to embr".e it in "$$ it# .om4$e7ity "n% 6"riety.
o "tt"in thi# or'"ni<"tion "n% -nifi."tion of the 2no5$e%'e he ".=-ire# by hi# .ont".t
5ith e7tern"$ re"$ity, m"n fo$$o5# the $e"% of .ert"in 4rin.i4$e# "n% $"5# of tho-'ht th"t
"re the 6ery $ife "n% $i'ht of hi# inte$$i'en.e. M"n %oe# not re.ei6e 2no5$e%'e, nor %oe#
he .re"te it> he .on#tr-.t# it. /no5$e%'e i# "n intim"te "n% 6it"$ e7.h"n'e bet5een
#-bJe.t "n% obJe.t, the -ni=-e "n% in%i6i#ib$e 4ro%-.t of the meetin' of #o-$ "n% e7tern"$
re"$ity.
THE /ALUE OF !NOLED#E
! 4hi$o#o4hi."$ in=-iry into 2no5$e%'e 'i6e# ri#e to t5o m"in 4rob$em#. he fir#t refer#
to i%e"#, 5hi.h "re, "# it 5ere, the .on#tr-.ti6e m"teri"$ of #.ien.e> the #e.on% .on.ern#
tho#e 4rin.i4$e# "n% $"5# of tho-'ht 5hi.h 5e m"y .om4"re to the "r.hite.t-r"$ 4$"n# of
" b-i$%in' to be .on#tr-.te%. !# re'"r%# i%e"#, the 4hi$o#o4her in=-ire# "bo-t their
re$"tion#hi4 to thin'# "n% to 5h"t e7tent they m"2e thin'# 2no5n to -#> "# re'"r%#
4rin.i4$e# "n% i%e"$ $"5#, he "#2# him#e$f 5hether they "re
,((@,
mere$y 4rin.i4$e# "n% $"5# of tho-'ht or "$#o 4rin.i4$e# "n% $"5# of bein'. B"#i."$$y, 5e
"re .onfronte% here 5ith t5o "#4e.t# of one "n% the #"me 4rob$em, n"me$y, the 4rob$em
of the 6"$-e of h-m"n 2no5$e%'e. Doe# 2no5$e%'e re4re#ent re"$ity "# it i# in it#e$f, or
%oe# it re4re#ent it on$y "# I thin2 it to beL In other 5or%#, i# 2no5$e%'e obJe.ti6e or i# it
mere$y #-bJe.ti6eL
Li2e "$$ me%ie6"$ Phi$o#o4her#, D-n# S.ot-# %oe# not h"6e "n e7".t notion of the #o,
."$$e% .riti."$ 4rob$em, e6en tho-'h th"t 4rob$em, "# #t"te% by mo%ern 4hi$o#o4hy, i# "
4#e-%o4rob$em.
)*
He i# .on6in.e% th"t tho-'ht h"# "n intention"$ .h"r".ter "# 5e$$ "# "n
e##enti"$ re$"tion#hi4 to bein'. In%ee%, thi# i# the on$y .orre.t 5"y to -n%er#t"n% tho-'ht.
ho#e 5ho thin2 other5i#e %o not re"$$y 2no5 5h"t thin2in' me"n#. Yet it ."nnot be
%enie% th"t by hi# %o.trine of ens in,uantum ens "# the 4ro4er obJe.t of the h-m"n
inte$$e.t, the S-bt$e Do.tor em4h"#i<e# the intention"$ity of o-r 2no5$e%'e "n% 'i6e# "n
e74$i.it %emon#tr"tion of it. he e##enti"$ obJe.ti6ity of tho-'ht, "n% hen.e of h-m"n
tho-'ht too, 5hi.h in thi# re#4e.t %oe# not %iffer from "ny other tho-'ht, m-#t .ert"in$y
not be -n%er#too% in " nRi6e or n"t-r"$i#ti. 5"y, "# tho-'h the i%e" 5ere #o 4erfe.t$y
"%e=-"te to the thin' th"t both 5o-$% h"6e e7".t$y the #"me .h"r".teri#ti.#. By %efinition,
i%e"$ bein' i# not re"$ bein'. No 5on%er then th"t the i%e" h"# " .h"r".ter %ifferent from
th"t of the .on.rete thin', "n% 6i.e 6er#". he e74$"n"tion of thi# f".t ."n be fo-n% in the
S.oti#ti. %o.trine of 2no5$e%'e e74o-n%e% in the 4re.e%in' .h"4ter.
/no5$e%'e, D-n# S.ot-# te".he# -#, "ri#e# from the ."-#"$ .on.-rren.e of the #o-$ "n%
the obJe.t> it i# "n effe.t of t5o
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
)*
In thi# .onne.tion I mi'ht refer to the the#i# th"t Prof. ;-#t"6o Bont"%ini of the
Uni6er#ity of the S".re% He"rt, Mi$"n, h"# been %efen%in' "n% 4ro6in' the#e 4"#t
ye"r#, n"me$y, th"t " 'no#eo$o'i."$ 4re. #-44o#ition $ie# "t the root of mo%ern
4hi$o#o4hy.
,((*,
."-#e# "n% %oe# not %e4en% either on the #o-$ or on the thin' "$one. hi# ."-#"$
%e4en%en.e im4$ie# " .orre#4on%en.e "n% "n entit"ti6e #imi$"rity bet5een the effe.t "n%
it# ."-#e. &hen the effe.t %e4en%# on t5o 4"rti"$ effi.ient ."-#e#, it 5i$$ not be entire$y
#imi$"r to either one or the other> it 5i$$ on$y be 4"rti"$$y #imi$"r to e".h of them. From
thi# it fo$$o5# th"t the effe.t 5i$$ ne6er be more 4erfe.t th"n the t5o 4"rti"$ ."-#e# t"2en
to'ether, b-t it 5i$$ .on.ei6"b$y be more 4erfe.t th"n one ."-#e t"2en #e4"r"te$y.
Li2e5i#e, if the t5o ."-#e# %iffer "# to their 4erfe.tion, the effi.ien.y, "n% therefore the
inf$-en.e, of one 5i$$ be 're"ter th"n the effi.ien.y "n% the inf$-en.e of the other in the
4ro%-.tion of the effe.t. hi#, "# 5e h"6e #een, i# 4re.i#e$y the ."#e in 2no5$e%'e.
he .on#e=-en.e# "re e6i%ent. Fir#t, the i%e" m-#t be obJe.ti6e, for the thin' 2no5n
.on.-r# effe.ti6e$y 5ith the inte$$e.t to 4ro%-.e the i%e", "n% th-# m"nife#t# it# o5n
n"t-re in it. On the other h"n%, the i%e" i# not mere$y " 4hoto'r"4h of the thin', for the
inte$$e.t %oe# not re.ei6e it 4"##i6e$y. R"ther, it 4ro%-.e# it "# " 4rin.i4"$ ."-#e in
.oo4er"tion 5ith the obJe.t. Se.on%, in#of"r "# it %e4en%# on the obJe.t, the i%e" i#
"$5"y# " similitudo, " re6e$"tion of the thin'> in#of"r "# it %e4en%# on the #o-$ "n% i# "n
".t of it, it i# not " mere m"teri"$ im"'e of the thin', b-t " #4irit-"$ entity 5ith it# o5n
4ro4er mo%e of bein', n"me$y, -ni6er#"$ity. hir%, in"#m-.h "# it %e4en%# on the obJe.t
"n% the #o-$ to'ether, the i%e" i# not #omethin' th"t 5e 2no5, b-t #omethin' th"t he$4# -#
to 2no5. It i# not, "# #.ho$"#ti.# -#e% to #"y, "n ob9ectum ,uod, b-t "n ob9ectum ,uo of
o-r inte$$e.t. It e7i#t# "# "n intention"$ entity, th"t i#, "# " ne.e##"ry me"n# of referen.e
bet5een tho-'ht "n% bein', bet5een inte$$e.t "n% thin'.
@C

DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
@C
S4e"2in' of the re$"tion#hi4 bet5een the inte$$e.ti6e ".t "n% the thin', D-n# S.ot-#
#"y# th"t they "re re$"te% to e".h other "# the me"#-r"b$e "n% the me"#-re, or me"#-re
"n% the me"#-r"b$e, %e4en%in' on 5hether 5e .on#i%er the .re"te% inte$$e.t, 5hi.h
2no5# on$y in .o$,
,(1C,
hi# %o.trine #ho5# .$e"r$y th"t one ."nnot 4"## J-%'ment on the obJe.ti6ity of
2no5$e%'e from the 're"ter or $e##er %e'ree of .onformity th"t e7i#t# bet5een the obJe.t
"n% it# .on.e4t. S-.h " .onformity i# in %ire.t re$"tion to the #-bJe.ti6e ."4".ity of the
2no5er to 'r"#4 the "ttrib-te# .ont"ine% in the obJe.t. he obJe.ti6ity of o-r 2no5$e%'e
re#t# r"ther on the ."-#"$ %e4en%en.e of the inte$$e.ti6e ".t -4on the obJe.t "n% on the
.on#t"nt "n% ne.e##"ry re$"tion of $i2ene## per imitationem bet5een the thin' "n% the
i%e" th"t re4re#ent# it.
On.e the obJe.ti6ity of h-m"n 2no5$e%'e i# -n%er#too% in thi# 5"y, the .ontr"#t bet5een
the .h"r".teri#ti. "ttrib-te# of the .on.e4t "n% tho#e of the .on.rete thin' no $on'er
.on#tit-te# " %iffi.-$ty> it 5i$$ "44e"r, on the .ontr"ry, to be the n"t-r"$ .on#e=-en.e of
5h"t h"# J-#t been #ho5n, n"me$y, th"t the inte$$e.ti6e ".t i# "n in#e4"r"b$e effe.t
re#-$tin' from the t5o 4"rti"$ effi.ient ."-#e# th"t 4ro%-.e it "n% "re %ifferent in n"t-re
"n% 4erfe.tion. On the other h"n%, from the f".t th"t m"n 2no5# on$y thro-'h -ni6er#"$
.on.e4t#, it 5i$$ not be 4ermi##ib$e to .on.$-%e th"t he %ire.t$y 2no5# on$y the -ni6er#"$,
"n% th"t the in%i6i%-"$ i# 2no5n on$y in%ire.t$y. hi# %o.trine ."nnot be "..e4te% by
D-n# S.ot-# for t5o re"#on#F fir#t, be."-#e it 'oe# "'"in#t o-r o5n e74erien.e, "n%
#e.on%, be."-#e it .ontr"%i.t# other %o.trine# of hi# #y#tem.
@(
hi# 5i$$ be #een in the
ne7t Se.tion.
INTUITI/E !NOLED#E OF THE SIN#ULAR
!n in%i6i%-"$ i# " bein' th"t i# ri.her th"n it# #4e.ifi. e##en.e. ;aecceitas i# in effe.t the
$"#t 4erfe.tion of " thin',
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
$"bor"tion 5ith the obJe.t, or the %i6ine inte$$e.t, 5hi.h, in the ".t of 2no5in',
4ro%-.e# the obJe.t in esse intelligibili. he re$"tion#hi4# bet5een obJe.t "n% 5i$$ "re
"n"$o'o-#. For S.ot-#3 e7".t notion of the 5"y in 5hi.h the obJe.t i# the me"#-re of
the inte$$e.t .f. &uodlibet, =. (B, n. (1.
@(
2etaph#, VII, ==. (8 "n% (A> De Anima, =. 11.
,(1(,
" 4erfe.tion th"t i# ne.e##"ry for " thin'3# .on.rete e7i#ten.e. On$y the in%i6i%-"$ e7i#t# in
the .om4$ete #en#e of the term. Hen.e if bein' i# #ynonymo-# 5ith inte$$i'ibi$ity, the
in%i6i%-"$ secundum se m-#t be more inte$$i'ib$e th"n the #4e.ie#. Yet it m-#t be
re.o'ni<e% th"t in hi# 4re#ent .on%ition m"n i# -n"b$e to 'r"#4 " thin'3# 9h"e..eity, 9
e6en tho-'h he 2no5# thin'# in their .on.rete e7i#ten.e, "n% therefore "# in%i6i%-"$#.
hi# "mo-nt# to #"yin' th"t m"n 2no5# the in%i6i%-"$ b-t not #in'-$"rity, -n%er#too% "#
the 4re.i#e re"#on th"t m"2e# the in%i6i%-"$ .h"r".teri#ti.# inhere in " thin'.
@1
More
#4e.ifi."$$y, he %oe# not 2no5 the re"#on 5hy the#e .h"r".teri#ti.# "re the in%i6i%-"tin'
note# of thi# 4"rti.-$"r thin' r"ther th"n of "nother. /no5$e%'e of the h"e..eity of "$$
thin'# 5o-$% .on#tit-te f-$$ 2no5$e%'e of "$$ re"$ityF "n im4o##ib$e t"#2 for o-r inte$$e.t
in it# 4re#ent .on%ition.
he thin' e7i#tin' here "n% no5 in it# .on.retene## i# 2no5n %ire.t$y not on$y by the
#en#e# b-t "$#o by the inte$$e.t, 5hi.h 'r"#4# it by "n int-iti6e 2no5$e%'e. Int-iti6e
2no5$e%'e i# %i#tin.t from "b#tr".ti6e 2no5$e%'e, 5hi.h "$5"y# 4re#.in%# from the
e7i#ten.e of the obJe.t 2no5n. &hen .on#i%ere% in it# 4henomeno$o'i."$ ori'in, h-m"n
2no5$e%'e "$5"y# #t"rt# from the int-ition of the .on.rete thin'. he 4ro%-.t of thi# fir#t
meetin' of inte$$e.t "n% thin' i# the species specialissima, or the i%e" of the in%i6i%-"$
thin'. hi# i%e" i# =-ite 4ro4er to the obJe.t th"t #t"n%# before me> it i# thro-'h it th"t the
inte$$e.t h"# the fir#t 'r"#4 of 5h"t it 5"nt# to 2no5. Ho5. e6er, "# #oon "# my inte$$e.t
trie# to fin% o-t e7".t$y 5h"t the thin' i# "n% $oo2# for it# %efinition, it h"# re.o-r#e to
-ni6er#"$ .on.e4t#, 4re.i#e$y be."-#e it i# in."4"b$e of 'r"#4in' the h"e..eity. hro-'h
the species specialissima I 2no5 the obJe.t on$y in " .onf-#e% m"nner E9" thin' i# 2no5n
.onf-#e%$y 5hen on$y the me"nin' of it# term i# 2no5n9
@B
G. On.e
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
@1
+p# +.on#, IV, %. 8A, =. B, n. 1(.
@B
Ibid#, I, %. B, =. 1, n. 1(.
,(11,
I h"6e 'r"#4e% by me"n# of the .on.e4t# of 'en-# "n% #4e.ie# it# e7".t 4$".e "n% me"nin'
in the m"nifo$% of re"$ity, then I 2no5 it %i#tin.t$y, "t $e"#t to the e7tent th"t my inte$$e.t
."n 2no5 it. 9! thin' i# 2no5n %i#tin.t$y, 9 #"y# D-n# S.ot-#, 95hen I ."n 'i6e it#
%efinition.9
@8

h-# D-n# S.ot-# "ttrib-te# to m"n int-iti6e 2no5$e%'e "$on' 5ith "b#tr".ti6e "n%
.on.e4t-"$ 2no5$e%'e. It i# by no me"n# " 4erfe.t int-ition, for it i# on$y "n initi"$ "n%
.onf-#e% 2in% of 2no5$e%'e> yet it i# not thereby $e## im4ort"nt. For the h-m"n inte$$e.t
it i# the ne.e##"ry #t"rtin' 4oint, it# fir#t 5"y of 'ettin' in to-.h 5ith re"$ity. It i# $i2e "
#4irit-"$ #en#e by 5hi.h 5e inte$$e.t-"$$y 4er.ei6e the re"$ity th"t "ffe.t# o-r #en#e# "n%
the mo%ifi."tion# th"t t"2e 4$".e in them.
@A

THE NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC !NOLED#E
In D-n# S.ot-#3 #y#tem not on$y #en#"tion#, b-t "$$ the ".t# th"t .on#tit-te o-r interior $ife
"re 'r"#4e% int-iti6e$y. he int-ition of o-r interior ".t# i# 4"rti.-$"r$y im4ort"nt to him
be."-#e it he$4# #o$6e the 4rob$em of #.ientifi. 2no5$e%'e, 5hi.h i# "bo6e "$$ " 4rob$em
of .ertit-%e "n% e6i%en.e.
!..or%in' to !ri#tot$e, fo-r thin'# "re re=-ire% for #.ientifi. 2no5$e%'eF 9It m-#t be
.ert"in, th"t i#, 5itho-t error "n% %o-bt, of " ne.e##"ry obJe.t, b"#e% on e6i%en.e, "n%
"tt"ine% by #y$$o'i#ti. re"#onin'. he %efinition of #.ien.e 'i6en in the fir#t boo2 of the
-osterior Analytics m"y be referre% to.9
@+
o " #-4erfi.i"$ re"%er it m"y "44e"r th"t D-n#
S.ot-# "..e4t# the !ri#tote$i"n notion of #.ien.e 5itho-t =-e#tion> b-t th"t i# not the
."#e. In f".t, he ."$$# o-r "ttention to the .on#e,
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
@8
Ibid#
@A
Ibid#, IV, %. 8A, =. B, n. ()F 9he inte$$e.t 2no5# not on$y the -ni6er#"$#, b-t it 2no5#
"$#o int-iti6e$y the obJe.t# 2no5n by the #en#e#, for " #-4erior "n% more 4erfe.t 4o5er
2no5# "$$ th"t "n inferior 4o5er 2no5#. It 2no5# "$#o the #en#"tion#.9
@+
Ibid#, I, Pro$o'-#> ==. B "n% 8 $"ter"$i#, n. 1+.
,(1B,
=-en.e# fo$$o5in' from !ri#tot$e3# #e.on% re=-i#ite for #.ien.e. If it i# " .h"r".teri#ti. of
#.ien.e, t"2en in the #tri.t #en#e of the term, th"t it# obJe.t be ne.e##"ry, "$$ .ontin'ent
re"$itie# "re i4#o f".to e7.$-%e% from the fie$% of #.ientifi. 2no5$e%'e. hi# .on#e=-en.e
.o-$% be e"#i$y "%mitte% by !ri#tot$e, 5ho .on.ei6e% the 5or$% "# bein' r-$e% by
ne.e##ity, b-t not by one 5ho m"int"in# th"t re"$ity i# the effe.t of " free .re"ti6e ".t of
;o%. Cre"tioni#m be"r# 5ith it the .on6i.tion th"t "$$ thin'# "4"rt from ;o% "re
.ontin'ent. Hen.e, either the .on.e4t of #.ien.e m-#t be mo%ifie%, or one m-#t %eny the
tit$e to "$$ #.ien.e# th"t "re not #tri.t$y %e%-.ti6e. hi# i# t"nt"mo-nt to #"yin' th"t m"n
."nnot ri#e to tr-e #.ientifi. 2no5$e%'e. For if it i# tr-e th"t .ert"in #.ien.e#, $i2e
met"4hy#i.# "n% m"them"ti.#, "re 4re%omin"nt$y %e%-.ti6e, they "re not e7.$-#i6e$y #o.
Let -# .on#i%er met"4hy#i.# "# "n e7"m4$e. In#of"r "# it .$"im# to be " tot"$ 6i#ion of
re"$ity in it# -$tim"te "n% #-4reme ."-#e#, met"4hy#i.# o-'ht to be #tri.t$y %e%-.ti6e in
.h"r".ter. From the %efinition of it# obJe.t one #ho-$% be "b$e to %r"5 " #erie# of
inferen.e# th"t, #t"rtin' from the mo#t #im4$e "n% -ni6er#"$ ."-#e# or 4rin.i4$e#, 5i$$ $e"%
-# to the -$tim"te effe.t# th"t fo$$o5 $o'i."$$y from them.
@)
! 4-re$y %e%-.ti6e
met"4hy#i.#, "$tho-'h entire$y 4o##ib$e in it#e$f, h"# ne6er been t"-'ht by "ny
4hi$o#o4her #in.e it i# not 4r".ti."$ for the h-m"n min%. 9Be."-#e of the im4oten.e of
o-r inte$$e.t, 5e 'o from #en#ib$e thin'#, 5hi.h "re $e## 2no5n in them#e$6e#, to the
2no5$e%'e of imm"teri"$ thin'#, 5hi.h "re in them#e$6e# more inte$$i'ib$e "n% .on#tit-te,
"# it 5ere, the 4rin.i4$e# of 2no5$e%'e. !# #-.h, they "re 2no5n in " met"4hy#i.# th"t i#
%ifferent from o-r#.9
@@

!..or%in'$y, h-m"n 2no5$e%'e, "# " 5ho$e, m-#t be b-t the min%3# "#.ent from effe.t# to
."-#e, from .ontin'ent thin'#
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
@)
2etaph#, Pro$o'-#, n. *.
@@
Ibid#
,(18,
to their re"#on. It i# ne.e##"ry in#of"r "# it i# the in%i#4en#"b$e e74$"n"tion of re"$ity, b-t
not in the #en#e th"t it ne.e##"ri$y 4ro%-.e# it# effe.t#> it i# ne.e##"ry in ascendendo, b-t
not in descendendo. he met"4hy#i."$ ne.e##ity or $".2 of ne.e##ity of the obJe.t,
rem"r2# D-n# S.ot-#, i# " 4erfe.tion th"t i# in the obJe.t, not in the 2no5$e%'e I h"6e of
it. My 2no5$e%'e i# ne.e##"ry on$y 5hen I ."nnot he$4 h"6in' it "n% ."nnot $o#e it> it i#
not ne.e##"ry mere$y be."-#e it i# .on.erne% 5ith " ne.e##"ry obJe.t. Hen.e #.ien.e,
5hether ne.e##"ry or not in the #en#e th"t h"# J-#t been e74$"ine%, i# "$5"y# #.ien.e.
&h"t %i#tin'-i#he# it from mere o4inion or #im4$e 2no5$e%'e i# it# .ertit-%e "n%
e6i%en.e, not it# ne.e##ity.
@*

E/IDENCE AS THE ULTIMATE MOTI/E OF
CERTITUDE AND CRITERION OF TRUTH
C"n m"n "tt"in "n "b#o$-te$y .ert"in "n% e6i%ent 2no5$e%'eL It i# " f".t th"t m"n "%here#
to .ert"in 4ro4o#ition# 5ith " firmne## th"t %efie# "ny %o-bt. hi# i# the ."#e, fir#t of "$$,
5ith 4ro4o#ition# or 4rin.i4$e# th"t "re #e$f,e6i%ent "n% 5ith "$$ the .on.$-#ion# th"t ."n
be %r"5n from them by #y$$o'i#ti. re"#onin'. he e6i%en.e of #-.h 4ro4o#ition# i#
#-ffi.ient$y 'ro-n%e% in the term# th"t m"2e them -4. I ."nnot -n%er#t"n% the#e term#
5itho-t -n%er#t"n%in' "t the #"me time the $o'i."$ ne7-# bin%in' them to'ether. h-#, "#
#oon "# I form-$"te the .on.e4t# of the 5ho$e "n% the 4"rt, I #ee imme%i"te$y th"t the
5ho$e i# 're"ter th"n the 4"rt. I ."nnot "%mit the 4o##ibi$ity of bein' %e.ei6e%, for it i#
im4o##ib$e for me to thin2 other5i#e. E6en if the #en#e#, 5hi.h f-rni#h
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
@*
+p# +.on#, Pro$o'-#> ==. B "n% 8 $"ter"$i#, n. 1@F 9I #"y here th"t it i# of the 4erfe.tion
of #.ien.e to be e6i%ent "n% .ert"in. o be #.ien.e of " ne.e##"ry obJe.t i# "
.ir.-m#t"n.e th"t h"# to %o 5ith the obJe.t, not 5ith #.ien.e "# #-.h. For e6en tho-'h
#.ien.e m"y be .on.erne% 5ith " ne.e##"ry obJe.t, it ."n in it#e$f be .ontin'ent "n% be
%e#troye% by ob$i6ion.9
,(1A,
me 5ith the term# of .om4"ri#on, 5ere .on#t"nt$y %e.ei6in' me, the tr-th of #-.h
4ro4o#ition# 5o-$% not .h"n'e. he e6i%en.e of the ne7-# bet5een #-bJe.t "n% 4re%i."te
%oe# not h"6e #en#ib$e e74erien.e "# it# ."-#e, b-t #4rin'# o-t of the term# in"#m-.h "#
they "re 4re#ent to my min%. Sen#e e74erien.e %oe# not ."-#e r"y -n%er#t"n%in'> it
#im4$y offer# to my min% "n o.."#ion of #eein' the ne.e##"ry tie bin%in' the t5o term#
to'ether. Hen.e, the 6"$i%ity of #-.h 4ro4o#ition# re#t# entire$y on the ".ti6ity of my min%
5hi.h .om4"re# the t5o .on.e4t#.
he #"me m-#t be #"i% of the e6i%ent 6"$i%ity of #y$$o'i#ti. re"#onin'. hi#, too, i# %-e
entire$y to the $i'ht of my inte$$e.t. On.e the 4remi#e# "n% the inferen.e "re e6i%ent, the
.on.$-#ion "$#o i# e6i%ent.
*C

On thi# 4remi#e, the #tri.t$y #.ientifi. .h"r".ter of the #o."$$e% %e%-.ti6e #.ien.e# i#
"##-re%. In%ee%, their 4rin.i4$e# "n% .on.$-#ion# "re en%o5e% 5ith the t5o .on#tit-ti6e
4ro4ertie# of #.ientifi. 2no5$e%'e, n"me$y, e6i%en.e "n% .ertit-%e.
Let -# e7"mine the ."#e of the in%-.ti6e #.ien.e#, or tho#e #.ien.e# 5hi.h re#t on #en#e
e74erien.e. he 4ro.e%-re of the#e #.ien.e# i# 5e$$ 2no5n. From the ob#er6"tion of "
.ert"in n-mber of #imi$"r f".t#, #-.h "# 5"ter boi$in' "t (CC %e'ree# .enti'r"%e, " 'ener"$
$"5 i# form-$"te% th"t i# 6"$i% for "$$ ."#e# of the #"me 2in%. On 5h"t 4re.i#e$y re#t# the
.ertit-%e "n% e6i%en.e of #.ientifi. $"5#L &h"t i# their b"#i#L here i# no %o-bt th"t it
."nnot be e74erien.e "$one. E74erien.e "##-re# me on$y th"t in "$$ the ob#er6e% ."#e#,
5hen " 4"rti.-$"r f".tor or .ir.-m#t"n.e i# 4re#ent Ehe"tin' to (CCSG, " .ert"in effe.t
fo$$o5# Ethe boi$in' of the 5"terG, b-t it ."n in no 5"y "##-re me th"t thi# 5i$$ "$5"y# be
#o. here i# no "b#o$-te ne.e##ity th"t 5"ter 5i$$ boi$ e7".t$y "t (CCS. Con#e=-ent$y, the
bon% th"t the 'ener"$ $"5 e#t"b$i#he# bet5een the t5o term# i# f"r from bein' e6i%ent.
Em4iri."$ e6i%en.e i# on$y
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
*C
Ibid#, I, %. B, =. 8, nn. ),@.
,(1+,
6"$i% for the ."#e# e74erien.e%. he e6i%en.e nee%e% for the #.ientifi. 6"$-e of the $"5#
re4re#entin' the .on.$-#ion# %r"5n from e74eriment"$ 4remi#e# m-#t therefore h"6e it#
fo-n%"tion o-t#i%e e74erien.e.
For D-n# S.ot-# the fo-n%"tion of in%-.tion re#t# on thi# 'ener"$ 4rin.i4$eF 9E6ery
4henomenon 5hi.h h"# been re4e"te%$y e74erien.e%, "n% 5hi.h %e4en%# on " ."-#e th"t
i# not free, i# " n"t-r"$ effe.t of th"t ."-#e.9
*(
9h"t " ."-#e 5hi.h i# not free "$5"y#
4ro%-.e# the effe.t to 5hi.h it i# n"t-r"$$y or%"ine% i# " #e$f,e6i%ent 4ro4o#ition. Hen.e
the .on#t"n.y of the bon% e7i#tin' bet5een t5o 4henomen", "# ob#er6e% by e74erien.e,
."n be e74$"ine% on$y by "%mittin' th"t the fir#t 4henomenon 4ro%-.e# the #e.on%, not by
.h"n.e or "rbitr"ri$y, b-t be."-#e it i# or%"ine% to 4ro%-.e it by it# 6ery n"t-re. h-#,
$e'itim"te -#e of the in%-.ti6eF metho% re#t# both on the e6i%en.e of "n "n"$yti."$
4ro4o#ition "n% on the e6i%en.e of my e74erien.e. It# #.ientifi. 6"$-e i# f-$$y J-#tifie% by
the .on.-rren.e of thi# t5ofo$% e6i%en.e.
*1

!# 5i$$ be re"%i$y #een, D-n# S.ot-# h"# .$e"r "n% 4re.i#e i%e"# on in%-.tion> he 2no5#
it# me"nin' "n% ".2no5$e%'e# it# 6"$-e. F-rthermore, in one of hi# &uaestiones
subtilissimae in 2etaphysicam Aristotelis,
*B
5here he %i#.-##e# "t $en'th the $e'itim"te
-#e "n% 6"$-e of #.ientifi. in%-.tion, he %e#.ribe# " .on.rete, 4"rti.-$"r 5"y of
4ro.ee%in' in #.ientifi. re#e"r.h from 5hi.h the t5o e##enti"$ metho%# of in%-.tion ."n
be %eri6e%, n"me$y, the metho% of "'reement "n% the metho% of %ifferen.e.
*8

For D-n# S.ot-# the obJe.ti6ity of o-r .on.e4t# i# th-# "##-re% by the f".t th"t the thin'
.on.-r# to 4ro%-.e them "# " 4"rti"$ effi.ient ."-#e, 5hi$e the 6"$-e of the 4roof# "n%
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
*(
Ibid#, n. *.
*1
Ibid#
*B
2etaph#, I, =. 8.
*8
Ibid#, n. ().
,(1),
#.ientifi. .on.$-#ion# re#t# on their e6i%en.e, 5hether imme%i"te or me%i"te. E6i%en.e i#
therefore for him the norm of .ertit-%e "# 5e$$ "# the .riterion of tr-th. &i$$ the 6"$-e of
h-m"n 2no5$e%'e be thereby '-"r"ntee% from "$$ 4oint# of 6ie5L he #.e4ti. m"y r"i#e "
f-rther obJe.tion.
It i# " f".t th"t .ert"in tr-th# for.e them#e$6e# -4on m"n be."-#e of their intrin#i.
e6i%en.e, #o th"t it i# im4o##ib$e to reJe.t them. Ho5e6er, if 5e t"2e " .$o#er $oo2 "t the
=-e#tion, 5e 5i$$ #ee th"t thi# %oe# not "# yet #o$6e in "n "b#o$-te, %efinite 5"y the
4rob$em of the obJe.ti6e 6"$-e of my 2no5$e%'e. &ho ."n "##-re me th"t "t " 4"rti.-$"r
moment I "m re"#onin' .orre.t$y, th"t I tr-$y #ee the tr-th, "n% th"t I "m not %re"min'L
&h"t 4roof %o I h"6e of the obJe.ti6e 6"$i%ity of my re"#onin'L M"y it not be th"t my
re"#onin' i# mere$y the 4ro%-.t of " #i.2 min% or the .on.$-#ion# of " #$ee45"$2erL
here i# no other '-"r"ntee or "##-r"n.e, "n#5er# D-n# S.ot-#, th"n th"t of
.on#.io-#ne##, 5hi.h i# #im4$y the int-ition of my o5n ".t#. ;r"nte% th"t %-rin' my
%re"m# I ."n m"2e the #"me ".t# of re"#on "# 5hen "5"2e, I ."n ne6erthe$e## .$e"r$y
%i#tin'-i#h bet5een 5h"t I tho-'ht %-rin' my %re"m# "n% 5h"t I "m thin2in' 5hen
"5"2e. Brief$y, my ".t# "n% the norm"$ f-n.tionin' of my inte$$e.ti6e 4o5er "re 2no5n
to me int-iti6e$y, "n% no obJe.tion 5h"t#oe6er ."n be r"i#e% "'"in#t thi# int-iti6e
e6i%en.e "n% .ertit-%e. o one 5ho #ti$$ in#i#t# "n% "#2# for "n e7trin#i. .riterion in or%er
to J-%'e 5hether in my ".t of thin2in' "n% re"#onin' I "m re"$$y "5"2e, the on$y "n#5er
th"t ."n be 'i6en i# thi#F 9Yo- "re not .on6in.e% be."-#e yo- "re #t-bborn.9
*A
9h"t i# to
#"y, yo-r %o-bt h"# no fo-n%"tion e7.e4t in yo-r ob#tin".y in %o-bt. &hen my
inte$$e.ti6e f".-$ty 9i# f-n.tionin' 4ro4er$y "n% 5hen it i# not, i# #omethin' #e$f,e6i%ent>
other5i#e nothin' .o-$% be 2no5n for .ert"in. &hen .onfronte% 5ith "n e6i%ent
4ro4o#ition, I .o-$% "$5"y# "#2 my#e$f 5hether it i# in " #t"te
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
*A
+p# +.on#, I, %. B, =. 8, n. (A.
,(1@,
of 5"2ef-$ne## or in " #t"te of #$ee4 th"t th"t "44e"r# to me "# e6i%ent.9
*+
o %o-bt the
6"$-e of thi# int-iti6e e6i%en.e i# to m"2e "$$ "ffirm"tion "n% "$$ re"#onin' im4o##ib$e> it
i# " %o-bt from 5hi.h there i# no 5"y o-t. he 6ery im4o##ibi$ity of thi# re6e"$# it#
in.on#i#ten.y "n% "b#-r%ity.
CONCLUDIN# REMAR!S
he 4re.e%in' #t"tement# "re of -tmo#t im4ort"n.e. hey "re not on$y 4hi$o#o4hi."$$y
#o-n%, b-t they "$#o #ho5 the im4ort"n.e the S-bt$e Do.tor "ttrib-te# to the int-iti6e
2no5$e%'e of o-r intern"$ ".t#. Int-iti6e 2no5$e%'e 4o##e##e# e6i%en.e e=-"$ to th"t of
fir#t 4rin.i4$e#,
*)
"n% offer# in "%%ition 5h"t m"y be ."$$e% b"#i. e6i%en.e> for it i# -4on
it th"t re#t, in -$tim"te "n"$y#i#, "$$ other e6i%en.e#. &ere thi# e6i%en.e $".2in' to -#, the
5ho$e e%ifi.e of h-m"n 2no5$e%'e .o-$% ri'ht$y be ."$$e% fi.tion. h-# 5e #ee on.e
more ho5 %ee4$y S.ot-#3 tho-'ht h"# been inf$-en.e% by the 4hi$o#o4hy of St. !-'-#tine.
It i# .ert"in$y not from !ri#tot$e th"t D-n# S.ot-# $e"rne% to "44re.i"te int-iti6e
2no5$e%'e in 'ener"$ "n% to "ttrib-te to the int-ition of o-r ".t# in 4"rti.-$"r the
im4ort"n.e 5e h"6e J-#t .on#i%ere% in the fore'oin' #e.tion. he #ettin', the 4rob$em#,
the form-$"# m"y 5e$$ be !ri#tote$i"n in tone, b-t the %o.trine i# of tr-$y !-'-#tini"n
ori'in. If D-n# S.ot-# h"# "%o4te% m"ny e$ement# from !ri#tot$e, he h"# #2i$$f-$$y
mer'e% "n% inte'r"te% them 5ith the te".hin'# of St. !-'-#tine.
! f-rther im4ort"nt ob#er6"tion m-#t be m"%e by 5"y of .on.$-#ion to the 4re#ent
.h"4ter. For D-n# S.ot-# h-m"n #.ien.e i# 4o##ib$e on$y "# " #ynthe#i# of in%-.tion "n%
%e%-.tion. De%-.ti6e #.ien.e# be'in 5ith #en#ib$e e74erien.e "n% #t"n% firm -4on it "#
-4on #o$i% 'ro-n%> in%-.ti6e #.ien.e#,
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
*+
Ibid#
*)
Ibid#, n. (C.
,(1*,
in t-rn, re.ei6e their #tren'th from the 6"$-e of "n "n"$yti."$ 4ro4o#ition 5hi.h it#e$f i# "t
the 6ery b"#i# of in%-.tion. h-# 5e fin% in #.ien.e " ne5 "44$i."tion, " ne5
%e6e$o4ment of the $"5 of 4"rti"$ effi.ient ."-#e#. Not on$y "re in%i6i%-"$ inte$$e.ti6e
".t# the re#-$t of the ."-#"$ .on.-rren.e of the obJe.t "n% the #o-$, b-t #.ien.e "# 5e$$
re#-$t# from it. Here #en#ib$e e74erien.e t"2e# the 4$".e of the obJe.t, 5hi$e the 4rin.i4$e#
re4re#ent the 4"rt of the inte$$e.t. he former offer# the term# "n% the f".t#, th"t i#, the
m"teri"$ to be or'"ni<e%, 5hi$e the inte$$e.t by me"n# of it# 4rin.i4$e# 'i6e# the %yn"mi.
4"ttern "..or%in' to 5hi.h the -nifi."tion i# to be ."rrie% o-t. In #o %oin', the inte$$e.t
m"2e# -nifi."tion 4o##ib$e "n% %ire.t# it to the #-mmit of it# 4erfe.tion.
!t thi# 4oint the =-e#tion "ri#e# #4ont"neo-#$yF 5here %o the#e i%e"$ $"5# .ome fromL
Ho5 %o yo- e74$"in their 4re#en.e in the inte$$e.tL D-n# S.ot-# te$$# -# e74$i.it$y th"t
they "re not %eri6e% from e74erien.e. E74erien.e offer# on$y the o.."#ion for their
m"nife#t"tion "n% for their ".ti6"tion. 9!# re'"r%# thi# 2no5$e%'e Hof 4rin.i4$e#I, #en#e
%oe# not ".t "# " ."-#e 5ith the inte$$e.t, b-t on$y "# "n o.."#ion.9
*@
It i# not %iffi.-$t to
.om4$ete S.ot-#3 tho-'ht. hi# ."n be %one by re."$$in' on.e more hi# %o.trine of the
4ro4er obJe.t of the h-m"n inte$$e.t. In 6irt-e of it# n"t-r"$ or%in"tion to bein', the 5ho$e
of bein', h-m"n inte$$i'en.e h"# in it#e$f "n e7i'en.y for, "# 5e$$ "# " '-i%e to5"r%, tot"$
tr-th. hi# e74$"in# 5hy o-r inte$$e.t i# not .$o#e% 5ithin the $imit# of e74erien.e "n%
%oe# not $et it#e$f be %omin"te% by it> on the .ontr"ry, it r-$e# o6er it "n% %ire.t# it in
"..or%"n.e 5ith the $"5# of bein'. &e "re then J-#tifie% in #"yin', r"ther, 5e m-#t #"y,
th"t thro-'h the #.ien.e# m"n ten%# to the -nifi."tion of re"$ity. For the .on.e4t of bein'
in 5hi.h m"n 2no5# "$$ other thin'# "n% 5hi.h he #omeho5 "$re"%y h"# 5ithin him#e$f
E6irt-"$ in,
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
*@
Ibid#, n. @.
,(BC,
n"ti#mG
N
4re%i#4o#e# hi# inte$$e.t to -nity by .omm-ni."tin' to it the e7i'en.y "n%
4o5er for it# "tt"inment.
Here "'"in 5e "re bo-n% to "%mit th"t for D-n# S.ot-#, "# for the !-'-#tini"n #.hoo$, "
m"n 2no5# thin'# not be."-#e they for.e them#e$6e# -4on hi# inte$$e.t, b-t be."-#e hi#
inte$$e.t #ee2# them, "n% therefore, in " .ert"in #en#e, it "$re"%y 2no5# them. E74erien.e
i# " 2in% of no-ri#hment for " m"n3# inte$$e.t. Yet, J-#t "# no-ri#hment i# of no 6"$-e to
one th"t %oe# not 4o##e## ".t-"$ $ife, #o thi# 2in% of inte$$e.t-"$ no-ri#ment 5o-$% be
-#e$e## if the inte$$e.t 5ere not in ".t before it# .ont".t 5ith e74erien.e. hi# .on#tit-ti6e
".t of the h-m"n inte$$e.t i# 4re.i#e$y it# intrin#i. %etermin"tion to bein', or, #ho-$% I #"y,
it# n"t-r"$ .r"6in' for bein'. Herein $ie# the root of "$$ " 4riori e$ement# in h-m"n
2no5$e%'e.
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
N
Con.ernin' thi# #o,."$$e% 96irt-"$ inn"ti#m9 of the i%e" of bein', #ee my ob#er6"tion
"bo6e "fter n. ((.
,(B(,
/I
INFINITE BEIN#
THE CONCEPT OF INFINITE BEIN#
BEIN; ,ua bein', th"t i#, bein' -n%er#too% in it# 4-re form"$ity 5hereby it i# 4re%i."te%
of e6erythin' th"t e7i#t# in #ome m"nner, i# neither ne.e##"ri$y finite nor infinite.
Finit-%e "n% infinity %o not enter into the .on.e4t of bein', nor "re they it# tr"n#.en%ent"$
"ttrib-te#.
**
!..or%in'$y, 5e ."n thin2 of bein' either "# finite or "# infinite.
h"t finite bein' ".t-"$$y e7i#t# i# " f".t of e74erien.e. Doe# the infinite bein' "$#o e7i#tL
hi# i# not " tr-th of imme%i"te e6i%en.e to -#, nor i# it " tr-th th"t for.e# it#e$f -4on -#
by the #im4$e en-n.i"tion of it# term#. ! 4riori, 5e ."n on$y 2no5 the non.ontr"%i.tion
or nonim4o##ibi$ity of "n infinite
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
**
+p# +.on#, I, %. 1, =. 1, n. B(. H ;i$#on3# ob#er6"tion in thi# re#4e.t i# 5orth =-otin'F
9he bein' th"t i# tho-'ht "# .ommon to ;o% "n% .re"t-re# i#, by %efinition, the bein'
neither of ;o% nor .re"t-re#. !n% that* by the 'ay* is 'hy the Scotist proofs of %ods
e.istence are really proofs7 the 6ery f".t th"t they #t"rt from bein' #-44o#e# th"t thi#
.on.e4t i# not the .on.e4t of ;o%> for 5ere it #o there 5o-$% be nothin' to 4ro6e, 5e
#ho-$% h"6e no nee% to $oo2 f-rther. Uni6o.ity no more
,(B1,
bein'. !t the mo#t, 5e ."n #ho5, on the b"#i# of .ert"in .on#i%er"tion#, the fittin'ne## of
it# e7i#ten.e. F-rther th"n th"t 5e ."nnot 'o.
Let -# #t"rt 5ith the notion of infinity. It i# not im4o##ib$e to thin2 of " =-"ntit"ti6e
m"'nit-%e m"%e -4 of "n infinity of #-..e##i6e 4"rt#. In the #-44o#ition th"t the#e 4"rt#
%o not e7i#t #-..e##i6e$y b-t #im-$t"neo-#$y,,5hi.h i# " 're"ter 4erfe.tion,there 5i$$ be
"n infinite bein' in ".t.
On the other h"n%, "n infinite ".ti6ity i# more 4erfe.t th"n " =-"ntit"ti6e infinity. B-t
5h"t i# more 4erfe.t i# "$#o more 4o##ib$e. Hen.e, if " =-"ntit"ti6e infinity i# 4o##ib$e, "n
infinite ".ti6ity h"# "n e6en 're"ter %e'ree of 4o##ibi$ity.
Moreo6er, if "n infinite bein' 5ere #omethin' .ontr"%i.tory, my inte$$e.t, 5ho#e 4ro4er
obJe.t i# bein', 5o-$% imme%i"te$y noti.e the .ontr"#t bet5een the .on.e4t of bein' "n%
the .on.e4t of infinite, J-#t "# my #en#e of he"rin' imme%i"te$y noti.e# .ontr"#t# in
#o-n%. Hen.e it i# not 5itho-t me"nin' th"t my inte$$e.t ."n thin2 5itho-t "ny %iffi.-$ty
of "n infinite bein'. F"r from e74erien.in' "ny %iffi.-$ty, it enJoy# " .ert"in %e$i'ht in
thi#, "# tho-'h it 5ere .onfronte% 5ith the mo#t 4erfe.t met"4hy#i."$ "'reement in 5hi.h
the 4$enit-%e of inte$$i'ibi$ity .orre#4on%# 5ith the 4$enit-%e of bein'.
(CC

ST" ANSELM'S ONTOLO#ICAL AR#UMENT FOR THE E5ISTENCE
OF #OD
On the b"#i# of the fore'oin' .on#i%er"tion#, D-n# S.ot-# 4ro4o#e# " ne5 inter4ret"tion
of St. !n#e$m3# f"mo-# onto,
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
4ro6i%e# " #t"rtin' 4oint for the be"tifi. 6i#ion th"n "n"$o'y, for the %i6i%in' $ine
bet5een m"n "n% ;o% i# #it-"te% on "nother 4$"ne> it re#-$t# from the f".t of .re"tion.9
"he Spirit of 2ediae5al -hilosophy, op# cit#, 4. 1+A. EIt"$i.# "re the r"n#$"tor3#. G E"r#GI
(CC
Ibid#, n. B1.
,(BB,
$o'i."$ "r'-ment.
(C(
o #"y th"t ;o% i# 9th"t th"n 5hi.h nothin' 're"ter ."n be tho-'ht
of, 9 i# e=-i6"$ent to #"yin' th"t ;o% i# "n infinite bein'. Hen.e 5h"t h"# been #"i% "bo6e
in re'"r% to the .om4o#ite .on.e4t of 9infinite bein'9 i# "$#o 6"$i% for the !n#e$mi"n
%efinition t"2en in it# bro"%e#t #en#e. 9! bein' th"n 5hi.h nothin' 're"ter ."n be tho-'ht
of9 i# not in it#e$f .ontr"%i.tory, "ny more th"n i# "n infinite bein'.
hi# i# "n im4ort"nt 4oint th"t %e#er6e# to be em4h"#i<e%, for it i# 4re.i#e$y -4on the
4rin.i4$e of non.ontr"%i.tion th"t the 5ho$e #tren'th of the "r'-ment re#t#. St. !n#e$m3#
"r'-ment m-#t then be -n%er#too% in the fo$$o5in' 5"y. 9;o% i# #-.h " bein' th"t, if
4o##ib$e to be .on.ei6e% 5itho-t .ontr"%i.tion, no 're"ter bein' ."n be .on.ei6e%
5itho-t .ontr"%i.tion.9
(C1
In f".t, if ;o% i# the bein' 9th"n 5hi.h nothin' 're"ter ."n be
.on.ei6e%, 9 "n% if #-.h " bein' im4$ie# no .ontr"%i.tion, ;o% i# 4o##ib$e. B-t if 4o##ib$e,
He m-#t "$#o e7i#t in re"$ity.
he e6i%en.e for thi# .on.$-#ion 5i$$ "44e"r from the fo$$o5in' ref$e.tion#. If ;o% 5ere
mere$y 4o##ib$e, He 5o-$% e7i#t on$y in my min% "n% not in re"$ity. Con#e=-ent$y, He
5o-$% not be ;o%, n"me$y, the 9bein', th"n 5hi.h nothin' 're"ter ."n be tho-'ht of.9
For " re"$ bein' i# more 4erfe.t th"n " 4o##ib$e bein', #in.e thi# $"tter ."nnot be re"$i<e%,
i. e., bro-'ht into e7i#ten.e, e7.e4t by " bein' th"t "$re"%y e7i#t#. h-#, if ;o% 5ere
mere$y 4o##ib$e, He 5o-$% %e4en% on "nother bein'F He 5o-$% no $on'er be ;o%. hi# i#
t"nt"mo-nt to #"yin' th"t ;o% 5o-$% "t the #"me time be 4o##ib$e "n% not 4o##ib$e,
5hi.h i#
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(C(
Ibid# Hhi# i# the "r'-ment for the e7i#ten.e of ;o% 4ro4o#e% by St. !n#e$m E (CBB,
((C*G in hi# -roslogium. he "r'-ment 'oe# from the i%e" of ;o% "# " bein' th"n
5hi.h nothin' 're"ter ."n be tho-'ht of to ;o%3# e7i#ten.e. In #.ho$"#ti. termino$o'y
it i# ."$$e% "n "r'-ment a priori or a simultaneo* 5hi$e the #4e.ifi. term for it i# the
ratio Anselmi# Imm"n-e$ /"nt ."$$e% it $e## 4ro4er$y 9the onto$o'i."$ "r'-ment.9 E"r#GI
(C1
Ibid#
,(B8,
"n e6i%ent .ontr"%i.tion. By %efinition, ;o% ."nnot %e4en% on other bein'#. herefore
He i# not 4o##ib$e e7.e4t "# " bein' in%e4en%ent of "ny other bein', i. e., "# " #e$f,
e7i#tin' bein'. On.e Hi# 4o##ibi$ity i# e#t"b$i#he%, Hi# ".t-"$ e7i#ten.e i# thereby "$#o
e#t"b$i#he%.
&h"t 6"$-e %oe# D-n# S.ot-# "ttrib-te to hi# 9.o$or"tion9 of the !n#e$mi"n "r'-mentL
Inter4reter# "re not of one "..or% on thi# 4oint. Some .on#i%er it to be the S-bt$e Do.tor3#
.om4$ete "%heren.e to the "r'-ment of St. !n#e$m> other# .$"im to #ee in it the re"$
S.oti#ti. %emon#tr"tion of ;o%3# e7i#ten.e> " thir% 'ro-4 i# of the o4inion th"t D-n#
S.ot-#3 .o$or"tion of the !n#e$mi"n "r'-ment h"# nothin' to %o 5ith the S.oti#ti.
%emon#tr"tion of ;o%3# e7i#ten.e, b-t i# mere$y one of the "r'-ment# 5ith 5hi.h he
4ro6e# ;o%3# infinity.
he 4-r4o#e of thi# #t-%y %oe# not "$$o5 me to 'o into " %et"i$e% %i#.-##ion, "n% I 5i$$
#-mm"ri<e my o4inion in " fe5 brief ob#er6"tion#. he S.oti#ti. .o$or"tion ."n be
re%-.e% to the fo$$o5in' hy4otheti. #y$$o'i#mF If ;o% Eens infinitum* ens ,uo maius
cogitari non potestG i# 4o##ib$e, He e7i#t#. B-t ;o% i# 4o##ib$e. herefore, He e7i#t#. he
6"$-e of the .on.$-#ion re#t# on the #o$i%ity of the 4remi#e#. St. !n#e$m3# m"in
4reo..-4"tion h"# been to 4oint o-t the #o$i%ity of the m"Jor, th-# ne'$e.tin' the minor,
5hi.h "44e"r# "# " #t"tement 5itho-t fo-n%"tion. F-rther, one ."nnot on$y .h"$$en'e St.
!n#e$m for the e6i%ent 5e"2ne## of the minor, b-t he ."n "$#o ."$$ in =-e#tion the
#o$i%ity of the m"Jor it#e$f, n"me$y, the ri'ht to .on.$-%e from the 4o##ibi$ity of ;o% to
Hi# e7i#ten.e. Ho5e6er, there i# no %iffi.-$ty here for D-n# S.ot-#, #in.e he "..e4t# the
m"Jor 4remi#e. he tr"n#ition from ;o%3# 4o##ibi$ity to Hi# e7i#ten.e #eem# to him to be
beyon% =-e#tion. Hi# .o$or"tion ten%# m"in$y to e#t"b$i#h the 6"$-e of the minor, n"me$y,
th"t ;o% i# 4o##ib$e. Ho5 %oe# the S-bt$e Do.tor 4ro.ee% in hi# "r'-ment"tionL
&e h"6e "$re"%y #een th"t by " %emon#tr"tion " 4riori 5e ."nnot "rri6e beyon% " mere
4rob"bi$ity. 9It %oe# not #eem th"t
,(BA,
the minor of thi# #y$$o'i#m Hth"t infinity i# not re4-'n"nt to bein'I ."n be %emon#tr"te% "
4riori.9
(CB
&hyL ! tr-th i# %emon#tr"te% " 4riori 5hen one "tt"in# it by the #im4$e
e74$"n"tion of the me"nin' of the term# in6o$6e%. No5 if 5e "ttem4t to "n"$y<e the
.on.e4t of the term th"t ".t# "# " #-bJe.t, being* "n% the .on.e4t of the term th"t ".t# "# "
4re%i."te, infinite* 5e #ee imme%i"te$y th"t #-.h "n "n"$y#i# i# im4o##ib$e. For, on the one
h"n%, the .on.e4t of bein' i# " mo#t #im4$e .on.e4t th"t ."nnot be re%-.e% to "ny other
.on.e4t> on the other h"n%, o-r notion of the infinite i# "n in%ire.t notion 5hi.h i# re$"te%
to the notion of the finite. 9he infinite i# th"t 5hi.h tr"n#.en%# " finite bein' not
"..or%in' to "ny %efinite 4ro4o#ition, b-t beyon% "ny $imit 5e ."n thin2 of.9
(C8
Sin.e 5e
-n%er#t"n% the infinite thro-'h the finite, 5e ."nnot 'r"#4 the intim"te re$"tion e7i#tin'
bet5een infinity "n% bein', nor ."n 5e 'r"#4 the $o'i."$ tie th"t bin%# the 4re%i."te to the
#-bJe.t. &e ."n on$y .ome to -n%er#t"n% thi#, n"me$y, th"t "n infinite bein' i# not "n
"b#-r%ity, "n% th"t o-r inte$$e.t .on#i%er# it 5ith e6erin.re"#in' %e$i'ht. In other 5or%#,
"$$ 5e -n%er#t"n% i# th"t 5e ."nnot %i#."r% " 4riori the 4o##ibi$ity th"t "n infinite bein'
e7i#t#.
From thi# it 5i$$ be re"%i$y #een th"t for D-n# S.ot-# the ratio Anselmi ."nnot h"6e "n
"4o%i.ti. 6"$-e. It i# #im4$y " persuasio $i2e the other .on#i%er"tion# th"t 4re.e%e it. o
m"2e it .$e"r th"t to thin2 of the e7i#ten.e of "n infinite bein' i# not "b#-r%, "n% th"t the
inte$$e.t h"# " .ert"in ten%en.y to "%mit the e7i#ten.e of #-.h " bein', i# not eno-'h to
.on.$-%e th"t the infinite bein' ".t-"$$y e7i#t#. D-n# S.ot-# him#e$f #eem# to be of thi#
o4inion 5hen he 5rite# th"t the 4o##ibi$ity of "n infinite bein' 9%oe# not #eem to be
%emon#tr"b$e " 4riori . . ., ho5e6er, here "re #ome 4er#-"#i6e .on#i%er"tion#. . . .9
(CA

DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(CB
Ibid#, n. B(.
(C8
Ibid#
(CA
Ibid#
,(B+,
THE A POSTERIORI PROOFS FOR THE E5ISTENCE OF #OD
Before 4o#itin' the 4rob$em of the e7i#ten.e of "n infinite bein', it 5"# ne.e##"ry to #ee
5hether it 5"# not 4erh"4# " 4#e-%o,4rob$em. It 5o-$% h"6e been #-.h if the 4ro4o#ition,
9! bein' i# infinite, 9 5ere #e$f,e6i%ent, "# i# the 4ro4o#ition, 9he 5ho$e i# 're"ter th"n
the 4"rt, 9 "n% "$#o in the ."#e th"t the .on.e4t of "n infinite bein' 5o-$% h"6e been
4ro6e% to be " .ontr"%i.tory .on.e4t. On the other h"n%, it m-#t be "%mitte% th"t from the
#im4$e nonim4o##ibi$ity of " thin' one ."nnot "t on.e infer it# e7i#ten.e. From esse to
posse the tr"n#ition i# 6"$i%, b-t from #im4$e posse to esse the inferen.e i# not $i.it.
(C+

o %emon#tr"te on " #-re b"#i# the e7i#ten.e of ;o%, D-n# S.ot-# be$ie6e# " t5ofo$%
4ro.e%-re i# 4o##ib$e. St"rtin' from the ob#er6"tion th"t thin'# of o-r e74erien.e "re
.h"n'in' re"$itie#, "n% th"t 5h"t .h"n'e# "n% be.ome# %oe# not h"6e in it#e$f the
#-ffi.ient re"#on for it# o4er"tion# "n% for it# e7i#ten.e, the fir#t "44ro".h m"2e# it .$e"r
th"t on$y the e7i#ten.e of " bein' 5hi.h i# not #-bJe.t to .h"n'e or be.omin' ."n J-#tify
the e7i#ten.e of the bein'# th"t be.ome. hi# i# #-b#t"nti"$$y the 4ro.e## th"t St. hom"#
%e6e$o4e% "$on' #tri.t$y 4hi$o#o4hi."$ $ine# in hi# fir#t three 5"y#.
!2in to thi# "44ro".h i# "nother, 5hi.h h"# it# #t"rtin' 4oint in the 4o##ibi$ity of thin'#.
he e7i#ten.e of thin'# th"t .ome into bein' i# " f".t of imme%i"te, #en#ib$e e6i%en.e, b-t
the 4o##ibi$ity th"t #-.h thin'# e7i#t, $i2e my#e$f 5ho "m 5ritin', the ho-#e th"t #he$ter#
me, the #-n 5hi.h "t thi# moment bre"2# thro-'h "n "-t-mn %"y, i# " ne.e##"ry tr-th th"t
for.e# it#e$f -4on my min%. If, by #-44o#ition, the 5ho$e 5or$% th"t #-rro-n%# me 5ere to
4$-n'e into nothin'ne##, or to re6e"$ it#e$f
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(C+
De -rimo -rincipio, .h"4. III, n. (F 9. . . for tho#e thin'# 5hi.h "re .on.e%e% "bo-t "n
".t-"$ bein' ."n "$#o be .on.e%e% "bo-t " 4o##ib$e bein', b-t not .on6er#e$y.9
,(B),
"# nothin' b-t " %re"m,5or$%, it 5o-$% #ti$$ be tr-e th"t #-.h " 5or$% ."n e7i#t, th"t it ."n
be .re"te%. Here "'"in I "m .om4e$$e% to "#2 my#e$f 5hether thi# 4o##ibi$ity h"# it#
fo-n%"tion in the thin'# them#e$6e#, or in "nother bein' 5ith " %ifferent n"t-re.
E6en tho-'h D-n# S.ot-# %oe# not fin% "ny f"-$t in the former 4ro.e##, 5hi.h he "%mit#
"# bein' 4erfe.t$y 6"$i% "n% #o-n%, ne6erthe$e## he 4refer# thi# $"tter 4ro.e##. Let -#
e7"mine, 5ithin the $imit# im4o#e% by the n"t-re of thi# #t-%y, the 5"y fo$$o5e% by the
S-bt$e Do.tor in e#t"b$i#hin' the tr-th of ;o%3# e7i#ten.e.
N

DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
N
Con.ernin' D-n# S.ot-#3 4roof# of ;o%3# e7i#ten.e, !$$"n B. &o$ter 5rite# in the
intro%-.tion to hi# #t-%y, 9D-n# S.ot-# "n% the E7i#ten.e "n% N"t-re of ;o%,9
-roceedings of the American Catholic -hilosophical Association, MMVIII E (*A8G,
*8,*AF 9Of the 're"t #.ho$"#ti.#, 4erh"4# no one %e6ote% more "ttention "n% ."re to
%e6e$o4in' " 4roof for the e7i#ten.e of ;o% th"n %i% D-n# S.ot-#. Un$i2e !=-in"#,
Bon"6ent-re, Henry of ;hent "n% #o m"ny other#, he m"%e no "ttem4t to e74$oit the
m-$tit-%e of 5"y# he .on#i%ere% 4o##ib$e, b-t r"ther .on.entr"te% hi# effort# on "
#in'$e 4roof in.or4or"tin' into it 5h"t he be$ie6e% to be the be#t e$ement# of the
"r'-ment# of hi# 4re%e.e##or# "n% .ontem4or"rie#. From the time 5hen he 4re#ente%
the fir#t %r"ft of hi# 4roof "# " b".he$or of theo$o'y "t O7for% to the %"y #ome ei'ht
ye"r# $"ter 5hen %e"th fo-n% him #ti$$ b-#y re6i#in' hi# m"Jor 5or2# for 4-b$i."tion,
the S-bt$e S.ot h"% re5or2e% hi# 4roof no $e## th"n three time# th"t 5e 2no5 of. he
.h"n'e#, "ime% 4rin.i4"$$y "t e.onomy of tho-'ht "n% 're"ter $o'i."$ #y#tem"ti<"tion,
$eft the m"Jor o-t$ine# of the "r'-ment -n"$tere%.9
It i# no %o-bt the hi'h$y .on6in.in' .h"r".ter of D-n# S.ot-#3 4roof for ;o%3#
e7i#ten.e th"t $e% hom"# Merton to "ffirmF 9It i# 'ettin' to be r"ther 'ener"$$y
"%mitte% th"t, for "..-r".y "n% %e4th "n% #.o4e, thi# H D-n# S.ot-#3I i# the mo#t
4erfe.t "n% .om4$ete "n% thoro-'h 4roof for the e7i#ten.e of ;o% th"t h"# e6er been
5or2e% o-t by "ny m"n.9 "he Se5en Storey 2ountain E Ne5 Yor2F H"r.o-rt, Br".e
"n% Co., (*8@G, 4. *8. Er. G
,(B@,
T(e F&rst Eff&c&ent Ca*se" 9Some bein' i# 4ro%-.ib$e9 !ali,uod ens est effecti bile$#
(C)
It
i# "n -n%eni"b$e, ne.e##"ry tr-th th"t #ome bein', e. '., " m"n, " ho-#e or the #-n,
"$tho-'h not ne.e##"ri$y e7i#tin', ."n by it# 6ery n"t-re be 4ro%-.e% or bro-'ht into
e7i#ten.e. If the intrin#i. E$o'i."$G fo-n%"tion of thi# 4o##ibi$ity i# in the n"t-re of the
thin', it# e7trin#i. Ere"$G fo-n%"tion m-#t be fo-n% either in it#e$f, in nothin', or in
"nother bein'. It ."nnot be nothin', for nothin' ."nnot be the ."-#e of "nythin'. o #"y
th"t nothin' i# the ."-#e of #omethin' i# e=-i6"$ent to #"yin' th"t the thin' in =-e#tion
h"# no ."-#e> it 5o-$% "mo-nt to #o$6in' the 4rob$em by %enyin' it. he e7trin#i.
fo-n%"tion ."nnot be the thin' it#e$f, for it i# im4o##ib$e th"t " bein' 'i6e e7i#ten.e to
it#e$fF 9Nothin' ."n 4ro%-.e or 'i6e e7i#ten.e to it#e$f.9
(C@
o 'i6e e7i#ten.e to it#e$f "
bein' 5o-$% h"6e to e7i#t,,for ho5 .o-$% it ".t 5itho-t e7i#tin'L,,"n% not e7i#t,,for ho5
.o-$% it re.ei6e e7i#ten.e if it 5ere "$re"%y e7i#tin'L,,"t one "n% the #"me time, 5hi.h i#
" .ontr"%i.tion. &e m-#t, therefore, $oo2 for the re"$ fo-n%"tion of the e7trin#i.
4o##ibi$ity of " thin' in " bein' %i#tin.t from the 4ro%-.ib$e bein'.
hi# bein', in t-rn, either e7i#t# "n% ".t# in it# o5n ri'ht, or in 6irt-e of "nother bein'. In
the fir#t hy4othe#i#, 5e "re .onfronte% 5ith " bein' th"t i# 4o##ib$e by it#e$f, th"t by it#
n"t-re ."n on$y 4ro%-.e b-t not be 4ro%-.e%, or, to -#e S.ot-#3 termino$o'y, th"t i#
effecti5um b-t not effectibile# If the #e.on% hy4othe#i# i# .orre.t, th"t i#, if the bein' in
=-e#tion i# effecti5um b-t on$y in#of"r "# it i# it#e$f in t-rn efectible or re.ei6e# e7i#ten.e
"n% ".ti6ity from "nother, then 5e m-#t 'o on "n% $oo2 for " thir% bein' th"t i# the
fo-n%"tion of the 4o##ibi$ity of the fir#t "n% the #e.on%. hi# 4ro.e## 5i$$ .ontin-e -nti$
5e meet 5h"t 5e "re #ee2in', n"me$y, " bein' th"t h"# in it#e$f the re"#on for it# o5n
4o##ibi$ity "n% for the 4o##ibi$ity of "$$
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(C)
+p# +.on#, (, %. 1, =. 1, n. ((.
(C@
Ibid#
,(B*,
other bein'#. hi# #e"r.h ."nnot 'o on fore6er, or e$#e 5e 5o-$% h"6e to reno-n.e
fin%in' the re"#on for the effe.tibi$ity th"t 5"# o-r #t"rtin' 4oint. &e 5o-$% h"6e to #"y
th"t there "re bein'# 5hi.h "re 4o##ib$e, be."-#e 4ro%-.ib$e, "n% not 4o##ib$e, be."-#e
they 5o-$% $".2 the re"$ fo-n%"tion of their 4o##ibi$ity. hi# i# e6i%ent$y "b#-r%.
&e ."n therefore .on.$-%e th"t nothin' 5o-$% be 4o##ib$e if there %i% not e7i#t " bein'
5hi.h h"# the 4o5er to 4ro%-.e other bein'#, 5itho-t it#e$f bein' 4ro%-.e%, " bein' th"t
by it# 6ery n"t-re h"# "n "-tonomo-#, -n4"rti.i4"te% ".ti6ity 5hi.h i# the #o-r.e of "$$
4erfe.tion#. B-t th"t .ert"in thin'# "re 4o##ib$e i#, "# 4re6io-#$y #een, " ne.e##"ry tr-th.
Hen.e by the #"me to2en 5e m-#t "ffirm th"t thi# fir#t bein' i#, in the mo#t "b#o$-te
#en#e of the term, ne.e##"ri$y 4o##ib$e.
he =-e#tion m"y be "#2e%F i# not " 4rim"ry "n% "b#o$-te$y in%e4en%ent ".ti6ity "
.ontr"%i.tion, "n "b#-r%ityL D-n# S.ot-# "nti.i4"te# thi# obJe.tion "n% h"# hi# "n#5er
4re4"re%. !.ti6ity i# " #im4$e 4erfe.tion 5hi.h %oe# not ne.e##"ri$y in.$-%e "n
im4erfe.tion, "# %oe#, for e7"m4$e, the 4o5er of re"#onin'. Con#e=-ent$y, "n ".ti6ity
5hi.h in e6ery re#4e.t i# mo#t 4erfe.t ."nnot be .on#i%ere% "n im4o##ibi$ity. he more
"n "'ent %e4en%# on other thin'# in it# ".ti6ity, the more im4erfe.t it i#> "n%, on the
.ontr"ry, the more it# "-tonomy of o4er"tion in.re"#e#, the 're"ter i# it# 4erfe.tion.
herefore, if " mo#t 4erfe.t ".ti6ity i# not " .ontr"%i.tion, neither i# "n "'ent th"t i# 4-re
".t, nor "n "'ent th"t i# the effi.ient ."-#e of "$$ thin'# 5itho-t it#e$f %e4en%in' on "ny
other effi.ient ."-#e.
(C*

h-# f"r t5o .on.$-#ion# h"6e been re".he%. Fir#t, in or%er to e74$"in ho5 #ome bein'
."n be 4ro%-.e%, 5e h"6e been .om4e$$e% to "%mit the 4o##ibi$ity of " bein' th"t
4ro%-.e# 5itho-t in t-rn bein' 4ro%-.e%, th"t i#, the 4o##ibi$ity of " mo#t 4erfe.t effi.ient
."-#e. Se.on%, 5e h"6e 4ro6e% th"t thi# mo#t 4erfe.t effi.ient ."-#e %oe# not in6o$6e "
.ontr"%i.tion,
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(C*
Ibid#* n. (8.
,(8C,
"n% therefore i# not im4o##ib$e. In other 5or%#, 5e h"6e e#t"b$i#he% the 4o##ibi$ity of thi#
mo#t 4erfe.t effi.ient ."-#e both 4o#iti6e$y "n% ne'"ti6e$y.
Let -# 4ro.ee% f-rther. hi# effi.ient ."-#e, the fir#t in "n "b#o$-te #en#e, not on$y ."nnot
%e4en% on "nother effi.ient ."-#e, b-t i# "$#o -n."-#e% "# f"r "# other ."-#e# "re
.on.erne%. In f".t, if it ."nnot h"6e "n effi.ient ."-#e, it fo$$o5# ipso facto th"t neither
%oe# it %e4en% on " fin"$ ."-#e. he fin"$ ."-#e i# the moti6e im4e$$in' the effi.ient ."-#e
to ".t. H"6in' no effi.ient ."-#e, it ."nnot h"6e " fin"$ ."-#e> nor 5i$$ it %e4en%, "# 5i$$
be re"%i$y -n%er#too%, on m"teri"$ "n% form"$ ."-#e#. M"teri"$ "n% form"$ ."-#e# "re the
intrin#i. ."-#e# of re"$ity, in"#m-.h "# re"$ity i# .on#tit-te% by their meetin' in "
#-b#t"nti"$ -nion. Ho5e6er, thi# meetin', the #ynthe#i# of m"teri"$ ."-#e 5ith form"$
."-#e, ."nnot t"2e 4$".e by it#e$f> it m-#t %e4en% on the ".tion of "n effi.ient ."-#e,
5hi.h brin'# the t5o to'ether 4re.i#e$y in or%er to .on#tit-te the ne5 re"$ity for "
4re%etermine% en%. Hen.e, " bein' th"t %oe# not %e4en% on the e7trin#i. ."-#e# Eeffi.ient
"n% fin"$G i# e6en more in%e4en%ent "# to it# intrin#i. ."-#e#. he primum effecti5um i#
th-# "$#o ne.e##"ri$y -n."-#e%. It i# 4re.i#e$y thi# in."-#"bi$ity of the fir#t effi.ient ."-#e,
5ho#e 4o##ibi$ity h"# th-# f"r been e#t"b$i#he%, th"t 5i$$ 4ermit -# to %emon#tr"te it#
e7i#ten.e in ".t.
If the primum effecti5um 5hi.h i# 4o##ib$e e7 #e %i% not e7i#t, 5e 5o-$% be f".e% 5ith the
fo$$o5in' three "$tern"ti6e#F either E(G 5e "%mit th"t " thin' ."n be the ."-#e of it#e$f> or
E1G th"t it i# not tr-$y primum "n% %e4en%# on "nother bein'> or EBG 5e m-#t #"y th"t it i#
im4o##ib$e. he fir#t "$tern"ti6e i# "b#-r%> the other t5o "re e7.$-%e% on the b"#i# of the
4re.e%in' .on#i%er"tion#. Hen.e the 4o##ibi$ity of the primum effecti5um ."nnot be
.on.ei6e% -n$e## 5e "%mit it# re"$ e7i#ten.e. St"te% other5i#e, if the fir#t ."-#e %oe# not
e7i#t, it i# ."-#"b$e, #in.e it i# 4o##ib$e. B-t the fir#t ."-#e i# by it# n"t-re in."-#"b$e.
herefore, it i# im4o##ib$e to %eny it# e7i#ten.e. o %o #o
,(8(,
5o-$% "mo-nt to "ttrib-tin' to it t5o .ontr"%i.tory 4re%i."te# by #"yin' th"t it i#
in."-#"b$e "n% ."-#"b$e "t one "n% the #"me time. Brief$y, #in.e 5e "re .om4e$$e% to
"%mit the 4o##ibi$ity of " fir#t ."-#e, 5e m-#t $i2e5i#e "%mit it# e7i#ten.e. o =-ote
S.ot-#F 9he fir#t effi.ient ."-#e in "n "b#o$-te #en#e can e.ist by it#e$f> therefore, it
e.ists by it#e$f.9
((C

T(e S*'re-e F&nal Ca*se" he #"me 4ro.e%-re "n% the #"me .on#i%er"tion# th"t h"6e
$e% -# to "ffirm the e7i#ten.e of " #-4reme effi.ient ."-#e 5i$$ "$#o $e"% -# to "ffirm the
e7i#ten.e of " #-4reme fin"$ ."-#e "n% of " #-4reme$y 4erfe.t bein'. From the 6ery f".t
th"t " thin' i# 4ro%-.ib$e "n% %e4en%ent on "n effi.ient ."-#e, it m-#t "$#o be inferre% th"t
it %e4en%# on " fin"$ ."-#e. If it i# tr-e th"t #omethin' m"y be the re#-$t of .h"n.e, it i#
$i2e5i#e tr-e th"t .h"n.e ."nnot be the #t"rtin' 4oint of "ny ."-#"$ or%er. o "##ert th"t
e6erythin' h"44en# by .h"n.e, i# to b$o.2 the 5"y to the #e"r.h for the re"#on of thin'#>
it i# t"nt"mo-nt to %enyin' the 6ery inte$$i'ibi$ity of bein'.
Hen.e, to #"y th"t e6ery effe.t m-#t h"6e " ."-#e 5hi.h i# %ire.te% to it# 4ro%-.tion i#
mere$y "nother 5"y of #t"tin' th"t e6ery 4o##ib$e thin' h"# " fin"$ ."-#e.
(((
herefore it
i# tr-e th"t 9#omethin' i# ."4"b$e of bein' or%ere% to "n en% be."-#e it i# 4ro%-.ib$e.9
((1
0-#t "# in the or%er of effi.ient ."-#e#, #o "$#o in the or%er of fin"$ ."-#e#, "n infinite
re're## i# im4o##ib$e. he %emon#tr"tion of thi# 4rin.i4$e "# "44$ie% to the or%er of
effi.ient ."-#e# i# e=-"$$y 6"$i% 5hen "44$ie% to the or%er of fin"$ ."-#e#. Hen.e the
.on.$-#ion m-#t be %r"5n th"t ali,uid finiti5um est primum* n"me$y, th"t " #-4reme fin"$
."-#e i# 4o##ib$e. Sin.e, on the other h"n%, to be tr-$y #-4reme " fin"$
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
((C
Ibid#* n. (+.
(((
Ibid#* n. ().
((1
De -rimo -rincipio, .h"4. II, n. 1.
,(81,
."-#e m-#t, $i2e the effecti5um primum* be in."-#"b$e, it fo$$o5# n"t-r"$$y th"t the
finiti5um primum* if 4o##ib$e, m-#t e7i#t.
T(e Most Perfect Be&n." he en% to 5hi.h " thin' i# or%ere% i# the me"#-re of it#
4erfe.tion. hi# me"n# th"t the hi'her the en% to 5hi.h " bein' i# %e#tine%, the more
4erfe.t i# the bein'. &here"# the hier"r.hy of en%# %etermine# the hier"r.hy of
4erfe.tion#, the or%er of fin"$ity e#t"b$i#he# the or%er of eminen.e. Hen.e the fir#t bein'
in the or%er of fin"$ity 5i$$ "$#o be the fir#t bein' in the or%er of 4erfe.tion> it 5i$$ be "
mo#t 4erfe.t bein'. It 5i$$ "$#o be in."-#"b$e. Bein' -n"b$e to h"6e " #-4erior en%, it ."n
h"6e no effi.ient ."-#e, "n% hen.e no ."-#e "t "$$. h-# the tr"n#ition from 4o##ibi$ity to
e7i#ten.e, 5hi.h h"# been 4ro6e% 6"$i% in the ."#e of " primum effecti5um "n% " primum
finiti5um* i# "$#o 6"$i% in the ."#e of " mo#t 4erfe.t bein'.
((B

Scot*s' Proofs 0s" St" T(o-as' F&0e a)s" By hi# threefo$% %emon#tr"tion D-n# S.ot-#
i# "b$e to e#t"b$i#h the e7i#ten.e of " bein' th"t i# the #-4reme effi.ient ."-#e, the
#-4reme fin"$ ."-#e, "n% #-4reme 4erfe.tion. If 5e no5 .om4"re the three S.oti#ti. 5"y#
5ith St. hom"#3 fi6e 5"y#, the fo$$o5in' ob#er6"tion# "re in or%er.
E(G &hi$e St. hom"#3 fi6e 5"y# "re in%e4en%ent of one "nother, #o th"t e".h one ."n be
.on#i%ere% "# "n "r'-ment in it# o5n ri'ht, D-n# S.ot-#3 three 5"y# "re $i2e three f$i'ht#
of the #"me #t"ir5"y, b-t in #-.h " 5"y th"t the #e.on% "n% the thir% f$i'ht ."n in t-rn
o..-4y the 4$".e of the fir#t.
E1G he $o'i."$ e$ement# of 5hi.h the S.oti#ti. 5"y# "re .om4o#e%, "re, "# in St. hom"#3
fir#t three 5"y#F " #t"rtin' 4oint> t5o 4rin.i4$e#,,fir#t, (non est possibile ,uod ali,uid sit
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
((B
+p# +.on#, (, %. 1, =. 1, n. (@.
,(8B,
causa efficiens sui ipsius* ( "n% #e.on%, (infinitas est impossibilis in ascendendo(7
((8
"n%
" .on.$-#ion. B-t 5hi$e S.ot-#3 t5o 4rin.i4$e# "re #-b#t"nti"$$y the #"me "# tho#e of St.
hom"#, the #t"rtin' 4oint, the .on#e=-en.e, "n% the .on.$-#ion "re %ifferent. St. hom"#
#t"rt# 5ith " f".t "n% "rri6e# "t " f".t> D-n# S.ot-# #t"rt# 5ith " 4o##ibi$ity "n% "rri6e# "t
" 4o##ibi$ity. he tr"n#ition from 4o##ibi$ity to e7i#ten.e i# m"%e by " 4ro.e## -n2no5n
to the !ri#tote$i"n ment"$ity. hi# 4ro.e##, "# 5e 4ointe% o-t 5hen %e"$in' 5ith the
S.oti#ti. .o$or"tion, remin%# -# of the $o'i."$ 4ro.e## of the !n#e$mi"n "r'-ment. Herein
to " 're"t e7tent $ie# the ori'in"$ity of the S.oti#ti. %emon#tr"tion, n"me$y, in bein' "
#ynthe#i# of St. hom"# "n% St. !n#e$m.
he 5e"2 4oint in St. !n#e$m3# "r'-ment i# hi# in#-ffi.ient %emon#tr"tion of the minorF
;o% i# 4o##ib$e. he mo#t one ."n %o by "n " 4riori in=-iry i# to #ho5 th"t the e7i#ten.e
of " mo#t 4erfe.t bein' i# neither im4o##ib$e nor "b#-r%. Perh"4# one ."n 'o " $itt$e
f-rther "n% #ho5 th"t it i# fittin' th"t #-.h " bein' e7i#t. Ho5e6er, thi# 5i$$ ne6er #-ffi.e
to 'i6e to the minor the 2in% of ne.e##ity "n "4o%i.ti. #y$$o'i#m %em"n%#. &h"t i# not
4o##ib$e " priori* D-n# S.ot-# m"2e# 4o##ib$e a posteriori# By -#in' the $o'i."$ 4ro.e##
of St. hom"#3 5"y# b"#e% on the 4rin.i4$e of ."-#"$ity, "n% by t"2in' "# hi# #t"rtin'
4oint the e##en.e of thin'# 5hi.h re6e"$# it#e$f "# ne.e##"ri$y 4o##ib$e, r"ther th"n their
e7i#ten.e, he i# "b$e to %emon#tr"te th"t the 4o##ibi$ity of thin'#, "$#o ne.e##"ri$y
in6o$6e# the 4o##ibi$ity of the fir#t "n% mo#t 4erfe.t ."-#e, ;o%. &hen the minor 4remi#e
h"# been th-# #tren'thene% "n% #-b#t"nti"te%, the !n#e$mi"n "r'-ment"tion "tt"in# in
D-n# S.ot-# it# f-$$ %emon#tr"ti6e 6"$-e.
It i# not o-r 4-r4o#e to %i#.-## here the effi.".y of S.ot-#3 re#.-e of the f"mo-#
onto$o'i."$ "r'-ment. Yet it 5i$$ not be
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
((8
Ibid#* n. ((.
,(88,
o-t of 4$".e to 4oint o-t the in'en-ity of hi# #4e.-$"tion, 5hi.h inf-#e# ne5 $ife into the
!-'-#tini"n inherit"n.e 5hi.h #eeme% to h"6e been .om4$ete$y %e#troye% by !ri#tote$i"n
"tt".2#.
EBG !nother 4oint of %ifferen.e bet5een the homi#ti. "n% the S.oti#ti. %emon#tr"tion i#
thi#F D-n# S.ot-# i# not .on6in.e% th"t he h"# #-..e##f-$$y %emon#tr"te% the e7i#ten.e of
;o% -nti$ he h"# "$#o %emon#tr"te% the e7i#ten.e of "n infinite bein'. &e #h"$$ therefore
re#-me o-r "..o-nt "n% fo$$o5 the $"#t %e6e$o4ment# of the S.oti#ti. "#.ent to ;o%.
T(e Un&c&t) of t(e F&rst Ca*se" he fir#t #te4 in 4ro6in' the e7i#ten.e of "n infinite
bein' i# to %emon#tr"te th"t the fir#t effi.ient ."-#e i# "$#o the fir#t fin"$ ."-#e "n% the
mo#t 4erfe.t bein'. hi# 5i$$ not be " %iffi.-$t t"#2.
One 5ho ".t# in 6irt-e of hi# o5n n"t-re %oe# not ".t ."#-"$$y b-t for "n en%> "n% one
5ho ".t# in 6irt-e of hi# o5n n"t-re "nte.e%ent$y to "nother "'ent ".t# "$#o for "n en%
#-4erior to th"t of the other "'ent. Con#e=-ent$y, the fir#t "'ent in "n "b#o$-te or%er ".t#
for the fir#tF en% in "n "b#o$-te or%er.
F-rther, the primum effecti5um ."nnot %e4en% on " fin"$ ."-#e %i#tin.t from it#e$f.
!..or%in'$y, the en% of it# ".tin' m-#t "$#o be it#e$f. h-#, be#i%e# bein' the fir#t
effi.ient ."-#e, the primum effecti5um i# "$#o the fir#t fin"$ ."-#e.
!'"in, in"#m-.h "# none of the thin'# 4ro%-.e%, either me%i"te$y or imme%i"te$y, by the
fir#t ."-#e ."n e=-"$ thi# #"me ."-#e in 4erfe.tion,,for the #im4$e re"#on th"t e".h of
tho#e thin'# i# 4ro%-.e% "n% %e4en%# on th"t ."-#e,,it fo$$o5# th"t the fir#t ."-#e i# "$#o
more 4erfe.t th"n "$$ the thin'# 4ro%-.e%. hi# i# e=-i6"$ent to #"yin' th"t the fir#t ."-#e
i# #-4reme$y eminent, th"t i#, the mo#t 4erfe.t e7i#tin' bein'.
hi# o4en# the 5"y to " %emon#tr"tion of the -ni.ity of ;o%. he bein' th"t i# fir#t in the
or%er of effi.ien.y, in the or%er of fin"$ity, "n% in the or%er of 4erfe.tion, i# in."-#"b$e,
e7i#t# in it# o5n ri'ht, "n% therefore e7i#t# by 6irt-e of "n intrin#i.
,(8A,
ne.e##ity !est e. se necesse esse$#
((A
Be."-#e of it# n"t-re, thi# bein' ."nnot "%mit
"nythin' th"t .ontr"%i.t# it# o5n e7i#ten.e "n% 4erfe.tion.
Let -# #-44o#e for " moment th"t t5o -n."-#e% "n% ne.e##"ry bein'# e7i#t "t the #"me
time. E6i%ent$y they 5i$$ h"6e to 4o##e##, "$on' 5ith the .ommon n"t-re of ne.e##"ry
bein'#, .ert"in .h"r".teri#ti.# th"t 5i$$ %i#tin'-i#h one from the other. 5o hy4othe#e#
"re then 4o##ib$e. Either the#e %i#tin.ti6e .h"r".teri#ti.# %em"n% by them#e$6e# the
ne.e##"ry e7i#ten.e of the bein' in 5hi.h they "re fo-n%, or they %o not. If they %o
%em"n% it, it me"n# th"t #-.h bein'# e7i#t ne.e##"ri$y in 6irt-e of t5o n"t-r"$ form#, one
bein' #h"re% in .ommon "n% the other bein' 4ro4er to e".h one in%i6i%-"$$y. B-t thi# i#
im4o##ib$e, for e6ery bein' i# 5h"t it i# in 6irt-e of one n"t-re "$one, 5here"# the#e
bein'# 5o-$% be ne.e##"ry in 6irt-e of t5o n"t-re#. If they %o not %em"n% it, 5e 5o-$%
h"6e the "b#-r%ity of " bein' 5hi.h i# 4"rti"$$y ne.e##"ry "n% 4"rti"$$y not ne.e##"ry.
he im4o##ibi$ity of the e7i#ten.e of t5o ne.e##"ry bein'# i# "$#o m"nife#t from the
.on#i%er"tion th"t there 5o-$% e7i#t in #-.h " ."#e t5o -$tim"te en%# of thin'#, one
in%e4en%ent of the other. hin'# 5o-$% th-# be or%ere% 4"rt$y to the fir#t en% "n% 4"rt$y
to the #e.on%, 5ith the re#-$t th"t they 5o-$% be #4$it "n% torn "4"rt 5ithin them#e$6e#.
hey 5o-$% be %i6i%e% bet5een t5o -ni6er#e#. h-# $o'i. "'ree# 4erfe.t$y 5ith
e74erien.e, 5hi.h be"r# "n e6er,in.re"#in' 5itne## to the h"rmonio-# -nity of the
-ni6er#e, in 4ro.$"imin' the -ni.ity of the fir#t ."-#e.
INTELLECT AND ILL IN #OD
H"6in' #t-%ie% the fir#t ."-#e in it# re$"tion to the 5or$%, it i# no5 time to #t-%y it in
it#e$f. he fir#t tr-th th"t for.e#
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
((A
+p# +.on#, (, %. 1, =. 1, n. (*.
,(8+,
it#e$f -4on o-r min% in thi# ne5 "44ro".h i# thi#F the fir#t ."-#e -n%er#t"n%# "n% 5i$$#.
he or%er ob#er6e% in the -ni6er#e ."n be "%e=-"te$y e74$"ine% on$y by "%mittin' th"t "$$
thin'# ".t not mere$y by .h"n.e, b-t "..or%in' to "n intern"$ %i#4o#ition th"t %etermine#
them to ".t one 5"y r"ther th"n "nother. hi# i# "nother 5"y of #"yin' th"t the -ni6er#e i#
or%ere% be."-#e it i# en%o5e% 5ith fin"$ity.
If thi# i# tr-e of the -ni6er#e, it m-#t be m-.h tr-er of the fir#t ."-#e, 5ho#e ".tion# ."n
in no 5"y be $eft to the mer.y of .h"n.e. !# 4re6io-#$y #t"te%, the fir#t ."-#e ."nnot
o4er"te e7.e4t on the b"#i# of 4erfe.t in%e4en%en.e "n% e7.$-#i6e$y in 6irt-e of it# o5n
n"t-re. Hen.e the fir#t ."-#e m-#t "$#o ".t in "n or%er$y 5"y, th"t i#, for "n en%.
!$on' 5ith or%er, 5e ob#er6e th"t the -ni6er#e i# r-$e% by ne.e##ity. M"ny bein'# ".t
"..or%in' to or%er 5itho-t bein' "5"re of it. Stri.t$y #4e"2in', "# f"r "# they "re
.on.erne%, they 5o-$% ".t e6en 5itho-t "n en% in #i'ht. Yet, #in.e their ".tion# ten%
to5"r% "n en%, they m-#t ".t in %e4en%en.e on " fir#t ."-#e 5hi.h $o6e# their en% in them
"n% for them. It i# " free$y .ho#en "n% free$y $o6e% en%. If it 5ere other5i#e, th"t i#, if the
fir#t ."-#e ten%e% by ne.e##ity to5"r% thi# en%, then the ."-#e 5o-$% be .ontro$$e% by the
en%. S-.h " #-44o#ition m-#t be reJe.te%, for it %e#troy# the in%e4en%en.e e##enti"$ to the
fir#t ."-#e.
h-# the fir#t M"2er -n%er#t"n%# "n% $o6e#. F-rthermore, in Him inte$$e.t "n% 5i$$ "re
one "n% the #"me "# Hi# e##en.e. hi# i# "$#o %em"n%e% by Hi# 4erfe.tion. &e m-#t
brief$y .on#i%er thi# 4oint.
/no5$e%'e "n% $o6e of the fir#t en% mo6e# the fir#t ."-#e to ".t> b-t the fir#t fin"$ ."-#e,
"# 5e h"6e #een, i# to be i%entifie% 5ith the fir#t effi.ient ."-#e. Hen.e ;o% ".t#
in"#m-.h "# He 2no5# Him#e$f "n% $o6e# Him#e$f. No5, the ".t by 5hi.h ;o% $o6e#
Him#e$f "# "n en% ."nnot be ."-#e%. In%ee%, it .o-$% be ."-#e% on$y by the %i6ine 5i$$.
B-t 5hy #ho-$% the %i6ine 5i$$ ten% to ;o%, e7.e4t be."-#e it 2no5# "n% $o6e#
,(8),
HimL h-# "n ".t of $o6e 5o-$% %e4en% on "nother ".t of $o6e> ;o% 5o-$% $o6e Him#e$f
be."-#e He $o6e# Him#e$f, "n% #o on to infinity, 5hi.h i# .ontr"%i.tory "n% me"nin'$e##.
Con#e=-ent$y, the $o6e ;o% h"# for Him#e$f in"#m-.h "# He i# the fin"$ ."-#e of Hi# o5n
".ti6ity m-#t be "n "b#o$-te first "# i# Hi# o5n ".ti6ity. o #"y first in "n "b#o$-te #en#e
"n% to #"y in."-#"b$e "re one "n% the #"me thin'.
On the other h"n%, th"t 5hi.h i# in."-#"b$e i# ne.e##"ry, "n%, #in.e on$y ;o% i# the
ne.e##"ry bein' e. se* it fo$$o5# th"t the ".t by 5hi.h the fir#t ."-#e 2no5# "n% $o6e#
it#e$f "# "n en% i# to be i%entifie% 5ith the ."-#e it#e$f.
!'"in, by th"t #"me ".t by 5hi.h ;o% 2no5# "n% $o6e# Him#e$f, He 2no5# "n% $o6e# "$$
4o##ib$e thin'#. !.t-"$$y the fir#t ."-#e 5i$$# "n% 4ro%-.e# other thin'# in"#m-.h "# it
$o6e# the fir#t en%, 5hi.h i# nothin' b-t it#e$f. B-t nothin' ."n be 5i$$e% 5hi.h i# not
2no5n fir#t. E6i%ent$y, then, ;o% $o6e# other thin'# be."-#e of Him#e$f, n"me$y,
in"#m-.h "# He $o6e# Him#e$f. !n% #in.e He ."nnot 5i$$ the#e thin'# 5itho-t 2no5in'
them, it i# ne.e##"ry th"t the ".t by 5hi.h He 2no5# "n% $o6e# them be " 4rim"ry ".t, $i2e
the ".t by 5hi.h He 2no5# "n% $o6e# Hi# o5n %i6ine e##en.e.
F-rther, to "%mit #-..e##ion "n% %i6er#ity of ".t# in ;o% i# in.on.ei6"b$e "n% "b#-r%. It
5o-$% be $i2e intro%-.in' "..i%ent"$ity "n% 4otenti"$ity into ;o%, "n% #o re%-.e the
"b#o$-te 4erfe.tion of the primum effecti5um* 5hi.h %em"n%# th"t ;o% h"6e " mo#t
".t-"$ 2no5$e%'e of 5h"t He ."n 4ro%-.e. Not on$y th"t, b-t ;o% h"# " %i#tin.t
2no5$e%'e of "$$ 4o##ib$e "n% re"$ bein'#, 4rior to "ny 2in% of re"$ity they mi'ht h"6e or
"tt"in. he obJe.t of the inte$$e.t i# bein' in "$$ it# 4o##ib$e e7ten#ion. !..or%in'$y, on$y
th"t inte$$e.t i# 4erfe.t 5hi.h 2no5#, not .onf-#e%$y, b-t %i#tin.t$y "n% ".t-"$$y, "$$ th"t
in #ome 5"y or other 4"rti.i4"te# in the n"t-re of bein' !ratio entis$# Sin.e the %i6ine
inte$$e.t i# one "n% the #"me "# the e##en.e of thi# fir#t ."-#e, it fo$$o5# th"t, $i2e the fir#t
."-#e it#e$f, it m-#t be 4erfe.t$y "n% ne.e##"ri$y in ".t. If 5e no5
,(8@,
ho$% th"t "$$ the bein'# %i#tin.t from the fir#t ."-#e "re not ne.e##"ry,,the ne.e##"ry bein'
i# on$y one,,"n% e7i#t on$y %e4en%ent$y on the ".tion of the primum effecti5um* 5e "re
bo-n% to "%mit th"t the ".t by 5hi.h ;o% 2no5# the#e bein'# i# 4rior to themF fir#t,
be."-#e by n"t-re the ne.e##"ry "$5"y# 4re.e%e# the .ontin'ent, "n% #e.on%, be."-#e the
fir#t ."-#e ".t# on$y to the e7tent th"t it 2no5#.
It i# on$y "t thi# 4oint th"t D-n# S.ot-# be$ie6e# th"t he h"# "t h"n% the $o'i."$ e$ement#
nee%e% to %emon#tr"te th"t the fir#t ."-#e i# infinite. 9H"6in' e#t"b$i#he% the#e
4re$imin"ry 4oint#, I #h"$$ no5 %emon#tr"te in fo-r 5"y# the infinity Hof ;o%I.9
((+
&e
#h"$$ fo$$o5 him in thi# %emon#tr"tion.
#OD'S INFINITY
he fir#t #erie# of "r'-ment# th"t $e"%# -# to "ttrib-te infinity to ;o% i# b"#e% on " tr-th
"$re"%y ".=-ire%, n"me$y, th"t He i# the fir#t ."-#e of "$$ thin'#. If !ri#tot$e3# o4inion th"t
the 5or$% i# etern"$ 5ere tr-e, the infinite 4o5er of ;o% 5o-$% thereby be %emon#tr"te%.
B-t 5hi$e it i# %iffi.-$t to %emon#tr"te 5ith 4o#iti6e "r'-ment# th"t the 5or$% h"# been
4ro%-.e% from "$$ eternity, "n% .on#e=-ent$y th"t it# .h"n'e# "re infinite, it i# not "t "$$
%iffi.-$t to .on.ei6e the 4o##ibi$ity on ;o%3# 4"rt of .on#er6in' the 5or$% fore6er.
Other5i#e #t"te%, it i# e"#y to "%mit th"t the fir#t ."-#e ."n 4ro%-.e "n infinity of effe.t#
in 6irt-e of it# o5n 4o5er "n% 5itho-t the he$4 of "ny other ."-#e.
hi# =-e#tion $e"6e# o-r %emon#tr"tion int".t. In one ."#e "# in the other, the fir#t ."-#e
m-#t ".t-"$$y 4o##e## "n infinite 4o5er, e6en tho-'h, be."-#e of the n"t-re of the effe.t#,
it ne6er %i#4$"y# it, or 5i$$ ne6er be "b$e to %i#4$"y it in it# .om4$ete 4o##ib$e e7ten#ion. It
i# im4ort"nt to 2ee4 in min% th"t
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
((+
+p# +.on#, I, %. 1, =. 1, n. 1A.
,(8*,
nothin' ."n h"44en e7.e4t by the 4o5er of the fir#t ."-#e, in #-.h 5i#e th"t "$$ effi.ien.y
m-#t be bro-'ht b".2 to the effi.ien.y of ;o%, 5ho#e 4o5er i# re#4on#ib$e for "$$ re"$ or
4o##ib$e thin'#. If there i# no $imit in the n-mber of 4o##ib$e effe.t#, there ."n be no
$imit# in the 4o5er th"t i# "b$e to 4ro%-.e them in%e4en%ent$y of other ."-#e#, th"t i#
#-bJe.t to no other 4o5er, "n% th"t i# 4erfe.t$y ".t-"$ "n% 5itho-t #-..e##ion.
(()

;o%, $et -# re4e"t, 2no5# e6en before He ".t#. Sin.e inte$$i'ib$e bein'#, J-#t "# 4o##ib$e
bein'#, "re infinite, it i# on$y $o'i."$ to #"y th"t ;o% 2no5# "n infinity of thin'#. O-r
inte$$e.t, too, in"#m-.h "# it# obJe.t i# bein' in it# f-$$ e7ten#ion, enJoy# "n ".ti6ity th"t i#
#omeho5 -n$imite% !,uodammodo illimitata$# Yet 5e ."nnot #"y th"t o-r inte$$e.t i#
infinite in the 5"y th"t the %i6ine inte$$e.t i# infinite. &e 2no5 one thin' "fter "nother, in
#-..e##ion> ;o% 2no5# "$$ thin'# #im-$t"neo-#$y. He h"# not on$y the ."4".ity to 2no5
them, b-t He 2no5# them in ".t. &e "rri6e "t " 2no5$e%'e of thin'# thro-'h "
m-$ti4$i.ity of .on.e4t# 5hi.h 5e ."n re%-.e to -nity on$y 5ith %iffi.-$ty, 5hi$e the
%i6ine inte$$e.t 2no5# "$$ thin'# %i#tin.t$y in the 4erfe.t -nity of the %i6ine e##en.e. O-r
inte$$e.ti6e ".t %e4en%# not on$y on the ".ti6ity of the #o-$ b-t "$#o on the thin' 2no5n,
5here"# the %i6ine inte$$e.t 2no5# "$$ thin'# 4erfe.t$y by 6irt-e of it# 4o5er "$one.
&hether thin'# e7i#t or not %oe# not m"2e "ny %ifferen.e to the 4erfe.tion of %i6ine
2no5$e%'eF the ".t-"$ e7i#ten.e of thin'# "%%# nothin' to it.
!n inte$$e.t th"t 2no5# the 5ho$e infinity of 4o##ib$e thin'# in one ".t, mo#t 4erfe.t$y,
"n% in 6irt-e of it# o5n 4o5er, m-#t be infinite. 0-#t "# 're"ter #tren'th i# nee%e% to ."rry
ten obJe.t# th"n fi6e, #o 're"ter ".ti6ity i# nee%e% to 2no5 t5o thin'# th"n one. If thin'#
"re infinite in n-mber, to 2no5 them
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(()
Ibid#
,(AC,
"$$, t"2en to'ether "n% yet %i#tin.t$y, "n infinite ".ti6ity i# re=-ire%.
((@

he t5o fore'oin' .on#i%er"tion# 4oint to the nee% of "%mittin' "n infinite bein' "t the
ori'in of "$$ thin'#. he t5o .on#i%er"tion# to fo$$o5 5i$$ #ho5 th"t the fin"$ ."-#e m-#t
"$#o be infinite.
By intern"$ e74erien.e 5e 2no5 th"t o-r 5i$$ i# ne6er f-$$y #"ti#fie% 5ith the 'oo%# of
thi# 5or$%> it i# "$5"y# re"%y to #ee2 "n% $o6e #omethin' 're"ter "n% #omethin' better, "#
#oon "# "n i%e" of it .ome# to min%. !# i# e6i%ent, it 5i$$ re#t on$y in the 4o##e##ion of "
'oo% th"t in.$-%e# "$$ 'oo%#, " 'oo% th"t i# "$$ 'oo%# to'ether, 5ith no e7.$-#ion or
#-..e##ion. No5 " 'oo% th"t #-m# -4 in it#e$f "$$ 'oo%# in " 4erfe.t "n% #im-$t"neo-#
".t-"$ity, #o th"t no other 'oo% not "$re"%y .ont"ine% in it eminent$y, th"t i#, in the mo#t
4erfe.t m"nner, ."n e7i#t, i# 4re.i#e$y "n infinite 'oo%. herefore, it m-#t be #"i% th"t o-r
5i$$, 5hi.h h"# the 'oo% for it# obJe.t, %oe# not f$ee from "n infinite 'oo% "# from
#omethin' "b#-r%, b-t e6en .r"6e# for it 5ith " 4rofo-n%, intim"te Joy.
he #"me ob#er6"tion ho$%# tr-e for the inte$$e.t. he obJe.t of the inte$$e.t i# bein'. O-r
inte$$e.t %oe# not #hrin2 from the tho-'ht of "n infinite bein' "# #omethin' .ontr"%i.tory,
b-t, on the .ontr"ry, it #oon %i#.o6er# by ref$e.tion th"t on$y the infinite bein' i# bein' in
the f-$$ #en#e of the term, "n% th"t no other bein' i# e=-"$$y inte$$i'ib$e. No one i# more
.om4etent to %o " .ert"in thin' th"n one born for th"t 4"rti.-$"r thin'. Hen.e if the 5i$$
#ho5# by it# 5"y of ".tin' th"t no other 'oo% i# e=-"$ to the infinite 'oo%, "n% if the
inte$$e.t #ho5# $i2e5i#e th"t no other bein' i# e=-"$ to the infinite bein', it i# .$e"r th"t
the note of infinity .onf$i.t# neither 5ith the i%e" of the 'oo% nor 5ith th"t of bein'.
!'"in, 5hen it 5"# e#t"b$i#he% th"t the fir#t effi.ient "n% fin"$ ."-#e i# fir#t "$#o in the
or%er of 4erfe.tion, it 5"# 4ro6e%
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
((@
Ibid#* n. BC.
,(A(,
"t the #"me time th"t th"t ."-#e i# the mo#t 4erfe.t e7i#tin' re"$ity. Sin.e the 5i$$ ."n
"$5"y# %e#ire " 'oo% th"t i# 're"ter th"n "ny finite 'oo%, "n% #in.e the inte$$e.t ."n
"$5"y# thin2 of " bein' th"t i# more 4erfe.t th"n "ny finite bein', it i# e6i%ent th"t neither
'oo% nor bein' ."n be tr-$y mo#t 4erfe.t -n$e## it i# infinite. Nor ."n ;o% be tr-$y the
#-4reme fin"$ ."-#e "n% the fir#t bein' in the or%er of 4erfe.tion -n$e## He i# infinite.
((*

No one 5i$$ f"i$ to #ee th"t the#e .on#i%er"tion# $e"% to one .on.$-#ionF the infinite m-#t
e7i#t be."-#e my 5i$$ %e#ire# it "n% my inte$$e.t .on.ei6e# it. hi# #t"tement m-#t of
.o-r#e be -n%er#too% 5ithin the !-'-#tini"n ."#t of tho-'ht th"t no "%e=-"te e74$"n"tion
."n be 'i6en for the ten%en.y of the 5i$$ "n% the inte$$e.t to5"r% the infinite, -n$e## the
infinite ".t-"$$y e7i#t#F "n "ffirm"tion th"t h"# no me"nin' in the !ri#tote$i"n 'no#eo$o'y,
for 5hi.h the i%e" of the infinite h"# " 4-re$y ne'"ti6e 6"$-e.
h-# 5e re"$i<e "'"in th"t D-n# S.ot-#3 'no#eo$o'y, .h"r".teri<e% by the %o.trine of3 the
4ro4er obJe.t of the inte$$e.t "n% the re$"te% theory of the -ni6o.ity of bein', m"2e# it
4o##ib$e for him to "..e4t 5h"t 5"# mo#t 4rofo-n% "n% e##enti"$ in the !-'-#tini"n
tr"%ition "n% to re6it"$i<e it in " ne5 #ynthe#i#.
For D-n# S.ot-# the %emon#tr"tion of ;o%3# e7i#ten.e re"$$y en%# on$y "t thi# 4oint. he
re"#on i# .$e"r. he fir#t "n% mo#t f-n%"ment"$ %i#tin.tion of bein' i# th"t %etermine% by
the intrin#i. mo%e# of finite "n% infinite. !# h"# been #ho5n, it i# "n "b#o$-te %i#tin.tion
5ith no re#tri.tion 5h"t#oe6er, #o th"t on the met"4hy#i."$ 4$"ne the infinite bein' h"#
nothin' in .ommon 5ith the finite bein'. he tr"n#.en%en.e of the former in re'"r% to the
$"tter i# .om4$ete "n% 4erfe.t. Infinity i# th-# for D-n# S.ot-# the r"%i."$ "ttrib-te of ;o%,
5hi.h,
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
((*
Ibid#* n. B(.
,(A1,
more th"n "ny other "ttrib-te, .h"r".teri<e# Him in hi# "b#o$-te -ni.ity "n% 4erfe.tion.
(1C
If 5e 2ee4 the#e ob#er6"tion# in min%, 5e #h"$$ re"%i$y -n%er#t"n% 5hy for the S-bt$e
Do.tor the %emon#tr"tion of ;o%3# e7i#ten.e i# e=-i6"$ent to the %emon#tr"tion of the
e7i#ten.e of "n infinite bein'. he re#-$t of thi# 4ro.e%-re i# th"t the fir#t 4"rt of theo%i.y,
the %emon#tr"tion of ;o%3# e7i#ten.e, i# intim"te$y .onne.te% "n% f-#e% 5ith the #e.on%
4"rt, th"t i#, the %e%-.tion of the "b#o$-te "ttrib-te# of ;o%.
#OD AND THE UNI/ERSE
he %emon#tr"ti6e 4ro.e##, by 5hi.h 5e "#.en% from .re"t-re# to ;o%, i# fo$$o5e% by
the o44o#ite 4ro.e## th"t #ho5# ho5 thin'# 4ro.ee% from ;o%. For the #"2e of bre6ity 5e
#h"$$ 4"## o6er the %o.trine# th"t D-n# S.ot-# ho$%# in .ommon 5ith the 5ho$e #.ho$"#ti.
tr"%ition, "n% mention on$y tho#e .h"r".teri#ti. of hi# #y#tem 5hi.h re4re#ent hi#
4er#on"$ .ontrib-tion, " ne5 note in the h"rmonio-# 5ho$e of Chri#ti"n 4hi$o#o4hy.
In #ho5in' ho5 .re"te% bein'# 4ro.ee% from ;o%, D-n# S.ot-#3 m"in 4reo..-4"tion i# to
em4h"#i<e both ;o%3# free%om "n% the r"%i."$ .ontin'en.y of thin'#. ;o%, the mo#t
4erfe.t ."-#e of the -ni6er#e, habet rationem secundum ,uam format*
(1(
th"t i#, He
2no5# thin'# before He .re"te# them. Hen.e, from "$$ eternity, He h"# 5ithin Him#e$f the
i%e" of "$$ thin'# He 5i$$ %r"5 o-t of nothin' or h"# the 4o5er to %r"5 o-t of nothin'.
Before .onferrin' e7i#ten.e on thin'#, He h"# " 4erfe.t 2no5$e%'e of their e##en.e.
he#e "re .ommon notion# on 5hi.h 5e nee% not in#i#t f-rther. B-t 5h"t i# the
fo-n%"tion of the e##en.e or i%e" of re"$ "n% 4o##ib$e thin'#L St. hom"#, "# 5e$$ "# the
5ho$e
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(1C
+p# +.on#, (, %. B, =. 1, n. ().
(1(
Ibid#* %. BA, =. -ni.", n. (1.
,(AB,
#.ho$"#ti. tr"%ition before D-n# S.ot-#, e74$"in# the ori'in of the rationes aeternae in
;o% in the fo$$o5in' 5"y. he %i6ine e##en.e i# by n"t-re imit"b$e in infinite 5"y#>
hen.e the inte$$e.t th"t 2no5# 4erfe.t$y the %i6ine e##en.e, 2no5# it not on$y in it#e$f b-t
"$#o in it# infinite re$"tion# of imit"bi$ity ad e.tra# h-# in the -ni=-e "n% mo#t 4erfe.t
".t by 5hi.h ;o% 2no5# Him#e$f "re .ont"ine% the i%e" of ;o% "n% the i%e"# of "$$
4o##ib$e e##en.e#, 5hi.h "re b-t imit"tion# of the %i6ine e##en.e.
D-n# S.ot-# i# not .om4$ete$y #"ti#fie% 5ith thi# 5"y of .on#i%erin' the $o'i."$ moment#
in the %i6ine 2no5$e%'e. &h"t he %oe# not $i2e in thi# theory i# the $o'i."$ 4riority th"t
4o##ib$e e##en.e# obt"in, #o to #4e"2, o6er the ".t of the %i6ine inte$$e.t. If, in%ee%, the
re$"tion# of imit"bi$ity bet5een the %i6ine e##en.e "n% the e##en.e# of .re"te% or
4ro%-.ib$e thin'# h"6e their fo-n%"tion in the %i6ine e##en.e "# #-.h, it 5i$$ no $on'er be
4o##ib$e to #"y th"t ;o%3# inte$$e.t 4ro%-.e# the i%e"# of thin'#. R"ther 5e #h"$$ h"6e to
#"y th"t the %i6ine inte$$e.t #im4$y t"2e# noti.e of the#e i%e"#, 5hi.h it "$re"%y fin%# in
it#e$f. On the other h"n%, it i# im4o##ib$e to 2no5 " re$"tion#hi4, 5hi.h of it# n"t-re
im4$ie# referen.e to "nother, 5itho-t "$#o 2no5in', in "%%ition to it# 4rin.i4$e, it#
termin-#. Hen.e it fo$$o5# th"t the %i6ine inte$$e.t 5o-$% #omeho5 be %e4en%ent -4on
thin'#, #in.e they "re the termini of the re$"tion# th"t r"%i"te, to -#e " .on.rete e74re##ion,
in "$$ %ire.tion# from the %i6ine e##en.e.
9hi# #eem# to 6i$ify the %i6ine inte$$e.t, 5hi.h in thi# ."#e be.ome# 4"##i6e in re'"r% to
the obJe.t# 2no5n thro-'h the#e rationes# he 2no5$e%'e of the#e rationes on the 4"rt of
the %i6ine inte$$e.t 5o-$% be %etermine% by the 4re#en.e of the obJe.t#.9
(11

Brief$y, the re"#on"b$ene## of thin'# 5o-$% not on$y h"6e it# fo-n%"tion in the %i6ine
e##en.e, b-t 5o-$% in " .ert"in #en#e
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(11
Ibid#* n. A.
,(A8,
"$re"%y be e74re##e% in it. he %i6ine inte$$e.t 5o-$% on$y h"6e to be.ome .on#.io-# of
it.
For the %i6ine inte$$e.t to enJoy th"t "b#o$-te in%e4en%en.e "n% 4riority !primitas$ 5hi.h
be$on'# to ;o%3# ".ti6ity, it i# ne.e##"ry to 4$".e in it the imme%i"te fo-n%"tion of "$$
i%e"#. F-rthermore, the %i6ine e##en.e i# in it#e$f #-ffi.ient to be"tify ;o%3# inte$$e.t. hi#
tr-th, "bo-t 5hi.h no %o-bt i# 4o##ib$e, .o-$% not be #"6e% if 9the %i6ine e##en.e "# #-.h,
4re#.in%in' from "ny re"$ or $o'i."$ re$"tion, 9
(1B
5ere not the obJe.t of the %i6ine
inte$$e.tion 5hi.h i# 4erfe.t$y one 5ith it.
o "6oi% #-.h %iffi.-$tie#, one m-#t $oo2 "t the $o'i."$ moment# of the %i6ine 2no5$e%'e
in " %ifferent 5"y. It #ho-$% be %one "# fo$$o5#. In the fir#t moment, ;o% 2no5# Hi#
e##en.e "# #-.h, n"me$y, "# "n infinite #e" of 4erfe.tion#. In the #e.on% moment, He
2no5# 4ro%-.ib$e thin'#, 5hi.h th-# be'in to e7i#t in"#m-.h "# they "re the obJe.t# of
;o%3# tho-'ht. In the thir% moment, it m"y be #"i% th"t the %i6ine inte$$e.t .om4"re# the
thin'# 2no5n 5ith "$$ other inte$$i'ib$e# "n% 5ith it# o5n inte$$e.tion. Fin"$$y, in the
fo-rth moment it ref$e.t#, "# it 5ere, -4on thi# re$"tion bet5een the thin'# 2no5n "n% it#
o5n inte$$e.t.
(18
h-#, "..or%in' to D-n# S.ot-#, ;o% %oe# not 2no5 the 4o##ib$e#
be."-#e they "re ne.e##"ry imit"tion# of the %i6ine e##en.e, b-t the 4o##ib$e# "re
imit"tion# of the %i6ine e##en.e be."-#e ;o% 2no5# them "n% 4ro%-.e# them in esse
intelligibili# !..or%in'$y, ;o% .re"te# not mere$y the e7i#ten.e of thin'# b-t "$#o their
e##en.e. he ."-#e of the former i# the ".t of the %i6ine 5i$$> the ."-#e of the $"tter i# the
".t of the %i6ine inte$$e.t.
E6i%ent$y, 4-re$y 4o##ib$e bein'#, in the #"me 5"y "# bein'# ".t-"$$y .re"te%, h"6e been
2no5n to ;o% from "$$ eternity. Yet 5e "re not thereby "-thori<e% to m"2e f"n.if-$
#-44o#ition# "bo-t " #o,."$$e% esse essentiae* or "n i%e"$, etern"$ e7i#t,
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(1B
Ibid#
(18
Ibid#* n. (C.
,(AA,
en.e of thin'# #omeho5 %i#tin.t from the inte$$e.t of ;o%. Before their .re"tion, thin'#
h"6e no e7i#ten.e e7.e4t in#of"r "# they "re .on.ei6e% by ;o%. heir etern"$ re"$ity i# to
be 4$".e% entire$y in the re"$ity of the etern"$, mo#t ".t-"$, %i6ine inte$$e.t, to 5hi.h they
"re 4re#ent #o$e$y in 6irt-e of it# infinite 4erfe.tion.
(1A
;o% 2no5# the e##en.e of thin'#
on e7".t$y the #"me b"#i# "# He 2no5# their e7i#ten.e, n"me$y, "# "n e7i'en.y of Hi#
mo#t 4erfe.t inte$$e.t to 5hi.h nothin' ."n be ne5 or -n2no5n.
In thi# or%er of i%e"#, it 5i$$ be re"%i$y -n%er#too% th"t the ne.e##ity of the 4o##ib$e# "n%
the e##en.e# i# not " 4erfe.tion of thin'# in them#e$6e#, b-t re#t# e7.$-#i6e$y on the
4erfe.tion of the %i6ine min%. he %e4en%en.e of thin'# on ;o% i# th-# tot"$ "n%
"b#o$-te.
From "mon' the infinity of 4o##ib$e thin'#, the %i6ine 5i$$ .hoo#e# from "$$ eternity the
bein'# th"t "t " .ert"in moment 5i$$ be ."$$e% into e7i#ten.e. h"t "$$ bein'#, o-t#i%e of
;o%, "re .ontin'ent, i# " f".t of e74erien.e "# 5e$$ "# " tr-th of imme%i"te e6i%en.e.
&here"# on the b"#i# of the 4re6io-# .on#i%er"tion# the e7i#ten.e of finite "n% .ontin'ent
bein'# .om4e$# -# to "ffirm the e7i#ten.e of "n infinite "n% ne.e##"ry bein', it i# not
4o##ib$e to infer the e7i#ten.e of .ontin'ent bein'# from the e7i#ten.e of ;o%. 9In%ee%,
from the e7i#ten.e of the more 4erfe.t it %oe# not fo$$o5 th"t the im4erfe.t m-#t "$#o
e7i#t.9
(1+
Yet, the 4ro4o#ition th"t #ome bein' i# .ontin'ent E"$i=-o% en# e##e .ontin'en#G
i# in it#e$f #o e6i%ent "n% .ert"in, th"t tho#e 5ho %eny it 9"re to be e74o#e% to 4hy#i."$
tort-re -nti$ they "%mit the 4o##ibi$ity th"t they be #4"re% #-.h " tort-re. hey #ho-$% be
tre"te% the #"me 5"y "# tho#e 5ho %eny the fir#t 4rin.i4$e# %e#er6e to be tre"te%.9
(1)

DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(1A
See the 5ho$e %i#t. B+, =. -ni.", for " thoro-'h %i#.-##ion of thi# 4oint.
(1+
+p# +.on#, I, %. B*, =. -ni.", n. (B.
(1)
Ibid#
,(A+,
&e h"6e therefore the ri'ht to "#2 o-r#e$6e#, 5itho-t f-rther "%o, ho5 i# it 4o##ib$e th"t
.ontin'ent bein'# "re #-.h, or 5h"t i# the re"#on for .ontin'ent bein'#L !$$ C"tho$i.
thin2er#, ob#er6e# D-n# S.ot-#, "re of the o4inion th"t there .o-$% be no .ontin'ent bein'
if the fir#t ."-#e h"% not .re"te% "t $e"#t #omethin' contingenter* th"t i#, free$y. o m"2e
.ontin'en.y in bein'# %e4en% on the free%om of #e.on%"ry ."-#e#, "# !ri#tot$e "n%
!6i.enn" %o, i# im4o##ib$e. In f".t, " mo6in' ."-#e th"t mo6e# in"#m-.h "# it i# mo6e%,,
"n% thi# i# the ."#e of "$$ ."-#e# e7.e4t the fir#t one,,mo6e# ne.e##"ri$y if it i# mo6e%
ne.e##"ri$y !si necessario mo5etur* necessario mo5et$#
(1@
h-# if ;o% h"% 4ro%-.e%
ne.e##"ri$y the #e.on%"ry ."-#e#, none of them 5o-$% be "b$e to 4ro%-.e "nythin' free$y.
B-t #in.e ;o% ".t# in"#m-.h "# He 2no5# "n% 5i$$#, the .ontin'en.y of thin'# 5i$$ h"6e
it# root either in Hi# inte$$e.t or in Hi# 5i$$. he inte$$e.t i# o-t of the =-e#tion, for
5h"te6er ;o% 2no5#, He 2no5# ne.e##"ri$y. It rem"in# to be #een 5h"t 2in% of
re$"tion#hi4 5i$$ e7i#t bet5een the %i6ine 5i$$ "n% .re"te% thin'#, #o th"t the#e m"y be
."$$e%, "# they re"$$y "re, .ontin'ent bein'#.
o #4e"2 of 5i$$ i# t"nt"mo-nt to #4e"2in' of free%om. ! 5i$$ th"t i# not free i# "n
in#tin.t, "n in.$in"tion, not " 5i$$ in the e7".t me"nin' of the term. he free%om of the
%i6ine 5i$$, D-n# S.ot-# 4oint# o-t, %oe# not im4$y ne.e##"ri$y the 4o##ibi$ity of
.h"n'in' it# o5n %e.i#ion#, 5hi.h i# " #i'n of im4erfe.tion> nor %oe# it im4$y the
4o##ibi$ity of 5i$$in' "n% not 5i$$in' " thin' "t one "n% the #"me time, 5hi.h i# "b#-r%, "#
it %e#troy# the 5i$$> it im4$ie# mere$y th"t ;o% ."n 5i$$ %ifferent thin'# in Hi# -ni=-e "n%
infinite ".t. Here "n e74$"n"tion i# in or%er.
he h-m"n 5i$$ i# free, for it i# not %etermine% to one thin' r"ther th"n to "nother "n% ."n
5i$$ t5o thin'# in #-..e##ion by t5o %ifferent ".t#. hi# #-..e##ion of ".t# ."nnot
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(1@
Ibid#* n. (1.
,(A),
of .o-r#e be "%mitte% in the %i6ine 5i$$F it i# free, b-t "t the #"me time it i# 4erfe.t$y
".t-"$, "n% therefore imm-t"b$e. o #"6e the#e t5o ne.e##"ry 4rero'"ti6e# of the %i6ine
5i$$, one m-#t #"y th"t ;o% embr".e# by " #in'$e ".t "$$ thin'# th"t ."n be 5i$$e%, e6en
tho#e th"t "re o44o#e% "mon' them#e$6e# "n% ."n be 5i$$e% by m"n on$y by t5o %i#tin.t
".t#. If the %i6ine 5i$$ 5ere in.$ine% on$y to5"r% .ert"in 4o##ib$e thin'#, it 5o-$% not be
infinite b-t $imite% in it# ".t of 5i$$in'. On the other h"n%, it ."nnot be %enie% th"t m"ny
4o##ib$e thin'# e7.$-%e one "nother. For e7"m4$e, it i# 4o##ib$e for me to be 5ritin' "t
thi# moment, J-#t "# it i# 4o##ib$e for me not to be 5ritin'> yet, my ".t of 5ritin' e7.$-%e#
it# o44o#ite. By one ".t of the 5i$$ I ."n %etermine my#e$f to 5rite, "n% by "nother ".t I
."n %e.i%e not to 5rite, b-t I ."nnot be #im-$t"neo-#$y in ".t in re'"r% to both thin'#
to'ether. he h-m"n 5i$$ i# th-# in%etermine% in re'"r% to t5o thin'# on$y before it i# in
".t, before it 5i$$#. On.e I %etermine my#e$f to one thin', I ."n no $on'er be in ".t in
re'"r% to the other. My 5i$$ i# .om4$ete$y 4o##e##e%, "# it 5ere, by the obJe.t ".t-"$$y
5i$$e%.
&ith re'"r% to ;o%3# 5i$$, thin'# "re %ifferent. By e7.$-%in' from it, "# 5e m-#t, "ny
#-..e##ion of ".t#, "n% by "%mittin' th"t it# obJe.t i# e6erythin' th"t #omeho5 or other
."n be 5i$$e%, one m-#t #"y th"t ;o%3# 5i$$, .on#i%ere% both "# " 4o5er "n% "# "n ".t,
%oe# not ten% of ne.e##ity to5"r% "ny 4"rti.-$"r thin', "n% it i# therefore "$5"y# 4o##ib$e
for it to 5i$$ the o44o#ite of the thin' 5i$$e%. he re"#on i# e6i%ent. No other obJe.t, "4"rt
from the %i6ine e##en.e, ."n #o bin% "n% tie the 5i$$ of ;o% to it#e$f "# to "b#o$-te$y
e7.$-%e the 5i$$in' of it# o44o#ite.
(1*

DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(1*
9I "ffirm th"t the %i6ine 5i$$ %oe# not ten% by ne.e##ity to "ny obJe.t th"t i# not it# o5n
e##en.e. It ".t# .ontin'ent$y in re'"r% to "ny other obJe.t, #o th"t it .o-$% 5i$$ it#
o44o#ite. hi# i# tr-e not on$y 5hen the 5i$$ i# .on#i%ere% in it#e$f before it ten%#
to5"r% th"t obJe.t, or #im4$y "# " 5i$$, 5hi.h i# n"t-r"$$y "nterior to it# ".t, b-t "$#o
5hen it i# .on#i%ere% in the ".t it#e$f of 5i$$in'.9Ibid#* n. 11.
,(A@,
Be"rin' thi# in min%, 5e ."n no5 -n%er#t"n% the r"%i."$ .ontin'en.y of thin'#. In the ".t
of .re"tion ;o% "##i'ne% to e".h thin' it# o5n n"t-reF to fire, the 4o5er of he"tin'> to
5"ter, the 4ro4erty of bein' .o$%> to "ir, the 4ro4erty of bein' $i'hter th"n the e"rth> "n%
#o forth. B-t 4re.i#e$y be."-#e the %i6ine 5i$$ ."nnot be bo-n% to "ny 4"rti.-$"r obJe.t, it
i# not "b#-r% to .on.ei6e the 4o##ibi$ity on the 4"rt of fire to be .o$%, of 5"ter to be
5"rm, of e"rth to be $i'hter th"n "ir, "n% of the entire -ni6er#e not to e7i#t or to be r-$e%
by entire$y %ifferent $"5#. Li2e5i#e, 5hen ;o% .re"te% the h-m"n #o-$, He '"6e it #-.h "
n"t-re th"t it ."n #-r6i6e the bo%y. Yet it 5o-$% be e=-"$$y re"#on"b$e "n% ri'ht for the
#o-$ to 4eri#h to'ether 5ith the bo%y. For "$$ th"t .re"t-re# h"6e "n% i# %-e to them in
6irt-e of their n"t-re ;o% o5e# to them not in J-#ti.e Ee. iustitiaG, b-t on$y o-t of
$iber"$ity Ee. liberalitateG.
(BC

DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(BC
+p# +.on#, IV, %. 8+, =. (, n. (1.
,(A*,
/II
MORAL DOCTRINES
HEM !RE FE& DOCRINES Of D-n# S.ot-# th"t h"6e not been mi#-n%er#too% or
mi#inter4rete% e6en by 5e$$,me"nin' #.ho$"r#. Perh"4# the mo#t b"%$y tre"te% of "$$ i# hi#
te".hin' on the re$"tion#hi4 bet5een the %i6ine 5i$$ "n% .re"te% thin'#. he brief
referen.e to thi# te".hin' 5hi.h 5e h"6e m"%e in the $"#t 4"'e# of the 4re.e%in' .h"4ter
m-#t be %e6e$o4e% "n% #et in re$"tion to hi# mor"$ #y#tem.
D-n# S.ot-# h"# been .h"r'e% 5ith e7"''er"tin' ;o%3# free%om in re'"r% to .re"t-re# to
#-.h "n e7tent th"t, to fo$$o5 hi# 4rin.i4$e#, one mi'ht 5e$$ .on.$-%e th"t the $"5# of the
-ni6er#e "n% of mor"$ity h"6e no fo-n%"tion e7.e4t "n "b#o$-te$y "rbitr"ry %i6ine 5i$$. It
i# tr-e th"t .ert"in S.oti#ti. te7t#
(B(
."n be .ite% in .onfirm"tion of thi# inter4ret"tion. B-t
it i# "$#o tr-e th"t " .orre.t "n% #o-n% e7e'e#i# of the tho-'ht of " #y#tem"ti. thin2er $i2e
D-n# S.ot-# ."nnot be b"#e% on the "-thority of brief "n% #."ttere% #t"tement# t"2en o-t
of their .onte7t. ! #o-n% e7e'e#i# m-#t try to %i#.o6er the me"nin' of " %o.trine in the
#y#tem "# " 5ho$e. &e inten% to %o thi# in the 4re#ent .h"4ter 5ithin the -#-"$ $imit# of
thi# #t-%y.
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(B(
See for e7"m4$e 3eportata -arisiensia, IV, %. 8+, =. 8, n. @.
,(+C,
THE DI/INE ILL /S" CREATION AND THE MORAL ORDER
D-n# S.ot-# m"int"in# th"t the #t"tement, 9;o% 5i$$# in " mo#t re"#on"b$e "n% or%er$y
m"nner9 EDeus est rationabilissime et ordinatissime 5olensG, i# " f-n%"ment"$ "n%
in.onte#t"b$e 4rin.i4$e of 4hi$o#o4hy.
(B1
For him thi# me"n# th"t it i# "b#o$-te$y
im4o##ib$e to .on.ei6e ;o%3# free 5i$$ "# #omethin' 4-re$y "rbitr"ry "n% ."4ri.io-#. !#
5e #h"$$ #ee 4re#ent$y, ;o% fin%# in Him#e$f the norm of Hi# 5i$$in' "n% ".tin'. he
4rin.i4$e, +perari se,uitur esse, ret"in# for D-n# S.ot-# it# 6"$-e in the #4here of "$$
re"$ity, in.$-%in' the %i6ine re"$ity. Hen.e neither the ".t of -n%er#t"n%in' nor the ".t of
5i$$in' ."n be the r"%i."$ .on#tit-ent of the %i6ine n"t-re. In ;o%, "# in "ny other bein',
esse 4re.e%e# operari. On the other h"n%, the ".t# of -n%er#t"n%in' "n% 5i$$in'
4re#-44o#e "n obJe.t. h-# e6en from thi# 4oint of 6ie5 the %i6ine e##en.e, 5hi.h i# the
obJe.t of ;o%3# inte$$e.t "n% 5i$$, m-#t $o'i."$$y 4re.e%e the ".t# of the#e t5o 4o5er#.
Sin.e the %i6ine e##en.e i# the 4ro4er "n% ne.e##"ry obJe.t of ;o%3# 5i$$, it m-#t "$#o be
it# #-4reme norm. ;o% ."nnot 5i$$ "nythin' th"t i# in .ontr"#t 5ith Hi# e##en.e> n"y, He
."nnot 5i$$ "nythin' th"t %oe# not fin% it# fo-n%"tion "n% J-#tifi."tion in Hi# e##en.e.
(BB

he %i6ine 5i$$ not on$y 4re#-44o#e# ;o%3# e##en.e, b-t "$#o the ".t of Hi# inte$$e.t. No
%o-bt, D-n# S.ot-# i# "$5"y# ."ref-$ to 2ee4 the 6o$ition"$ ".t in%e4en%ent of the
inte$$e.ti6e ".t. he ".t of the 5i$$, in ;o% e6en more th"n in m"n, i# ne6er %etermine% by
the moti6e# 4re#ente% by the inte$$e.t. he 6o$i,
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(B1
! 're"t m"ny 4"##"'e# .o-$% be =-ote% in .onfirm"tion. I $imit my#e$f to the t5o
fo$$o5in' referen.e#F +p# +.on#, III, %. B1, =. -ni.", n. +> 3ep# -ar#, III, %. ), =. 8, n. 8.
(BB
9In%ee%, the %i6ine e##en.e, 5hi.h i# the 4rim"ry obJe.t of th"t 5i$$, i# to be 5i$$e% in
it#e$f. Hen.e th"t 5i$$ ne.e##"ri$y "n% .orre.t$y 5i$$# th"t obJe.t 5hi.h i# 4ro4er$y to be
5i$$e% in it#e$f.9 +p# +.on#, I, %. (C, =-"e#t. -ni.", n. ((.
,(+(,
tion"$ ".t re.ei6e# "$$ it# onto$o'i."$ re"$ity from the 5i$$ to 5hi.h it be$on'# by n"t-re.
hi#, ho5e6er, i# not the #"me "# to #"y th"t the 5i$$ ."n ".t 5itho-t "ny 4re6io-#
2no5$e%'e. If it i# 5ron' to "ttrib-te the m"in ."-#"$ity of the 6o$ition"$ ".t to the
inte$$e.t, #im4$y be."-#e #omethin' i# 5i$$e% on$y "fter it i# 2no5n, it i# e=-"$$y 5ron' to
"ffirm th"t the 5i$$ ."n be tr-$y " 5i$$, "n% not J-#t " b$in% in#tin.t, 5itho-t the $i'ht of
the inte$$e.t. By e7.$-%in' " ."-#"$ .onne.tion bet5een the 6o$ition"$ ".t "n% the ".t of
the inte$$e.t, the n"t-r"$ .onne.tion th"t ho$%# bet5een the t5o f".-$tie# i# not thereby
e7.$-%e%. 9Fo$$o5in' the n"t-r"$ or%er e7i#tin' "mon' the o4er"tion# of inte$$e.t "n%
5i$$, ".tion #ho-$% fo$$o5 2no5$e%'e.9
(B8
F-rthermore, the 're"ter 4erfe.tion of the
%i6ine 5i$$ in .ontr"#t to the h-m"n 5i$$ .on#i#t# 4re.i#e$y in thi#, th"t the %i6ine 5i$$ ."n
".t on$y in .onformity 5ith the %i.t"te# of ;o%3# mo#t 4erfe.t inte$$e.t.
(BA

he im4ort"n.e of the#e "##ertion# #ho-$% not e#."4e the "ttention of the re"%er. If
2no5$e%'e n"t-r"$$y 4re.e%e# the 5i$$, it fo$$o5# th"t "$$ "n"$yti."$ J-%'ment# "n% the
.on.$-#ion# th"t ."n be %eri6e% from them "re tr-e "nte.e%ent$y to "ny ".t of the 5i$$, or
"t $e"#t they "re tr-e e6en if by "n "b#-r% hy4othe#i# "$$ ".t# of the 5i$$ "re e7.$-%e%, for
92no5$e%'e %e4en%# e##enti"$$y on$y on the 4o5er "n% it# obJe.t.9
(B+
hi# ho$%# tr-e not
on$y for the theoreti."$ "7iom# "n% 4rin.i4$e#, b-t "$#o for the 4rin.i4$e# of ethi.#.
(B)

DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(B8
+p# +.on#, Pro$o'-#, =. 8, n. (8.
(BA
Ibid#, n. BAF 9It i# " #i'n of the 5i$$3# 4erfe.tion to ".t "$5"y# in .onformity 5ith the
4o5er th"t 4re.e%e# it in ".tin', 5hene6er thi# 4o5er ".t# fir#t "n% 4erfe.t$y in re'"r%
to it# obJe.t.9
(B+
+p# +.on#, III, %. 18, =. -ni.", n. 8.
(B)
+p# +.on#, Pro$o'-#, =. 8, n. (BF 9he tr-th of " 4r".ti."$ "n% ne.e##"ry 4rin.i4$e %oe#
not in effe.t %e4en% on the 5i$$ more th"n %oe# the tr-th of " #4e.-$"ti6e 4rin.i4$e. he
#"me m-#t be #"i% of the .on.$-#ion# th"t "re %r"5n ne.e##"ri$y from #-.h "
4rin.i4$e.9
,(+1,
Sin.e the 4erfe.tion of the %i6ine 5i$$ %em"n%# th"t 5h"te6er it 5i$$# be in .onformity
5ith tr-th, it i# e6i%ent th"t in Hi# 5i$$in' "n% ".tin' ;o% i# bo-n%, "# it 5ere, by the
tr-th. Hen.e ;o% 5i$$ not be "b$e to 5i$$ the "b#-r%, nor 5i$$ He be "b$e not to 5i$$ th"t
5hi.h i# ne.e##"ry.
h-# D-n# S.ot-# i# 4erfe.t$y .on#i#tent 5ith hi# o5n te".hin' 5hen he "ffirm# th"t on$y
9th"t 5hi.h %oe# not in.$-%e " .ontr"%i.tion i# per se nonre4-'n"nt to the %i6ine 5i$$, 9
(B@
"n% th"t 9the infinite 5i$$ 5i$$# ne.e##"ri$y "n infinite obJe.t, 9
(B*
"n% 9$o6e#
ne.e##"ri$y it# o5n 'oo%ne##.9
(8C
!$#o, "$on' 5ith it# o5n e##en.e, the %i6ine 5i$$ m-#t
$o6e 5ith " $o6e of .om4$".en.y "$$ 4o##ib$e thin'# th"t the inte$$e.t 4re#ent# to it,
in"#m-.h "# e".h one of them i# #omeho5 " 4"rti.i4"tion of it# o5n 'oo%ne## E,uaedam
participatio bonitatis propriaeG.
(8(

hi# #t"tement he$4# -# m"2e " #te4 for5"r% in the in=-iry "# to ho5 thin'# 4ro.ee% from
;o%. he $o6e of .om4$".en.y by 5hi.h ;o% $o6e# "$$ the 4o##ib$e# m"2e# it e6i%ent th"t
;o% m-#t "44ro6e "# 'oo% "$$ 4ro%-.ib$e e##en.e#. &hen He ".t-"$$y .re"te# them, He
m-#t m"2e them in "..or%"n.e 5ith their mo%e of bein'. hi# me"n# th"t the#e e##en.e#
5i$$ h"6e "$$ the e##enti"$ 4erfe.tion# th"t be$on' to them "n% "$$ tho#e re$"tion# of the
met"4hy#i."$, 4hy#i."$, "n% mor"$ or%er th"t bin% them to'ether. Ho5e6er, re"$ity i# not
mere$y the #-mtot"$ of e##enti"$ 4erfe.tion#, ne.e##"ry 4ro4ertie#, "n% ine6it"b$e
re$"tion#. U4on thi# ."n6"# of 4erfe.tion# "n% ne.e##"ry re$"tion# 5e ."n ob#er6e the
intert5inin' of " 5on%erf-$ 6"riety of .o$or# "n% #h"%e#, 5ith "n infinite ri.hne## of
4"rti.-$"r#, "$$ .ontin'ent "n% "..i%ent"$, from 5hi.h the m"'nifi.ent "n% .om4$e7
#y#tem of the -ni6er#e i# %eri6e%. I# it here then th"t
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(B@
3ep# -ar#, IV, %. 8+, =. 8, n. @.
(B*
&uodlib#, =. (+, n. *.
(8C
Ibid#, n. ).
(8(
Ibid#
,(+B,
the %i6ine 5i$$ .hoo#e#, or%er#, "n% %etermine# ."4ri.io-#$y "n% 5itho-t .on#-$tin'
beforeh"n% Hi# %i6ine 5i#%omL
It i# im4o##ib$e to thin2, 4rote#t# D-n# S.ot-#, th"t ;o% ".t# thi# 5"y. He i# "n infinite$y
5i#e "r.hite.t 5ho 2no5# Hi# o5n 5or2 in "$$ it# 4"rti.-$"r#, 4ie.e by 4ie.e, in it#e$f, "n%
in it# re$"tion to the 5ho$e.
(81
!..or%in'$y, e6en tho#e thin'# "n% e6ent# 5hi.h "44e"r to
-# "# ne'$i'ib$e "n% me"nin'$e## enter into ;o%3# "b#o$-te$y 4erfe.t %e#i'n "n% "re 4"rt#
of it. hey "re $i2e in%i6i%-"$ note# in the immen#e h"rmony of the -ni6er#e.
Perh"4# no me%ie6"$ thin2er fe$t "# %ee4$y "# %i% D-n# S.ot-# the nee% "n% e7i'en.y for
or%er "n% %e#i'n in ;o%3# min% "n% Hi# 5or2#. One mi'ht #"y th"t hi# .on6i.tion, 5hi.h
i# 4"rt of hi# other .on6i.tion 4re6io-#$y mentione%, n"me$y, th"t ;o% i# rationabilissime
et ordinatissime 5olens, i# the %ire.ti6e i%e", the $i'ht th"t '-i%e# D-n# S.ot-# in hi#
me%it"tion on the my#terie# of ;o% "n% .re"tion. he fe.-n%ity of #-.h "n i%e" i# .$e"r$y
in%i."te% by the #-b$imity of hi# theo$o'i."$ int-ition#.
(8B
o #-m -4, 5e m-#t #"y th"t
the e7i#ten.e or none7i#ten.e of " .ontin'ent thin' %e4en%# entire$y on the free 5i$$ of
;o%, b-t on.e ;o% 5i$$# "n% .re"te#, He m-#t ne.e##"ri$y 5i$$ "n% .re"te 5i#e$y "n%
or%er$y.
It 'oe# 5itho-t #"yin' th"t it 5o-$% be foo$i#h for -# to 4reten% to 2no5, "$5"y# "n%
.om4$ete$y, the re"#on# of ;o%3# infinite 5i#%om. It i# eno-'h for -# to 2no5 th"t,
"$tho-'h ;o% e#t"b$i#he% "n or%er in .re"tion, He i# not ne.e##"ri$y bo-n% by it. Hi#
%i6ine 5i$$ $o6e# ne.e##"ri$y on$y one thin', Hi# o5n #-4reme 'oo%ne##. Hen.e,
5h"te6er ;o% m"y 5i$$, e6en if it i# "bo6e the ".t-"$$y e7i#tin' or%er, both on the n"t-r"$
"n% on the #-4ern"t-r"$ 4$"ne, it 5i$$ "$5"y# be 5ithin
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(81
3ep# -ar#, I, %. B+, =. 8, nn. (( "n% 11.
(8B
Cf. E4hrem Lon'4rK, 1a -hilosophie du /# Duns Scot E P"ri#F So.ietK et Libr"irie S.
Fr"nToi# %3!##i#e, (*18G, 4. +1, n. 8.
,(+8,
the #-4reme $"5# of th"t ne.e##"ry or%er "..or%in' to 5hi.h Hi# 5i$$ i# re$"te% to Hi#
e##en.e.
h-# S.oti#ti. 6o$-nt"ri#m in referen.e to ;o% i# fo-n% to .on#i#t e7.$-#i6e$y in the f".t
th"t it %r"5# the n"t-r"$ .on#e=-en.e# of 5h"t i# t"-'ht by "$$ C"tho$i. thin2er#, n"me$y,
th"t the 5or2# ad e.tra "re on$y the #e.on%"ry obJe.t of the %i6ine 5i$$. If it i# tr-e th"t
;o% $o6e# ne.e##"ri$y on$y Him#e$f, "n% if, on the other h"n%, it i# tr-e th"t no .re"te%
thin' ."n for.e it#e$f -4on ;o% by 6irt-e of "n intrin#i. ne.e##ity,,for, in thi# ."#e, He
5o-$% nee% it for Hi# o5n 4erfe.tion "n% h"44ine##,,it m-#t "$#o be tr-e th"t ;o% not
on$y ."n 5i$$ 5itho-t .ontr"%i.tion " 5or$% %ifferent from the 4re#ent one, b-t He ."n
"$#o mo%ify the 4re#ent or%er "n% %i#4o#e thin'# in #-.h " 5"y th"t they 5o-$% ten%
to5"r% Him other5i#e th"n they ".t-"$$y %o. &h"t He ."nnot 5i$$ i# th"t .re"t-re# 5i$$
not be or%"ine% to Him.
THE DETERMINANTS OF MORALITY
he mo#t #erio-# obJe.tion $e6e$e% "'"in#t #o,."$$e% S.oti#ti. 6o$-nt"ri#m i# th"t it $e"%#
to " mor"$ 4o#iti6i#m th"t m"y be e74re##e% #omethin' $i2e thi#F ri'ht "n% 5ron' %e4en%
e7.$-#i6e$y on the 5i$$ of ;o%> 5h"t ;o% 5i$$# i# ri'ht, 5h"t ;o% forbi%# i# 5ron'. he
be#t "n% mo#t effe.ti6e "n#5er to thi# obJe.tion ."n be fo-n% in #ome of the b"#i.
4rin.i4$e# of S.oti#ti. ethi.#.
&e ."n .on#i%er thin'# in t5o %ifferent 5"y#F in their o5n re"$ity, th"t i#, in them#e$6e#,
or in their re$"tion to other thin'#. &hen .on#i%ere% in them#e$6e#, thin'# "re "$5"y#
'oo%. he more 4erfe.t i# their bein', the better they "re. hi# i# 5h"t i# ."$$e% their
met"4hy#i."$ 'oo%ne##. It i# th"t 2in% of 'oo%ne## 5hi.h, "..or%in' to the 4hi$o#o4hi."$
"7iom, i# .on6ertib$e 5ith bein' Eens et bonum con5ertunturG. &hen " thin' i# $oo2e% "t
from the 6ie54oint of the re$"tion# it h"# here "n% no5 to other thin'#, it i# #"i% to be
'oo% or b"%
,(+A,
on$y re$"ti6e$y. It# 'oo%ne## or $".2 of 'oo%ne## %e4en%# on 5hether it# 4re#en.e "n%
".tion in 'i6en .ir.-m#t"n.e# i# or i# not in h"rmony 5ith the e7i'en.ie# of it# o5n
n"t-re, 5hether it %oe# or %oe# not re#4e.t the ne.e##"ry re$"tion# it h"# to other thin'#.
D-n# S.ot-# ."$$# thi# #e.on%"ry 'oo%ne## to %i#tin'-i#h it from met"4hy#i."$ 'oo%ne##.
He %efine# it th-#F 9he #e.on%"ry 'oo%ne## of bein', 5hi.h i# "..i%ent"$ "n% "..r-in' to
bein', i# it# inte'r"$ h"rmony 5ith other thin'# to 5hi.h it i# ne.e##"ri$y re$"te%, or the
h"rmony of other thin'# to it#e$f.9
(88
Mor"$ 'oo%ne## be$on'# to thi# ty4e of 'oo%ne##.
he mor"$ 'oo%ne## of "n ".t, rem"r2# D-n# S.ot-#, i# not #omethin' th"t be$on'# to the
".t .on#i%ere% in it# met"4hy#i."$ entity, b-t r"ther to the ".t .on#i%ere% in re$"tion to "$$
tho#e thin'# th"t .on#tit-te the #-m,tot"$ of it# .ir.-m#t"n.e#.
(8A
Mor"$ 'oo%ne## ."n
therefore be ."$$e% the 4ro4ortion th"t the ".t h"# to it# 4o5er "n% obJe.t, "# 5e$$ "# it#
en%, time, 4$".e, "n% mo%e,
(8+
5hi.h "re the .on.omit"nt .ir.-m#t"n.e# of e6ery ".t. Let
-# e7"mine the ro$e th"t e".h of the#e e$ement#,,potentia, ob9ectum, finis, tempus, locus,
et modus,,4$"y# in the .on#tit-tion of the mor"$ ".t.
!# to the 4"rt th"t " 4o5er 4$"y# in the .on#tit-tion of the mor"$ ".t, D-n# S.ot-# h"#
nothin' ne5 to #"y. he ne.e##"ry re=-irement for "n ".t to be mor"$ i# th"t it be free. It
m-#t 4ro.ee% from " r"tion"$ 4o5er, h"6in' not on$y the .on#.io-#ne## of it# o5n ".t, b-t
"$#o .ontro$ o6er it. Fo$$o5in' hi# o5n 4#y.ho$o'y, D-n# S.ot-# t"2e# ."re to em4h"#i<e
in thi# .onne.tion, th"t 5hi$e the .on#.io-#ne## of the ".t be$on'# to the inte$$e.t,
%ominion o6er the ".t, "n% hen.e it# re#4on#ibi$ity EimputabilitasG, be$on'# to the 5i$$.
For the 5i$$ "$one 4o#,
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(88
&uodlib#, =. (@, n. B.
(8A
+p# +.on#, I, %. (), =. B, n. 1.
(8+
3ep# -ar#, II, %. 8C, =. -ni.", n. B.
,(++,
#e##e# th"t in%ifferen.e or in%etermin".y 5ith re'"r% to .ontr"%i.torie# in 5hi.h free%om
4ro4er$y .on#i#t#.
(8)

he ro$e "##i'ne% by D-n# S.ot-# to the obJe.t %e#er6e# more %et"i$e% .on#i%er"tion. It i#
5hen the ".t i# $oo2e% "t from the "#4e.t of it# re$"tion to the obJe.t th"t it be'in# to
".=-ire " me"nin' "n% 6"$-e in the fie$% of mor"$ity. If free%om m"2e# the ".t ."4"b$e of
".=-irin' " mor"$ 6"$-e, 5h"t .onfer# the ".t-"$ity of bein' 'oo% or e6i$ on it "n% th-#
brin'# it de facto into the fie$% of mor"$ity, i# 4rim"ri$y the obJe.t. 9he 4rim"ry Hmor"$
'oo%ne##I be$on'# to the 6o$iti6e ".t in#of"r "# it %ire.t# it#e$f to5"r% "n obJe.t 5hi.h i#
4ro4er to it, not on$y "..or%in' to the n"t-r"$ or%er of thin'#, b-t "$#o "..or%in' to the
%i.t"te# of ri'ht re"#on.9
(8@
hi# i# #-.h "n im4ort"nt #t"tement th"t " #hort .omment"ry
on it 5i$$ not be o-t of 4$".e.
In or%er th"t "n ".t, to5"r% 5hi.h " m"n i# .on#.io-#$y "n% free$y %etermine%, m"y be
."$$e% 'oo%, it i# re=-ire%, fir#t, th"t the ".t h"6e "# it# termin-# "n obJe.t 5hi.h in it#e$f
i# " 6"$-e, or " re"$ 'oo% for the "'ent> "n% #e.on%$y, th"t thi# re$"tion of "'reement "n%
4erfe.tibi$ity bet5een the ".tin' 4o5er "n% the mo6in' obJe.t be 2no5n "n% 5i$$e%.
&hen either one of the#e t5o .on%ition# i# mi##in', the ".t ."n no $on'er be ."$$e% 'oo%.
!n im4ort"nt .on#e=-en.e fo$$o5# from thi#. ! m"n m"y erroneo-#$y, b-t 5ith " #-re
.on#.ien.e, J-%'e th"t " mor"$$y 6"$-"b$e obJe.t i# 5itho-t mor"$ 6"$-e, "n% yet ".t 5ith
the intention of obt"inin' it. Hi# ".t, "..or%in' to S.ot-#, ."nnot be ."$$e% 'oo%. he
re"#on i# th"t, in #4ite of hi# o44o#ite .on6i.tion, the obJe.t 9i# not by it# n"t-re in
"'reement 5ith the 5i$$.9 In other 5or%#, for D-n# S.ot-# it i# not eno-'h th"t the
J-%'ment of .on#.ien.e be #-re> it m-#t "$#o be obJe.ti6e$y .orre.t. Ho5e6er, one #ho-$%
not be $e% to be$ie6e th"t in or%er
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(8)
&uodlib#, =. (@, n. *.
(8@
+p# +.on#, II, %. ), =. -ni.", n. ((.
,(+),
to 'r"#4 "n obJe.t3# "'reement or $".2 of "'reement 5ith the 5i$$ "n e7".t =-i%%it"ti6e
2no5$e%'e of the obJe.t i# re=-ire%. S-.h 2no5$e%'e i# -#-"$$y r"re "n% %iffi.-$t to
obt"in. &hi$e the "'reement of the ".t 5ith the 4o5er th"t 4erform# it i# imme%i"te$y
e6i%ent, it i# eno-'h th"t the "'reement of the obJe.t 5ith the 4o5er be 2no5n by
e74erien.e. Brief$y, it i# not ne.e##"ry to h"6e #.ientifi."$$y 4erfe.t 2no5$e%'e, b-t on$y
4r".ti."$ 2no5$e%'e.
Yet the obJe.t "$one ."nnot be the "b#o$-te %etermin"nt of the mor"$ity of "n ".t.
E6eryone 2no5#, for e7"m4$e, th"t 5hen I 'i6e "$m# to the 4oor 5ith the intention of
#ho5in' my 5e"$th r"ther th"n of %oin' " .h"rit"b$e ".t, I 4erform "n ".t of 6"nity. D-n#
S.ot-# be"r# 5itne## to the %i.t"te of o-r .on#.ien.e 5hen he #t"te#F 9Se.on%"ry mor"$
'oo%ne## be$on'# to the 6o$iti6e ".t in"#m-.h "# it i# 4erforme% by the 5i$$ h"6in' %-e
.on#i%er"tion of "$$ the .ir.-m#t"n.e#.9
(8*
h"t i#, before I ."n %etermine 5hether "n
".tion i# 'oo% or e6i$, I m-#t t"2e into .on#i%er"tion the .ir.-m#t"n.e# of 4$".e "n% time,
the 5"y in 5hi.h it h"# been or i# 'oin' to be "..om4$i#he%, "n% e#4e.i"$$y the intention
of the 5i$$ th"t i# behin% it. 9;oo%ne##, "# f"r "# .ir.-m#t"n.e# "re .on.erne%,9 "ffirm#
D-n# S.ot-#, 9%e4en%# 4rim"ri$y on the en%.9
(AC

E6i%ent$y, "# #ho-$% be .$e"r from o-r 4re6io-# #t"tement#, " ri'ht intention "$one i# not
#-ffi.ient to m"2e "n ".t 'oo%. Yet it m-#t be "%mitte% th"t no ".tion i# 'oo% in the f-$$
#en#e of the term, -n$e## it be or%"ine% to "n en% th"t i# 5orth bein' 4-r#-e% by m"n, the
mor"$ "'ent. Hen.e " f-rther 4rob$em "ri#e#F 5h"t i# the en% th"t i# tr-$y 5orth bein'
4-r#-e%, "n% to5"r% 5hi.h m"n m-#t %ire.t hi# ".tion#L It i# .$e"r th"t not "ny en%
5h"t#oe6er ."n .onfer mor"$ %i'nity on m"n3# ".tion#, b-t on$y "n en% th"t re4re#ent#
m"n3# #-4reme 6"$-e.
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(8*
Ibid#
(AC
Ibid#, %. 8C, =. -ni.", n. B.
,(+@,
D-n# S.ot-# %oe# not he#it"te for " moment to "ffirm th"t ;o% "$one i# the tr-e "n%
-$tim"te en% of "$$ m"n3# ".ti6ity. On$y the m"n 5ho or%"in# "$$ hi# ".tion# to ;o%
re#4e.t# "n% re"$i<e# in him#e$f the 4ro4er hier"r.hy of 6"$-e# th"t $e"% to ;o%. M"n3#
5i$$ fin%# it# b"#i# "n% mo%e$ in the %i6ine 5i$$. ;o%3# #"n.tity %em"n%# th"t He $o6e the
#-4reme 'oo%ne## of Hi# o5n e##en.e "n% other thin'# on$y in#of"r "# they 4"rti.i4"te in
it "n% "re or%"ine% to it. In the #"me 5"y, there ."n be no tr-e #"n.tity in m"n if he $o6e#
"nythin' th"t i# not or%"ine% to ;o%.
(A(
herefore, to ".t mere$y for the #"2e of 6irt-e, "#
if 6irt-e 5ere 'oo% in it#e$f, 5o-$% "mo-nt to 4$".in' 6irt-e on " 4"r 5ith ;o% "# "n
"b#o$-te 6"$-e .$o#e to "nother "b#o$-te 6"$-e, "n en% .$o#e to "nother en%. M"n 5o-$%
th-# bre"2 the n"t-r"$ hier"r.hy of 6"$-e#, "$$ of 5hi.h "re or%"ine% to ;o%.
! more %efinite .on%emn"tion of #o,."$$e% "-tonomo-# mor"$ity ."n h"r%$y be fo-n%.
For D-n# S.ot-#, J-#t "# for St. !-'-#tine, 6irt-e i# not #omethin' 6"$-"b$e #im4$y
be."-#e it i# " 5"y of ".tin' th"t i# me"#-re% by, "n% in "..or%"n.e 5ith, n"t-re, "#
!ri#tot$e te".he#, b-t be."-#e of the ".t of $o6e by 5hi.h the 6irt-o-# ".t i# %ire.te% to
;o%.
h-# f"r the S-bt$e Do.tor %oe# not 'o beyon% tr"%ition"$ ethi.#. Yet e6en in e74o-n%in'
the 4rin.i4$e# "n% %o.trine# .ommon to Chri#ti"n tr"%ition, he %oe# not f"i$ to $e"6e the
m"r2# of hi# #y#tem"ti. "n% #.ientifi. min%. He i# not #"ti#fie% 5ith #t-%yin' one by one
the .on#tit-ti6e e$ement# of mor"$ity, b-t he 4re#ent# them 5ithin the fr"me5or2 of "
5e$$%etermine% #tr-.t-re. In the mor"$ ".t, obJe.t "n% .ir.-m#t"n.e#, "mon' 5hi.h the
en% i# the .hief, "re re$"te% to one "nother by " re$"tion "n"$o'o-# to th"t e7i#tin'
bet5een m"tter "n% form in re"$ bein', "n% bet5een 'en-# "n% #4e.ifi.
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(A(
Ibid#* I, %. 8@, =. -ni.", n. 1F 9E6ery ".t of o-r 5i$$ H".tion, tho-'htI i# "bo6e "$$
or%"ine% to the fin"$ en%, 5hi.h i# the !$4h" "n% Ome'", the be'innin' "n% the en%, to
&hom be honor "n% '$ory in saecula saeculorum# Amen#9
,(+*,
%ifferen.e in $o'i."$ bein'. he obJe.t th"t i# 9in "..or% 5ith the %i.t"te# of ri'ht re"#on9
.onfer# on the ".t on$y " 'eneri. 'oo%ne##, 5hi.h, to be .om4$ete, nee%# th"t f-rther
%etermin"tion 5hi.h .ome# to it m"in$y from the en%.
(A1
Hen.e mor"$ity re#-$t# from the
'oo%ne## of the obJe.t "n% the 'oo%ne## of the en%. If either one of the#e t5o i# mi##in',
"n ".t ."nnot be ."$$e% " mor"$$y 'oo% ".t.
MORALLY INDIFFERENT ACTS
It ."nnot be %enie% th"t S.ot-#3 fore'oin' #t"tement# re4re#ent " rem"r2"b$e effort of3
4enetr"ti6e in#i'ht into 5h"t m"y be ."$$e% the met"4hy#i."$ #tr-.t-re of mor"$ity. hey
h"6e to be 2e4t in min% by him 5ho 5i#he# to 'r"#4 the me"nin' of .ert"in ethi."$
o4inion# th"t "re #4e.ifi."$$y S.oti#ti. in .h"r".ter. h-# the S-bt$e Do.tor %i#tin'-i#he#
bet5een 5h"t he ."$$# .ontr"ry m"$i.e "n% 4ri6"ti6e m"$i.e. It i# ne.e##"ry to e74$"in
5h"t he me"n# by thi#.
If my 5i$$ %ire.t# it#e$f to5"r% "n obJe.t 5hi.h i# not in "..or% 5ith h-m"n %i'nity, I
4erform "n ".t th"t i# e6i$ contrarie# In #o %oin', I not on$y %o not 4o#iti6e$y ten% to5"r%
my en%, b-t I t-rn to5"r% #omethin' th"t i# o44o#e% to it. o be more #4e.ifi., I %o
e7".t$y the o44o#ite of 5h"t I o-'ht to %o. On the .ontr"ry, if the obJe.t of my ".tion i#
'oo%, b-t I ten% to it 5itho-t or%erin' it "t $e"#t in%ire.t$y to the fin"$ en%, my ".tion 5i$$
be 4ri6"ti6e$y e6i$, for it 5i$$ $".2 the 'oo%ne## th"t i# %-e to it. In thi# ."#e, my ".t 5i$$
be " 'oo% ".t on$y 'eneri."$$y, #in.e it f"$$# #hort of the 'oo%ne## of the en% 5hi.h i# "
#ort of #4e.ifi. %ifferen.e for it. !4"rt from the #4e.ifi. %ifferen.e, no bein' i# re"$$y
5h"t it i#> #o "$#o no ".t i# re"$$y 'oo% -n$e## it be or%"ine% to it# 4ro4er en%. !.t# th"t
"re 4ri6"ti6e$y e6i$ m"y "$#o be ."$$e% in%ifferent ".t#.
(AB

DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(A1
+p# +.on#* II, %. ), =. -ni.", n. ((.
(AB
Ibid#* n. (B.
,()C,
he re"#on i# thi#. !n ".t th"t i# 4ri6"ti6e$y e6i$ Emalus pri5ati5eG i# neither .ontr"ry to
the en% nor 4o#iti6e$y or%"ine% to it> it ."-#e# -# to m"2e neither " #te4 for5"r% nor " #te4
b".25"r%. h-#, 'ener"$$y #4e"2in', "n ".t m-#t be ."$$e% mor"$$y in%ifferent 5hen it i#
"..om4$i#he% 5itho-t " mor"$ en%, or, 5hi.h i# e6en more im4ort"nt from the 4r".ti."$
4oint of 6ie5, 5hen the en% or moti6e in#4irin' it %oe# not "tt"in the mor"$ #t"n%"r% th"t
i# %-e to " 'oo% ".t, e6en tho-'h it i# not e6i$ in it#e$f.
! .re"te% obJe.t ."n "$5"y# be 5i$$e% for " mor"$$y in#-ffi.ient en%. On$y ;o%, the
infinite 'oo%, .onfer# 4erfe.t mor"$ 6"$-e on the ".t th"t h"# " re$"tion to Him#e$f, for in
;o% obJe.t "n% en% "re i%enti."$, "n% he 5ho $o6e# ;o% ten%# ne.e##"ri$y to5"r%# hi# %-e
en%. In other 5or%#, by it# n"t-re " .re"te% obJe.t ."n .onfer on$y 'eneri. mor"$ity on "n
".t. On the other h"n%, $o6e of ;o% i# "$5"y# " mor"$$y 4erfe.t ".t, for in it the obJe.t i#
i%enti."$ 5ith th"t 4rim"ry en% 5hi.h .on#tit-te# 'oo%ne## it#e$f.
I# it 4o##ib$e to h"6e mor"$$y in%ifferent ".t# in the .on.reteL !# i# 5e$$ 2no5n, D-n#
S.ot-# "n% St. hom"# "re not of one o4inion on thi# 4oint. &hi$e St. hom"# "n#5er#
the =-e#tion in the ne'"ti6e, D-n# S.ot-# f"6or# " 4o#iti6e "n#5er.
(A8
he root# of the
%i#"'reement "re to be fo-n% in their %ifferent 5"y# of e6"$-"tin' the im4ort"n.e of the
J-%'ment of o-r .on#.ien.e. For St. hom"#, "n ".tion 4erforme% 5ith " #-re, e6en
tho-'h erroneo-#, .on#.ien.e, i# either 'oo% or e6i$> for D-n# S.ot-#, "n ".t i# re"$$y
'oo% on$y 5hen the 'oo%ne## of the obJe.t "n% the 'oo%ne## of the en% "'ree. If for "ny
re"#on, #-.h "# i'nor"n.e or $".2 of %-e .on#i%er"tion, "n ".t i# not 4o#iti6e$y or%"ine% to
the en%, it f"i$# to re".h th"t #t"n%"r% of 'oo%ne## 5hi.h ho$%# for e6ery ".t, not on$y
'eneri."$$y, b-t "$#o #4e.ifi."$$y.
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(A8
Ibid#* %. 8(, =. -ni.", n. 8.
,()(,
! .$-e to the #o$-tion of the 4rob$em ."n 4erh"4# be fo-n% in the ob#er6"tion th"t neither
St. hom"# nor D-n# S.ot-# "%6erte% to the f".t th"t not e6ery h-m"n ".t, e6en tho-'h
.on#.io-# "n% free, i# ipso facto " mor"$ ".t. If I thin2 on$y of the e#theti. "n% e.onomi.
6"$-e# of "n ".t "n% 4"y no hee% 5h"t#oe6er, not e6en .onf-#e%$y, to it# mor"$ 6"$-e, my
".t 5i$$ be " h-m"n ".t, b-t not " mor"$ one. Hen.e one 5i$$ e"#i$y .on.e%e to St.
hom"# th"t in or%er to be 'oo% "n ".t %oe# not nee% to be 4erforme% e74re##$y o-t of "
6irt-o-# moti6e or the $o6e of ;o%. It 5i$$ be eno-'h to "%6ert to it# ethi."$ 'oo%ne## in
'ener"$. On the other h"n%, it 5i$$ not be %iffi.-$t to "..e4t D-n# S.ot-#3 6ie54oint th"t
not "$$ h-m"n ".t#, #im4$y be."-#e they "re the re#-$t of " .on#.io-# "n% free %e.i#ion,
"re to be ."$$e% 'oo% or e6i$. Ho5e6er, neither m"y they be ."$$e% morally in%ifferent
".t#. hey "re #im4$y ".t# th"t %o not "tt"in to the $e6e$ of ethi."$ 6"$-e#.
O-r .on#.ien.e te$$# -# .$e"r$y th"t if 'oo% i# "$5"y# to be %one, #ti$$ not "$$ 'oo% i# to be
%one. In other 5or%#, o-r .on#.ien.e i# 5itne## to the f".t th"t the #4here of the 'oo% "n%
the #4here of %-ty %o not "$5"y# "n% ne.e##"ri$y .oin.i%e. o -n%er#t"n% the #"yin',
/onum est faciendum* in the #en#e th"t "n ".tion, be."-#e of the 6ery f".t th"t it i# 'oo%,
i# "$#o ob$i'"tory, 5o-$% $e"% -# to "n im4o##ib$e ri'ori#m. !# ."n be 4ro6e% from m"ny
4"##"'e# in hi# 5or2#, D-n# S.ot-# 5"# 5e$$ "5"re of thi# 4henomeno$o'i."$ %"t-m of
.on#.ien.e. It i# .ert"in$y 'oo% for m"n to %ire.t "$$ hi# ".tion# to ;o%> better, it i#
4re.i#e$y in thi# th"t the e##en.e of 'oo% $ie#, "# 5e h"6e #een before. Ne6erthe$e##,
S.ot-# 5rite#F 9M"n i# not bo-n% "$5"y# to refer hi# ".t# to ;o% by "n ".t-"$ or 6irt-"$
intention, for ;o% %i% not ob$i'e -# to %o #o.9
(AA
he re"#on 5hy ;o% %i% not ob$i'e m"n
to %o "$$ 4o##ib$e 'oo% %ee%# i# th"t 9;o% %i% not 5i#h to ob$i'e m"n to %o the
im4o##ib$e,
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(AA
Ibid#
,()1,
or 5h"t i# too %iffi.-$t for him in hi# e"rth$y .on%ition.9
(A+
he te#timony of o-r
.on#.ien.e th"t %-ty "n% the 'oo% %o not .oin.i%e fin%# it# .onfirm"tion in the tr"%ition"$
%i#tin.tion bet5een 4re.e4t# "n% e6"n'e$i."$ .o-n#e$#. he former "re ob$i'"tory for
e6erybo%y> the $"tter "re free. Here "ri#e .ert"in 4rob$em# .on.ernin' the n"t-re "n%
e7tent of %-ty, 5hi.h 5i$$ be %i#.-##e% in the ne7t #e.tion.
DUTY AND THE NATURAL LA
&hen i# 'oo% to be %oneL &hen %o 'oo% "n% %-ty .oin.i%eL On 5h"t b"#i# %oe# the
'oo% be.ome ob$i'"toryL ! fir#t ob#er6"tion to be m"%e i# th"t the mor"$ ob$i'"tion to
4erform "n ".t ."n be fo-n%e% either on the ne.e##"ry re$"tion of the obJe.t to the "'ent,
or on it# im4o#ition by " #-4erior 5i$$. Doe# the ob$i'"tion of the mor"$ ".t h"6e it#
fo-n%"tion in the ne.e##"ry re$"tion of the obJe.t or mere$y in the .omm"n% of ;o%L
D-n# S.ot-#3 tho-'ht on thi# 4oint i# .$e"r "n% %efinite. he %i6ine e##en.e, 5hi.h i# "
ne.e##"ry 'oo% for ;o%3# 5i$$, i# "$#o " ne.e##"ry 'oo% for e6ery r"tion"$ .re"t-re. ;o% i#
the $"#t en% to5"r% 5hi.h "$$ .re"t-re# "re or%"ine%, either %ire.t$y or in%ire.t$y, in 6irt-e
of their 6ery n"t-re "# .re"t-re#. ;o% "$one i# " ne.e##"ry 'oo%, $o6"b$e in Him#e$f.
Bein' the #o-r.e of 'oo%ne##, He i# "$#o the #o-r.e of %-ty. Other 'oo%# o-t#i%e of ;o%
be.ome ob$i'"tory on$y to the e7tent th"t they he$4 m"n "tt"in hi# en% "n% th-#
4"rti.i4"te in the ob$i'"tion bin%in' m"n to ;o%. Hen.e " #in i# .ommitte% not on$y 5hen
" m"n %e4"rt# from hi# en%, b-t "$#o 5hen he %i#re'"r%# me"n# ne.e##"ry to the
"tt"inment of th"t en%. Contem4t of the me"n# Jeo4"r%i<e# the en%, J-#t "# the inte$$e.t3#
reJe.tion of " .on.$-#ion im4$ie# ne'"tion of the 4rin.i4$e from 5hi.h the .on.$-#ion i#
%eri6e%.
(A)

DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(A+
Ibid#* IV, %. 8, =. 8, n. 8.
(A)
Ibid#* II, %. B), =. (, n. @.
,()B,
he#e fe5 rem"r2# m"y #-ffi.e to he$4 -# -n%er#t"n% th"t for D-n# S.ot-# %-ty ."n on$y
be moti6"te% by the obJe.ti6e$y ne.e##"ry 'oo%, ;o%, in"#m-.h "# He i# the -$tim"te "n%
ne.e##"ry en% of "$$ thin'#. hey m"y "$#o he$4 -# -n%er#t"n% th"t for the S-bt$e Do.tor "
'oo% i# ob$i'"tory on$y to the e7tent th"t it i# "n in%i#4en#"b$e me"n# to the "tt"inment of
the en%.
Ho5 5i$$ m"n 2no5 5hi.h 'oo%# "re ob$i'"tory "n% 5hi.h "re notL Ho5 %oe# %-ty
be.ome m"nife#t to my .on#.ien.eL D-ty m"nife#t# it#e$f thro-'h $"5. L"5 "n% %-ty "re
.orre$"ti6e term#. o e#t"b$i#h the r"n'e of one i# to #et $imit# to the other. D-n# S.ot-#
h"# been .h"r'e% 5ith %enyin' the n"t-r"$ $"5, or th"t $"5 5hi.h i# b-t the e74re##ion of
"n etern"$ %i6ine or%in"tion. hi# .h"r'e i# -n%e#er6e%. In f".t, %ifferen.e# bet5een
S.oti#ti. "n% tr"%ition"$ %o.trine "re %-e to the more ri'oro-# "n% 4re.i#e .on.e4t of
n"t-r"$ $"5 e$"bor"te% by the S-bt$e Do.tor. For " $"5 to be ."$$e% n"t-r"$ in the #tri.t
#en#e of the term, rem"r2# D-n# S.ot-#, it i# ne.e##"ry th"t it be im4o#e% -4on "$$ men,
re'"r%$e## of time, 4$".e, .-#tom#, "n% ment"$ity, "n% 5ith "b#o$-te .$"rity, imme%i".y,
"n% .ert"inty. he#e re=-irement# ."n be met on$y by 4r".ti."$ J-%'ment# th"t "re
"b#o$-te$y e6i%ent. !..or%in'$y, the n"t-r"$ $"5, in the #tri.t #en#e of the term, ."n on$y
in.$-%e tho#e ethi."$ "7iom# 5hi.h "re e6i%ent by the #im4$e en-n.i"tion of their term#,
"n% tho#e .on.$-#ion# 5hi.h ."n be %eri6e% by $o'i."$ ne.e##ity from them.
(A@
he#e
.h"r".teri#ti.# "re 4ro4er on$y to the fir#t three .omm"n%ment# of the %e."$o'-e. Not
e6en ;o% ."n %i#4en#e men from them, for ;o% ."n 5i$$ e6erythin' e7.e4t 5h"t i#
"b#-r% or #e$f,.ontr"%i.tory. 9he#e H.omm"n%ment#I be$on' to the n"t-r"$ $"5 in the
#tri.t #en#e, for, if ;o% e7i#t#, it necessarily fo$$o5# th"t He m-#t be
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(A@
+p# +.on#* III, %. B), =. -ni.", n. (F 9ho#e thin'# "re of the n"t-r"$ $"5 5hi.h "re
either ne.e##"ry 4rin.i4$e# e6i%ent from their term#, or .on.$-#ion# th"t fo$$o5
ne.e##"ri$y from #-.h 4rin.i4$e#.9
,()8,
$o6e% "# ;o%, "n% no other thin' ."n be the obJe.t of %i6ine 5or#hi4.9
(A*

In D-n# S.ot-#3 o4inion, the .omm"n%ment# 'i6en on the #e.on% #tone t"b$e "$#o be$on'
to the n"t-r"$ $"5, b-t on$y 5hen it i# t"2en in " bro"% #en#e. None of the#e
.omm"n%ment# i# imme%i"te$y e6i%ent "# "n "7iom, nor ."n it be #"i% th"t they "re "b$e
to be %e%-.e% by $o'i."$ ne.e##ity from the .omm"n%ment# re$"tin' to ;o%, or from
other ethi."$ "7iom#. Ho5, then, %oe# D-n# S.ot-# 4ro.ee% #o "# to fit the#e 4re.e4t# into
the n"t-r"$ $"5 "n% "ttrib-te to them " -ni6er#"$ 6"$-e e=-"$ to th"t of the .omm"n%ment#
of the fir#t t"b$eL
(+C

On thi# 4oint D-n# S.ot-#3 tho-'ht i# not =-ite .$e"r "n% "..-r"te. He 'i6e# t5o re"#on#.
he fir#t i# the 4"rti.-$"r h"rmony th"t e7i#t# bet5een the .omm"n%ment# of the #e.on%
t"b$e "n% tho#e of the fir#t. hi# h"rmony i# m-.h %ee4er th"n the one e7i#tin' bet5een
4o#iti6e $"5 "n% ethi."$ "7iom#. he #e.on% re"#on i# %eri6e% from the tr"%ition"$
te".hin' th"t "$$ the .omm"n%ment# h"6e been im4re##e% by ;o% on the h-m"n he"rt.
From " 4hi$o#o4hi."$ 4oint of 6ie5, it i# e6i%ent th"t the fir#t re"#on i# m-.h more
"44e"$in' th"n the #e.on%, 5hi.h h"# " r"ther theo$o'i."$ f$"6or.
! more effe.ti6e 5"y of e#t"b$i#hin' the fo-n%"tion of thi# -ni6er#"$ ".2no5$e%'ment of
the n"t-r"$ $"5 t"2en in " bro"% #en#e mi'ht .on#i#t in the e"#e 5ith 5hi.h " m"n "%mit#
the nee% for #-.h .omm"n%ment#, on.e he .on#i%er# the tr"'i. .on#e=-en.e# th"t 5o-$%
en#-e -4on their nonob#er6"n.e.
(+(

DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(A*
Ibid#* n. +.
(+C
Ibid#* n. (8> 3ep# -ar#* II, %. 11, =. -ni.", n. B.
(+(
hi# i# the ".-te ob#er6"tion m"%e by P. F. S.h5en%in'er in hi# f-n%"ment"$ #t-%y of
S.ot-#3 ethi.#, 9Met"4hy#i2 %e# Sitt$i.hen n".h 0. D-n# S.ot-#9, Wissenschaft und
Weisheit, I E (*B8G, (@C,1(C> II E (*BAG, (@,AC> III E (*B+G, *B,((*> (+(,(*C, 5hi.h I
-#e here "# " b"#i# for my e74o#ition.
,()A,
D-n# S.ot-# m"2e# -#e of thi# .riterion in e#t"b$i#hin' the b"#i# of m"n3# n"t-r"$ ri'ht to
4ri6"te 4ro4erty. In the #t"te of inno.en.e there 5"# no nee% for 4ri6"te 4ro4erty, for
4e".ef-$ .oe7i#ten.e b"#e% on the .ommon mo%er"tion of %e#ire# 5"# eno-'h to in#-re
b"#i. m"teri"$ 'oo%# to e6eryone. !fter ori'in"$ #in, e#t"b$i#hment of the ri'ht to 4ri6"te
4ro4erty be."me ne.e##"ry be."-#e of m"n3# 'ree%, 6io$en.e, "n% #$oth.
(+1
he re"#on#
J-#tifyin' the S.oti#ti. %i#tin.tion bet5een the n"t-r"$ $"5 in the #tri.t #en#e "n% the
n"t-r"$ $"5 in " bro"%er #en#e ."n be re%-.e% to three.
(. ! 2een min% $i2e D-n# S.ot-#3 .o-$% not f"i$ to noti.e the %ifferent for.e 5ith 5hi.h
the .omm"n%ment# of the fir#t t"b$e "n% tho#e of the #e.on% t"b$e "re im4o#e%.
1. S".re% S.ri4t-re 4re#ent# -# 5ith ."#e# in 5hi.h ;o%, in 6ie5 of " #-4erior 'oo%,
%i#4en#e# from one or the other .omm"n%ment of the #e.on% t"b$e. B-t not e6en the
"b#o$-te 4o5er of ;o% ."n #h"2e the obJe.ti6e met"4hy#i."$ ne.e##ity th"t -n%er$ie#
"$$ ethi."$ "7iom# "n% the .on.$-#ion# #tri.t$y %eri6e% from them. Hen.e 5e m-#t
.on.$-%e th"t if ;o% %i#4en#e# from " 4re.e4t, the im4$i."tion i# th"t #-.h " 4re.e4t
%oe# not re#t -4on " met"4hy#i."$ ne.e##ity, nor ."n it fin% it# "%e=-"te e74re##ion in
" ne.e##"ry J-%'ment. ! tr-$y n"t-r"$ $"5 ."nnot be t"m4ere% 5ith, not e6en by the
5i$$ of ;o%.
B. Ho5e6er, the f-n%"ment"$ re"#on for the %i#tin.tion bet5een the t5o 2in%# of
4re.e4t# of the n"t-r"$ $"5 $ie# in D-n# S.ot-#3 met"4hy#i.# of 6"$-e. On$y the
infinite bein' i# 'oo% in it#e$f> "$$ other bein'# "re 'oo% on$y to the e7tent th"t they
"re or%"ine% to ;o%. No5 it i# .$e"r th"t the ethi.# of %-ty i# b-t " ref$e7, "
.on#e=-en.e, of the met"4hy#i.# of the 'oo%. ! thin' m-#t be 'oo% in or%er to be of
ob$i'"tion, "n% the better " thin' i#, the 're"ter i# it# ob$i'"tion. If ;o%
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(+1
+p# +.on#, IV, %. (A, =. 1, n. 8.
,()+,
then i# the 'oo% in it#e$f, the 6ery e##en.e of 'oo%ne##, on$y ;o% m-#t be $o6e% in "n
"b#o$-te m"nner "n% on$y ;o% ."n be the obJe.t of ne.e##"ry %-tie#. Cre"te% thin'#
%o not 4o##e## 4erfe.t 'oo%ne##, for they "re mor"$$y 'oo% on$y to the e7tent th"t
they "re or%"ine% to the $"#t en%. Hen.e they ."nnot im4o#e "ny ob$i'"tion, e7.e4t
in#of"r "# they "re ne.e##"ry me"n# to the $"#t en%. &hi.h .re"t-re, D-n# S.ot-#
"#2# 4ertinent$y, ."n "ttrib-te to it#e$f 9" 'oo%ne## th"t i# ne.e##"ry for the 'oo%ne##
of the $"#t en%L9
(+B
&hi.h .re"t-re ."n .$"im to be ne.e##"ry for the re"$i<"tion of
the 'o"$# of ;o%3# infinite 5i#%omL h-#, in the $"#t "n"$y#i#, it i# the $imit"tion of
their 6"$-e th"t 4re6ent# .re"t-re# from bein' the obJe.t of ne.e##"ry "n% "b#o$-te
%-tie#. he .omm"n%ment# of the #e.on% t"b$e, "n% "$$ the %-tie# th"t "re in "ny 5"y
re$"te% to them, .on.ern 4re.i#e$y the re$"tion# of men "mon' them#e$6e#, "n% h"6e
"# their obJe.t .ert"in .re"te% 'oo%#. In "..or% 5ith tr"%ition"$ te".hin', D-n# S.ot-#
m"2e# them 4"rt of the n"t-r"$ $"5. On "..o-nt of hi# 4"rti.-$"r 6ie5# on the #-bJe.t,
he "%o4t# in their re'"r% the %enomin"tion of n"t-r"$ $"5 9in " bro"% #en#e.9
POSITI/E LA AND CONFIRMATORY LA
Be#i%e# n"t-r"$ $"5, D-n# S.ot-# %i#.-##e# 4o#iti6e $"5 "n% 5h"t he ."$$# .onfirm"tory
$"5. he .h"r".teri#ti. tr"it# of 4o#iti6e $"5# "re the obJe.t of " 6ery ."ref-$ #t-%y on hi#
4"rt, "n% "re "# fo$$o5#. Po#iti6e $"5# %o not be$on' to the fie$% of n"t-r"$ $"5, nor "re
they re$"te% to it by " .on#e=-enti"$ re$"tion or by 5"y of " ne.e##"ry .oro$$"ry. hey "re
r"ther inte'r"tion# of the n"t-r"$ $"5, re=-ire% by it# in%etermin"tene## "# to the .h"n'in'
.on%ition# "n% .om4$e7 #it-"tion# in 5hi.h men fin% them#e$6e# in .on.rete $ife.
Ho5e6er, the n"t-r"$
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(+B
Ibid#, III, %. B), =. -ni.", n. A.
,()),
$"5, "# " ne'"ti6e norm, "$5"y# rem"in# "# the b"#i# of "$$ 4o#iti6e $"5#. S-.h $"5#
5o-$% $o#e "$$ 6"$-e if they .ont"ine% "nythin' .ontr"ry to the n"t-r"$ $"5.
he f".t th"t 4o#iti6e $"5# "re not 5h"t mi'ht be ."$$e% e6i%ent, or "t $e"#t e"#i$y
%e%-.e%, .on.$-#ion# from the n"t-r"$ $"5 e74$"in# their .h"r".ter of hi#tori."$ "n%
'eo'r"4hi."$ m-t"bi$ity. Cert"in 4o#iti6e $"5# m"y be 6"$i% on$y for " .ert"in 4erio% of
time or #ome 4"rti.-$"r hi#tori."$ #it-"tion. On the other h"n%, #in.e 4o#iti6e $"5# %o not
%eri6e their bin%in' for.e %ire.t$y from the n"t-r"$ $"5, the 4rob$em n"t-r"$$y "ri#e# "# to
the b"#i# of their $e'itim".y "n% 6"$-e. o 4-t it in "nother 5"y, if n"t-re i# not the b"#i#
of the 4o#iti6e $"5#, 5h"t $e'i#$"tor h"# 5ithin him#e$f the "-thority to im4o#e #-.h
ob$i'"tion# -4on menL
E6i%ent$y, the tit$e of $e'i#$"tor be$on'# 4rim"ri$y to ;o%. h"t He ".t-"$$y e7er.i#e%
#-.h " ri'ht i# 4$"in from " re"%in' of the S.ri4t-re#. he Ch-r.h "$#o, by ;o%3# %ire.t
%e$e'"tion, h"# the ri'ht to 4rom-$'"te "n% im4o#e 4o#iti6e $"5# 5ithin the $imit# of it#
#4irit-"$ "n% re$i'io-# 4o5er. h"t $e'i#$"ti6e 4o5er $i2e5i#e be$on'# to the #t"te i# not
%iffi.-$t to %emon#tr"te. S-.h " 4o5er %eri6e# from the "-thority th"t "t one time the
n"t-r"$ $"5 '"6e to " f"ther of " f"mi$y. In S.ot-#3 o4inion, #t"te# "re b-t " %e6e$o4ment
of the $"r'e 4"tri"r.h"$ f"mi$ie#, in 5hi.h "-thority re#i%e% by ri'ht of n"t-re in the he"%
of the f"mi$y. &hen $"ter the h-m"n r".e 're5 "n% #4re"% "n% 4eo4$e# of %ifferent b$oo%
min'$e% to'ether, the f"mi$y #y#tem be."me im4o##ib$e. Hen.eforth, the .hief of the
ne5$y forme% #o.i"$ 'ro-4# 5"# no $on'er %e#i'n"te% by ri'ht of 4"tri"r.h"$ %e#.ent, b-t
5"# e$e.te% "n% "44ointe% by the free .hoi.e of the 4eo4$e. he e$e.tion #y#tem .h"n'e%,
b-t the "-thority of the r-$er "$5"y# re#te% on th"t n"t-r"$ hier"r.hi."$ e7i'en.y th"t h"%
e#t"b$i#he% the "-thority of the he"%
,()@,
of the f"mi$y.
(+8
he ".t, then, by 5hi.h the $e'i#$"tor 4rom-$'"te# the $"5 th"t he h"#
%e.ree% in hi# 4r-%en.e i# the fo-n%"tion or #o-r.e of the $"53# bin%in' for.e.
Po#iti6e .onfirm"tory $"5 h"# in .ommon 5ith "$$ 4o#iti6e $"5# the f".t th"t it i#
4rom-$'"te% by " $e'i#$"tor. Ho5e6er, it# .ontent i# i%enti."$ 5ith the n"t-r"$ $"5 t"2en
both in it# #tri.t "n% bro"% #en#e. !$tho-'h " h-m"n $e'i#$"tor ."n "$#o 4rom-$'"te
4o#iti6e $"5# to .onfirm .ert"in %-tie# "$re"%y im4o#e% by the n"t-r"$ $"5, on$y ;o% ."n
4rom-$'"te " tr-$y .onfirm"tory $"5 h"6in' the #"me .h"r".teri#ti. of -ni6er#"$ity "# the
$"5 of n"t-re. For thi# re"#on, D-n# S.ot-# in.$-%e# in the ."te'ory of 4o#iti6e
.onfirm"tory $"5# on$y #-.h O$% e#t"ment $e'i#$"tion "# .onfirm# "n% %etermine# the
n"t-r"$ $"5.
h"t ;o% "$one ."n be the $e'i#$"tor of 4o#iti6e .onfirm"tory $"5 i# m"nife#t from the
tie# bin%in' thi# $"5 to the n"t-r"$ $"5. Be."-#e of the i%entity of the .ontent of the
.onfirm"tory $"5 5ith the norm# en'r"6e% in o-r he"rt# "n% re6e"$e% to -# by the 6oi.e
of o-r .on#.ien.e, #ome m"y be $e% to be$ie6e th"t .onfirm"tory $"5 i# #-4erf$-o-#.
Entire$y "4"rt from it# .ontr"%i.tion of the #o$emn 4rom-$'"tion on Mo-nt Sin"i, thi#
obJe.tion %oe# not .on#tit-te " re"$ %iffi.-$ty for D-n# S.ot-#. He for.ef-$$y em4h"#i<e#
the non"n"$yti. .h"r".ter, "n% hen.e the nonimme%i"te "n% ne.e##"ry e6i%en.e, of the
ethi."$ J-%'ment#, 5hi.h, t"2en to'ether, m"2e -4 the n"t-r"$ $"5 in the bro"% #en#e of
the term. Be"rin' thi# in min%, it 5i$$ be re"%i$y #een th"t .onfirm"tory $"5 not on$y i#
not #-4erf$-o-#, b-t 6ery .on6enient "n% e6en ne.e##"ry. hro-'h it, the $"5 of n"t-re
."n f-$$y #hine in the .on#.ien.e# of men "n% %i##i4"te from their min%# the ob#.-ritie#
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(+8
Cf. P. P"rtheni-# Min'e#, O. F. M., Ioannis Duns Scoti Doctrina -hilosophica et
"heologica EP-"r"..hiF y4o'r"4hi" Co$$e'ii S. Bon"6ent-r"e, (*BCG, 6o$. I, 44.
8(),1(.
,()*,
"n% -n.ert"intie# $i2e$y to "ri#e 5hen they 'et "5"y from the 4rin.i4$e# of imme%i"te
e6i%en.e "n% re$y -4on %e%-.tion# th"t %o not "44e"r to be "b#o$-te$y ne.e##"ry.
(+A
On
the other h"n%, be."-#e of it# -ni6er#"$ity, n"t-r"$ $"5 m"y often "44e"r to be
in%etermin"te. Hen.e it# .$"rifi."tion or "-thenti. inter4ret"tion 5i$$ be 6ery he$4f-$. In
re$"tion to n"t-r"$ $"5, 4o#iti6e .onfirm"tory $"5 i# $i2e " 4o#iti6e "44ro6"$ "n%
.$"rifi."tion. hi# ."n be %one "-thorit"ti6e$y on$y by ;o%, the "-thor of n"t-re.
he -ti$ity "n% effi.".y of the .onfirm"tory $"5 5i$$ be m"nife#t to "nyone 5ho ref$e.t#
-4on the .on.rete 4#y.ho$o'y of the h-m"n #o-$. It i# beyon% %o-bt th"t if ;o%3# e74re##
.omm"n% i# "%%e% to the %i.t"te of o-r .on#.ien.e, 5e "re more %ee4$y im4re##e% by it.
O-r #en#e of %-ty 5i$$ "$#o be.ome #tron'er "n% .$e"rer. hi# ho$%# for the n"t-r"$ $"5 in
the #tri.t #en#e, "n% e6en more #o for the n"t-r"$ $"5 in " bro"% #en#e, 5hi.h %oe# not
enJoy the imme%i"te e6i%en.e th"t i# 4ro4er to the former. If to thi# 5e "%% the f".t th"t
#ome men, be."-#e of their 4"##ion# "n% the %-$$ne## of their min% m"y not e6en "tt"in "
#-ffi.ient 2no5$e%'e of the n"t-r"$ $"5, J-#t "# they %o not "tt"in " 4ro4er 2no5$e%'e of
;o%,
(++
5e #h"$$ h"6e "n "%%ition"$ re"#on for em4h"#i<in' the im4ort"n.e "n% ne.e##ity
of the .onfirm"tory $"5.
M"n3# #"$6"tion %e4en%# -4on the "tt"inment of hi# -$tim"te en% "n% hi# Jo-rney to thi#
'o"$ i# 4rim"ri$y #ho5n to him by the n"t-r"$ $"5. Hen.e no one 5i$$ f"i$ to #ee ho5 5e$$
it befit# the %i6ine 'oo%ne## to 4ro6i%e m"n 5ith " 5"y of obt"inin' " 2no5$e%'e of the
n"t-r"$ $"5 th"t i# "# .$e"r "n%
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(+A
3ep# -ar#, IV, %. 1@, =. -ni.", n. (AF 9I 5i#h to em4h"#i<e th"t Hthe 4o#iti6e
.onfirm"tory $"5I m-#t be 4rom-$'"te% by ;o%, for tho#e thin'# th"t "re f"r "5"y
from the 4r".ti."$ 4rin.i4$e# %o not "44e"r to be$on' to the n"t-r"$ $"5. he #"me m-#t
be #"i% of tho#e 4r".ti."$ 4rin.i4$e# th"t "re 2no5n to e6erybo%y by the #t"tement of
their term#, 5hene6er the#e term# "re not -n%er#too%.9
(++
+p# +.on#, III, %. B), =. -ni.", n. (B.
,(@C,
"# effe.ti6e "# 4o##ib$e. he .onfirm"tory 4o#iti6e $"5 i# th-# "n effe.t of ;o%3# 4"tern"$
#o$i.it-%e for m"n.
CONCLUDIN# REMAR!S
In brin'in' thi# .h"4ter to " .$o#e, t5o ob#er6"tion# "re in or%er. he fir#t i# thi#. he
brief e74o#ition th"t h"# been m"%e of D-n# S.ot-#3 ethi.# 5i$$ #ho5 ho5 f$im#y "n%
.r-%e i# the .h"r'e of mor"$ 4o#iti6i#m #ometime# bro-'ht "'"in#t hi# ethi."$ #y#tem. It i#
4$"in th"t for him the b"#i# of mor"$ity "n% the #o-r.e of mor"$ %-ty "re the %i6ine
e##en.e, in"#m-.h "# it i# the #-4reme 'oo% "n% ne.e##"ry fin"$ en% of e6ery ".t "n%
6o$ition. &hi$e the ethi."$ "7iom 9;o% i# to be $o6e%9 EDeus est diligendusG i#, in "$$ it#
e6i%en.e "n% ne.e##ity, the inner #tren'th of "$$ $"5#, the %i6ine 'oo%ne## i# the ."-#e
"n% #o-r.e of "$$ 6"$-e#. ! more obJe.ti6e "n% #o$i% fo-n%"tion of ethi.# %oe# not #eem to
be 4o##ib$e.
S.oti#ti. ethi.# i# "n "ttem4t to #ho5 by 5"y of ri'oro-# %emon#tr"tion th"t 'oo%ne## "n%
%-ty %o not e7i#t, nor h"6e they "ny #i'nifi."n.e, "4"rt from their re$"tion to #-4reme
'oo%ne## "n% %-ty. It i# 4re.i#e$y in thi# th"t it# .h"r".ter "n% ori'in"$ity $ie. hi#
%o.trine i# %i#tin.t from other tr"%ition"$ %o.trine#, b-t in #-b#t"nti"$ "'reement 5ith
them.
o #"y th"t for D-n# S.ot-# the b"#i# of mor"$ity i# the 5i$$ of ;o%, i# by no me"n#
in.orre.t. B-t ."re #ho-$% be t"2en not to .onf-#e thi# 5i$$ 5ith ."4ri.e or "rbitr"rine##. It
#ho-$% r"ther be -n%er#too% "# th"t 2in% of 5i$$ 5hereby ;o% est rationabilissime et
ordinatissime 5olens#
he #e.on% ob#er6"tion i# thi#. D-n# S.ot-#3 ethi."$ %o.trine# offer to -# on.e more the
o44ort-nity of %i#.ernin' ho5 f"ithf-$ he i# to the !-'-#tini"n tr"%ition. In%ee%, if 5e
5ere tryin' to e74re## in " fe5 5or%# the 4rofo-n% .on6i.tion in#4irin' "$$ the "n"$y#i#
"n% e6ery .on.$-#ion of hi# ethi.#, 5e 5o-$% h"6e to #t"te it th-#F J-#t "# the $o6e of ;o%
for hi# .re"t-re# i# the -$tim"te re"#on for .re"tion, #o the $o6e of m"n
,(@(,
for ;o% i# the inner for.e th"t r"i#e# him to ;o%. Lo6e i# th-# the $"5 of o-r bein' "# 5e$$
"# the $"5 of o-r #"$6"tion. D-n# S.ot-#3 ethi.# ."n ri'ht$y be ."$$e% " #.ientifi.
%emon#tr"tion of the 4rim".y of $o6e.
,(@1,
PART THREE
DUNS SCOTUS IN HISTORY
AND CATHOLIC THOU#HT
,(@B,
I
DUNS SCOTUS' POSITION IN THE
PAST
PERH!PS I IS no e7"''er"tion to ."$$ D-n# S.ot-# -nfort-n"te be."-#e of "%6er#e
.ir.-m#t"n.e# th"t "ffe.te% both hi# $ife "n% tho-'ht. He %ie% before the fin"$ re6i#ion of
hi# 4rin.i4"$ 5or2, "n% $eft behin% him " .onf-#e% $iter"ry $e'".y 5hi.h '"6e ri#e to 6ery
%iffi.-$t "n% "$mo#t in#o$-b$e 4rob$em# in the #y#tem"ti. #t-%y of hi# te".hin'. he hi'h
4re#ti'e re".he% by St. hom"# in the hi#tory of Chri#ti"n tho-'ht i# "nother f".tor th"t
h"# .ontrib-te% to the S-bt$e Do.tor3# mi#fort-ne. he .om4"ri#on 5hi.h be.ome# #o
n"t-r"$, if not ne.e##"ry, bet5een the Domini."n M"#ter "n% the Fr"n.i#."n en%# -4 mo#t
of the time to S.ot-#3 %i#.re%it. Both 5ere 4rofo-n% "n% #y#tem"ti. thin2er#, b-t St.
hom"# h"# "n e"#y 6i.tory be."-#e of the .$"rity of hi# #ty$e, the #im4$i.ity of hi#
e74o#ition, "n% the .on6in.in' tone of hi# "r'-ment"tion.
he#e "%6"nt"'e# of form "n% #ty$e "re f"r from bein' ne'$i'ib$e. hey h"6e %one m-.h
to m"2e the 5or2# of the !n'e$i. Do.tor hi'h$y re"%"b$e "n% =-ite "%"4t"b$e "# "n
offi.i"$ te7tboo2 in C"tho$i. #.hoo$#. hi# f".t in t-rn h"# $e% C"tho$i. #.ho$"r# to fo.-#
their "ttention on the tho-'ht of St. hom"# "n% m"2e it the obJe.t of n-mber$e## #t-%ie#
"n% in=-irie# from the hi#tori."$, e7e'eti."$, "n% 4hi$o#o4hi."$ 4oint# of 6ie5. he
ri.hne##, h"rmony, "n% fe.-n%ity of St.
,(@A,
hom"#3 #4e.-$"tion h"6e th-# been ".2no5$e%'e% by e6eryone. !$$ other me%ie6"$
thin2er#, in.$-%in' the 'i'"nti. St. !-'-#tine, more often n"me% th"n re"$$y 2no5n, "n%
the #er"4hi. St. Bon"6ent-re, h"6e been $eft in the #h"%o5. D-n# S.ot-# h"# #-ffere%
e6en more. Not on$y h"# hi# 4er#on"$ity been $eft in the #h"%o5, b-t of hi# 4hi$o#o4hi."$
"n% theo$o'i."$ 5or2#,,ne6er #t-%ie% 5ith th"t minim-m of #ym4"thy 5hi.h "$one m"2e#
4o##ib$e the -n%er#t"n%in' of " thin2er, "n% ne6er e6"$-"te% in " 5e$$,b"$"n.e% "n%
4rofo-n% 6i#ion of the 5ho$e #y#tem,,on$y tho#e the#e# h"6e been .on#i#tent$y
em4h"#i<e% 5hi.h m"2e him "44e"r " #y#tem"ti. o44onent of St. hom"# "n% #eem to J"r
5ith th"t h"rmonio-# homi#ti. #ynthe#i# 5hi.h i# the obJe.t of -ni6er#"$ "%mir"tion "n%
i# be$ie6e% to re4re#ent the ".me "n% mo#t m"t-re fr-it of Chri#ti"n tho-'ht.
D-n# S.ot-# h"# been re.2one% "n% %i#mi##e% "# " #t-bborn "n% e7tr"6"'"nt .riti., r"ther
th"n "# " .on#tr-.ti6e "n% #y#tem"ti. thin2er "n% " f"ithf-$ #er6"nt of tr-th from 5hom
one m"y %i##ent on$y "fter he h"# been 'i6en the .re%it of " he"rin'. h-# " ne5 D-n#
S.ot-# h"# been born, the 2in% of D-n# S.ot-# 5e 2no5 from the m"n-"$# of the hi#tory
of 4hi$o#o4hy, e#4e.i"$$y tho#e 5ritten by C"tho$i.#, 5hi.h 'i6e $itt$e .re%it to the S-bt$e
Do.tor "n% %i#mi## him 5ith the -#-"$ "44e$$"tion of "n hy4er.riti."$ min%.
!$$ the .h"r'e# $e6e$e% "'"in#t D-n# S.ot-# m"y be #-mme% -4 in the hi#tori."$
#t"tement th"t 5ith him #.ho$"#ti.i#m 'oe# #h"r4$y "n% #5ift$y into %e.$ine. &ith him, it
i# #"i%, .riti.i#m 4re6"i$# o6er .on#tr-.ti6e tho-'ht> the #.ho$"#ti. metho%, hitherto
#im4$e "n% or%er$y, be.ome# .onf-#e%, #-bt$e, tort-o-#, "n% e7treme$y 6erbo#e> %i"$e.ti.#
#-4er#e%e# %e4th of tho-'ht, "n% %e#ire for no6e$ty t"2e# the 4$".e of the #e"r.h for tr-th.
Fo$$o5in' the #tron' %efen#e of #ome Fr"n.i#."n #.ho$"r#, 5ho ."$$e% the "ttention of
im4"rti"$ me%ie6"$i#t#. to the tr-e me"nin' of S.oti#ti. #4e.-$"tion, trib-te# 4"i% to D-n#
S.ot-#3
,(@+,
%ee4$y .on#tr-.ti6e 'eni-# "re in.re"#in' e6ery %"y. E6en in C"tho$i. m"n-"$# of the
hi#tory of 4hi$o#o4hy, #-.h "# honn"r%3# "n% Co4$e#ton3#,
(
S.ot-#3 4hi$o#o4hi."$
#ynthe#i# i# no5 4$".e% "mon' the 're"t #y#tem#, in $ine 5ith tho#e of St. hom"# "n% St.
Bon"6ent-re.
I fee$ .onfi%ent th"t the 4"'e# of thi# brief o-t$ine of D-n# S.ot-#3 4hi$o#o4hi."$ tho-'ht
5i$$ in #ome me"#-re he$4 the re"%er to ."t.h " '$im4#e of the 4"##ion for .on#tr-.ti6e
thin2in' th"t 4er6"%e# "$$ of S.ot-#3 'en-ine 5or2#, " 4"##ion th"t, by -ni6er#"$
".2no5$e%'ment, "nim"te# hi# theo$o'i."$ #4e.-$"tion "n% 4ro%-.e# it# mo#t #t-4en%o-#
fr-it# in the 're"t the#e# of the Imm".-$"te Con.e4tion of M"ry "n% the "b#o$-te 4rim".y
of Chri#t.
Re"$ %iffi.-$tie# .on.ernin' e=-"$$y re"$ 4rob$em# ."n "$5"y# be fo-n% "t the root of "$$
the %i6er'en.ie# bet5een D-n# S.ot-# "n% the other 're"t #.ho$"#ti. m"#ter#. S-bt$ety of
re"#onin' i# b-t "n "ttem4t to embr".e the entire .om4$e7 of " 4"rti.-$"r 4rob$em #o "# to
'et " %ee4er in#i'ht into re"$ity. ! thin2er $i2e D-n# S.ot-# 5ho e$"bor"te# #-.h
%o.trine# "# the %o.trine of the -ni6o.ity of bein', 5ho 'i6e# #o in'enio-# "n%
.h"$$en'in' " #o$-tion to the 4rob$em of 2no5$e%'e, 5ho 4$".e# on " ne5 b"#i# the
4rob$em of ;o%3# e7i#ten.e by e74$oitin' "n% f-#in' to'ether "$$ the e$ement# offere% to
him by tr"%ition, 5ho thro5# #-.h 4enetr"tin' $i'ht on the 4rob$em# of ethi.#, 5ho $e"6e#
hi# m"r2 of ori'in"$ity in "$$ %o.trine#, 5ho "ttem4t# to re.on.i$e in " ne5 #ynthe#i# the
t5ofo$% 4hi$o#o4hi."$ tr"%ition th"t -n%er %ifferent n"me# 4er6"%e# the 5ho$e hi#tory of
h-m"n tho-'ht, .ert"in$y #ho-$% not be %eeme% the h"rbin'er of #.ho$"#ti.i#m3# %e.$ine.
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(
F. 0. honn"r%, !. !., A Short ;istory of -hilosophy, tr"n#. E%5"r% M"<i"r<, C. PP. S.
E P"ri#,o-rn"iF De#.$Ke, (*AAG, 44. 8B8,A1> Fre%eri.2 Co4$e#ton , S. 0., A ;istory of
-hilosophy E &e#tmin#terF he Ne5m"n Pre##, (*ACG, 6o$. II, 44. 8)+,AA(.
,(@),
he re"%er 5ho h"# the .o-r"'e to 4er#e6ere in the #t-%y of hi# 5or2#, 5hi.h "re tr-$y
%iffi.-$t on "..o-nt of their "b#tr".t #ty$e "n% the te7t-"$ .onf-#ion in 5hi.h they h"6e
re".he% -#, 5i$$ fin% in D-n# S.ot-# " ten".io-# re#e"r.her, not e"#i$y #"ti#fie%, b-t
"$5"y# f-$$ of %eferen.e to5"r% other#, e6en 5hen ne5 #o$-tion# "re #-''e#te% th"t
fo$$o5 " ne5 "n% #ome5h"t %ifferent 4"th. he re"%er 5i$$ "$#o '"in im4re##ion# $i2e
tho#e one h"# on enterin' "n -nfini#he% ."the%r"$. he m"in "r.hite.t-r"$ $ine# h"6e been
"$mo#t .om4$ete$y ."rrie% o-t, b-t 5hi$e in one 4$".e he meet# 5ith " #4ire ri#in' hi'h
into the #2y, " fe5 #te4# f-rther he 5i$$ noti.e "n "r.hite.toni. motif 5hi.h h"# #."r.e$y
been hinte% "t. &here6er he 'oe#, hi# eye# f"$$ -4on #."ffo$%in', be"m#, m"teri"$#, "n%
too$# th"t "re re"%y to be -#e% b-t me"n5hi$e $ie 5itho-t or%er on the 'ro-n% or on the
#."ffo$%in'. he fir#t im4re##ion i# -n"6oi%"b$y one of %i#or%er. he re#-$t i# th"t, 5hi$e
" h"#ty or -n=-"$ifie% 6i#itor imme%i"te$y $e"6e# the 4$".e %i##"ti#fie%, "nother, 5ho h"#
the time "n% 5i$$ to .om4$ete ment"$$y the -nfini#he% %e#i'n on the tr".e# of 5h"t h"#
been %one, 5i$$ be "b$e to "%mire the h"rmony of the e%ifi.e "n% the "r.hite.t3# .re"ti6e
4o5er. In my o4inion, the 5i%e$y %ifferent J-%'ment# 4"##e% on D-n# S.ot-#3 4hi$o#o4hy
fin% their e74$"n"tion in thi# f".tF D-n# S.ot-# i# " thin2er 5ho nee%#, "# it 5ere, to be
%i#.o6ere% "n% he$4e% by o-r "ttention "n% -n%er#t"n%in'.
&ith re'"r% to the hi#tori."$ me"nin' of D-n# S.ot-#3 #4e.-$"tion, I be$ie6e I h"6e m"%e
my#e$f #-ffi.ient$y .$e"r in P"rt One, Ch"4ter III, of thi# 5or2. It i# "$5"y# %iffi.-$t to
%etermine 4re.i#e$y to 5h"t e7tent "n ori'in"$ thin2er be$on'# to thi# or th"t 4hi$o#o4hi."$
tren% of tho-'ht. Ho5e6er, I "m .on6in.e% there i# 'oo% re"#on for #"yin' th"t D-n#
S.ot-#, in 2ee4in' 5ith the #4e.-$"ti6e tr"%ition of the Fr"n.i#."n Or%er, rem"in#
#-b#t"nti"$$y "n !-'-#tini"n. hi# refer# 4"rti.-$"r$y to hi# 5"y of -n%er#t"n%in' "n%
#t"tin' the 6"rio-# 4hi$o#o4hi."$ 4rob$em#. !# o.."#ion h"# "ri#en, I h"6e 4ointe%
,(@@,
o-t ho5 #tron' "n% 4rofo-n%$y ".ti6e i# the !-'-#tini"n inherit"n.e in D-n# S.ot-#3
#y#tem. o in#i#t f-rther on thi# 4oint i# to no 4-r4o#e, #in.e I 5o-$% e74o#e my#e$f to
-#e$e## re4etition. I 5i#h r"ther to m"2e one ob#er6"tion of " 'ener"$ .h"r".ter.
E6eryone 2no5# th"t the fir#t #te4 to5"r% the -n%er#t"n%in' "n% 4ro4er e6"$-"tion of "
%o.trine i# to #ee e7".t$y 5h"t 4rob$em thi# %o.trine "im# to #o$6e. It i# e=-"$$y e6i%ent
th"t in or%er to h"6e " 'oo% 6ie5 of "nythin', 5e m-#t 4$".e o-r#e$6e# in " .on6enient
4$".e. o ne'$e.t to %o thi# i# to e74o#e o-r#e$6e# to the ri#2 of mi#J-%'in' the obJe.t or
"t $e"#t of not .om4$ete$y 'r"#4in' it# 6"$-e, e6en if it h"44en# to be " m"#ter4ie.e. M"ny
#.ho$"r# h"6e '"ine% the im4re##ion th"t #ome of D-n# S.ot-#3 ori'in"$ 4hi$o#o4hi."$
the#e# "re #o %ifferent "n% re6o$-tion"ry in .h"r".ter th"t they ."n h"r%$y be -n%er#too%.
hi# i# be."-#e they f"i$ to $oo2 "t them from the 4ro4er 6ie54oint, 5hi.h i# th"t of the
#4e.-$"ti6e !-'-#tini"n tr"%ition. he %o.trine# of the -ni6o.ity of bein', the form"$
%i#tin.tion, 2no5$e%'e of the #in'-$"r, "n% 6o$-nt"ri#m, e6en tho-'h e74re##e% in
!ri#tote$i"n term# "n% form-$"#, fin% their J-#tifi."tion "n% ".=-ire me"nin' on$y if
$in2e% to 4rob$em# #t"te% by, "n% fr"me% 5ithin, the !-'-#tini"n #4e.-$"tion. o
-n%er#t"n% D-n# S.ot-#, one m-#t "rri6e "t him by 5"y of !$e7"n%er of H"$e# "n% St.
Bon"6ent-re. hi# ho$%# for the S-bt$e Do.tor3# 4hi$o#o4hy "# 5e$$ "# for hi# theo$o'y.
!# " m"tter of f".t, the %i#.re4"n.ie# bet5een t5o tren%# of tho-'ht, e6en 4rior to the
#o$-tion of " 4rob$em, h"6e their root# in the 6ery #t"tement of the 4rob$em "t i##-e. o
.riti.i<e the #o$-tion 5itho-t 4"yin' "ttention to the term# in 5hi.h the 4rob$em i# #t"te%
i# to e74o#e one#e$f to the ri#2 of .ommittin' #erio-# inJ-#ti.e to the thin2er -n%er #t-%y.
InJ-#ti.e of thi# 2in% h"# been .ommitte% by m"ny of D-n# S.ot-#3 .riti.#.
&hen I #"y th"t D-n# S.ot-# i# #-b#t"nti"$$y "n !-'-#tini"n, I me"n th"t S.oti#ti.
4hi$o#o4hy i# nothin' b-t "n "ttem4t to
,(@*,
offer more 4re.i#e, more .riti."$, "n% more #.ientifi. #o$-tion# to 4rob$em# 4er.ei6e% in
"n !-'-#tini"n 5"y "n% 5ithin the !-'-#tini"n tr"%ition. hi# nee% for 4re.i#ion "n% thi#
#.ientifi. #4irit ."n 4erh"4# fin% their e74$"n"tion in the n"t-r"$ en%o5ment of D-n#
S.ot-#3 'eni-#. Yet 5e #ho-$% not $o#e #i'ht of the f".t th"t they 5ere "$re"%y, #o to
#4e"2, in the "ir, im4re'n"te% "# it 5"# 5ith the n"me "n% %o.trine# of !ri#tot$e. In f".t,
!ri#tot$e3# 're"tne## "n% the f"#.in"tion of hi# 5or2# $ie m"in$y in the .$"rity of hi#
e74o#ition "n% in the 4re.i#ion of hi# #t"tement#, n"me$y, in th"t #.ientifi. metho% 5hi.h
he form-$"te% in hi# $o'i."$ 5or2# "n% "44$ie% in hi# 4hi$o#o4hi."$ tre"ti#e#.
F-rthermore, St. hom"#3 e7"m4$e .o-$% not b-t e7ert inf$-en.e -4on $"ter thin2er#. hi#
m"y e74$"in 5hy D-n# S.ot-# "$#o t-rne% to !ri#tot$e, the m"#ter of .$"rity "n% 4re.i#ion,
in "n effort to #y#tem"ti<e hi# o5n 4hi$o#o4hi."$ int-ition# 5ithin the !ri#tote$i"n
fr"me5or2, 5hi.h, "mon' it# other 'oo% 4oint#, h"% the "%6"nt"'e of bein' .-rrent$y
-#e% "n% "t e6eryone3# %i#4o#"$. He #o 5e$$ #-..ee%e% in m"2in' the !ri#tote$i"n metho%
hi# o5n, th"t hi# 4hi$o#o4hy h"# been ."$$e% " Chri#ti"n !ri#tote$i"ni#m. It# no6e$ty,
5hen .om4"re% to St. hom"#3, 5o-$% #im4$y .on#i#t in the "b#or4tion of " $"r'er "mo-nt
of !-'-#tini"ni#m.
Per#on"$$y, I %o not #h"re thi# 6ie5, 5hi.h h"# been e74re##e% by the Fren.h S.oti#t,
F"ther Be$mon%.
N
Li2e5i#e, I .on#i%er "# 6ery =-e#tion"b$e the o4inion of F"ther
Ve-they, 5ho .h"r'e# th"t D-n# S.ot-# $et# !ri#tot$e '"in the -44er h"n%, "n% th"t he
th-# betr"y# the !-'-#tini"n in#4ir"tion, 5hi.h
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
N
Cf. SKr"4hin Be$mon%, 9Sim4$e# rem"r=-e# #-r $3i%Ko$o'ie .om4"rKe %e #"int hom"#
et %e D-n# S.ot,9 3e5ue de philosophie, (8, 6o$. MMIV E (*(8G, 181,+C> idem* 9E##"i
%e #ynthK#e 4hi$o#o4hi=-e %- #.oti#me,9 1a rance ranciscaine, MVI E (*BBG,
)B,(B(. !"r# $
,(*C,
ne6erthe$e## ."n be tr".e% here "n% there in hi# #y#tem.
N
For me D-n# S.ot-# rem"in# "n
!-'-#tini"n 5ho 4rofite% to the -tmo#t %e'ree by the !ri#tote$i"n metho% in the
e74o#ition of the tho-'ht# "n% %o.trine# th"t form hi# met"4hy#i."$ 6i#ion of re"$ity.
h-#, e6en from thi# 6ie54oint, D-n# S.ot-# "44e"r# to be " #erio-# "n% .on#tr-.ti6e
thin2er, %ee4$y 4enetr"te% 5ith " #en#e of tr"%ition, 5hi.h "t the time 5"# not mere$y
Fr"n.i#."n b-t r"ther C"tho$i.. !t the #"me time, he 2ee4# hi# min% o4en to 4ro're## "n%
.-$t-r"$ %e6e$o4ment "n% 4rofit# by them, .on6in.e% th"t he 5i$$ th-# be " f"ithf-$
#er6"nt of the tr-th.
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
N
Cf. LKon Ve-they, 9!-'-#tini#m-# -n% !ri#tote$i#m-#. Eine Er5i%er-n' "-fF Firmin
Hohm"nn, O. F. M. F (#t D-n# S2ot-# !-'-#tini#t o%er !ri#tote$i2erL9 Wissenschaft
und Weisheit, IV E (*B)G, 1((,(A. !"r# $
,(*(,
II
DUNS SCOTUS AND THE FUTURE
H!VIN; SEEN D-n S.ot-#3 4o#ition in the 4"#t, $et -# no5 $oo2 "t the im4ort"n.e "n%
the 4ro#4e.t# of the S.oti#ti. herit"'e for the f-t-re.
he hi#tory of S.oti#m h"# not yet been 5ritten. It i# #ti$$ in the 4re4"r"tory 4h"#e, "# thi#
or th"t S.oti#ti. fi'-re i# .ho#en "# the obJe.t of " 4"rti.-$"r #t-%y, or thi# or th"t S.oti#ti.
%o.trine i# .on#i%ere% in it# e6o$-tion "n% #et in re$"tion to other %o.trine#. hi# i# not the
4$".e to mention e6en brief$y the m"in .ontrib-tion# th"t mo%ern S.oti#ti. $iter"t-re ."n
offer to " re#e"r.her. &hi$e "n e74ert in the fie$% i# no %o-bt ".=-"inte% 5ith them, to the
or%in"ry re"%er they 5o-$% be of no intere#t. It i# "n in%i#4-t"b$e f".t, ho5e6er, th"t
"$on' 5ith the homi#ti. #.hoo$, " S.oti#ti. #.hoo$ of tho-'ht h"# emer'e% "n%
f$o-ri#he%. hro-'ho-t the .ent-rie# it h"# 'i6en to the Ch-r.h " 're"t n-mber of fir#t,
.$"## theo$o'i"n#, #"int$y 4re".her#, "n% formi%"b$e %efen%er# of the f"ith. he n-mber of
4hi$o#o4hi."$ "n% theo$o'i."$ 5or2# 5ritten in the n"me of S.ot-# %-rin' the .ent-rie# i#
im4o#in', for they "re .o-nte% by the h-n%re%#.
1

DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
1
Cf. Urie$ Smeet#, O. F. M., 1ineamenta bibliographiae scotisticae E RomeF
y4o'r"4hi" !-'-#tini"n", (*81G.
,(*1,
D-n# S.ot-#3 inf$-en.e -4on mo%ern non#.ho$"#ti. 4hi$o#o4her# i# "$mo#t ni$. hi# i# %-e
to the f".t th"t 6ery fe5 "mon' them h"6e h"% " %ire.t 2no5$e%'e of #.ho$"#ti.i#m.
F"ther S."r"m-<<i h"# 4ointe% o-t .ert"in im4ort"nt 4"r"$$e$# bet5een the tho-'ht of
D-n# S.ot-# "n% th"t of ;i"mb"tti#t" Vi.o.
N
It i# "$#o "n -n%eni"b$e f".t th"t #ome
mo%ern hi#tori"n#, $i2e &in%e$b"n%, h"6e noti.e% " .ert"in #4e.-$"ti6e "ffinity bet5een
S.oti#ti. %o.trine# "n% 6"rio-# %o.trine# of Leibni<.
NN
It 5o-$% be of 're"t hi#tori."$
intere#t to #t-%y the e7tent to 5hi.h Ro#mini 5"# in#4ire% by D-n# S.ot-#, 5hom he
2no5# "n% =-ote# 5ith 're"t re#4e.t in 5or2in' o-t hi# %o.trine of the i%e" of bein'.
Some hi#tori"n# h"6e .on#i%er"b$y e7"''er"te% D-n# S.ot-#3 inf$-en.e -4on the
nomin"$i#ti. mo6ement. hey h"6e 'one #o f"r "# to "ffirm th"t O.2h"m mere$y %r"5#
n"t-r"$ .on.$-#ion# from S.oti#ti. %o.trine#. hi# hi#tori."$ the#i# h"# met 5ith #ome
f"6or. Ho5e6er, the be#t me%ie6"$ hi#tori"n# of to%"y, 5hen they %o not reJe.t thi# the#i#
entire$y, r"i#e "t $e"#t #ome %o-bt "# to it# fo-n%"tion. It i# beyon% =-e#tion th"t #ome
S.oti#ti. %o.trine# t"2en o-t of .onte7t, #-.h "# the %o.trine of 9h"e..eity9 "n% the
%o.trine .on.ernin' the 2no5"bi$ity of the #in'-$"r, 5hi.h i# .$o#e$y re$"te% to it, .o-$%
h"6e been e74$oite% by the nomin"$i#t#. B-t it i# one thin' to "%mit thi#,
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
N
Cf. Diome%e S."r"m-<<i, 9Le infi$tr"<ioni %e$$" %ottrin" %i ;io6"nni D-n# S.oto in
;i"mb"tti#t" Vi.o,9 Studi rancescani, 1B, 6o$. MII E (*1+G, (8*,)C. !"r# $
NN
Cf. &i$he$m &in%e$b"n%, A ;istory of -hilosophy, tr"n#. by 0"me# H. -ft# E Ne5
Yor2F H"r4er U Brother#, (*A@G, II, 81C,1A. Con.ernin' the re$"tion#hi4 bet5een
Leibni< "n% D-n# S.ot-#, 5hom he ."$$# 9the mo#t im4ort"nt thin2er of the Chri#ti"n
Mi%%$e !'e#9 Eibid#* I, B(8G, &in%e$b"n% ob#er6e#F 9he re$"tion# of Leibni< to the
're"te#t of the S.ho$"#ti.# "re to be re.o'ni<e% not on$y in thi# 4oint Hthe hy4otheti."$
ne.e##ity or .ontin'en.y of the 5or$%I, b-t "$#o in m"ny other#> tho-'h "# yet they
h"6e -nfort-n"te$y not fo-n% the .on#i%er"tion or tre"tment th"t they %e#er6e.9Ibid#* II,
81A, n. (. !"r# $
,(*B,
"n% "n entire$y %ifferent thin' to "ffirm th"t S.oti#ti. 4hi$o#o4hy ne.e##"ri$y 4re4"re# the
5"y for nomin"$i#m. Other5i#e, "ny 're"t thin2er .o-$% be he$% re#4on#ib$e for the more
or $e## in%ire.t 4"ternity of "$$ $"ter 4hi$o#o4hie# .$"imin' %e4en%en.e on him or on #ome
of hi# %o.trine#. he f".t th"t O.2h"m 5"# " Fr"n.i#."n, "n% h"% 4rob"b$y been "
%i#.i4$e of D-n# S.ot-#,
N
%oe# not in it#e$f .on#tit-te "ny #o$i% 'ro-n% for the "##ertion
th"t hi# #y#tem %e4en%# on D-n# S.ot-#3 %o.trine. he hi#tory of 4hi$o#o4hy te".he# -#
th"t " thin2er3# mo#t formi%"b$e ri6"$ -#-"$$y emer'e# from hi# #.hoo$. Sh"$$ 5e #"y th"t
D-n# S.ot-# 4"6e# the 5"y to nomin"$i#m 4re.i#e$y be."-#e nomin"$i#m i# the n"t-r"$
o-t.ome of o44o#ition to hi# 4hi$o#o4hyL In thi# ."#e, 5e %efinite$y .ommit o-r#e$6e# to
"n "b-#e of term#. One 4hi$o#o4hi."$ mo6ement 4re4"re# the 5"y for "nother on$y 5hen
thi# $"tter i# " $o'i."$ o-t'ro5th of the former.
In C"tho$i. .-$t-r"$ .ir.$e# not on$y i# D-n# S.ot-# #et "#i%e "n% ne'$e.te%, b-t he i#
often $oo2e% -4on 5ith #-#4i.ion "# tho-'h he 5ere "n in#i%io-# forer-nner of here#y.
hi# "ttit-%e mi'ht 4erh"4# be .on.ei6"b$e in re'"r% to .ert"in C"tho$i. thin2er#, $i2e
Ro#mini, for e7"m4$e. ! #tron' #-44ort of #-.h "n "ttit-%e i# fo-n% in the f".t th"t the
Ch-r.h h"# .on%emne% forty %o.trin"$ 4ro4o#ition# "ttrib-te%,,5hether ri'ht$y or
5ron'$y, it i# not for -# to %e.i%e,,to the 4hi$o#o4her of Ro6ereto. Ho5e6er, it i# %iffi.-$t
to -n%er#t"n% ho5 thi# #"me "ttit-%e .o-$% h"6e be.ome tr"%ition"$ in re'"r% to D-n#
S.ot-#. here i# not " #in'$e %o.-ment of the Ch-r.h th"t
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
N
&e h"6e no %efinite %"t" .on.ernin' O.2h"m3# e"r$y $ife "n% #t-%ie#. On the b"#i# of "
re.ent$y %i#.o6ere% %o.-ment, he 5o-$% h"6e been or%"ine% #-b,%e".on on Febr-"ry
1+, (BC+, i. e., t5o ye"r# before S.ot-#3 %e"th. Perh"4# he he"r% S.ot-#3 $e.t-re#. Mo#t
4rob"b$y he 4-r#-e% hi# hi'her #t-%ie# in theo$o'y "t O7for% from "bo-t (BC* to (B(A.
Cf. +c0ham: -hilosophical Writings. ! #e$e.tion e%ite% "n% tr"n#$"te% by Phi$othe-#
Boehner, O. F. M. E E%inb-r'h,Ne5 Yor2F Ne$#on, (*A)G, Intro%-.tion, 44. 7i,7ii. !"r#
$
,(*8,
either %ire.t$y or in%ire.t$y 4-t# the C"tho$i. #.ho$"r# on their '-"r% "'"in#t "ny error or
4o##ib$e %"n'er in the S.oti#ti. #4e.-$"tion. P-ite the o44o#iteV here "re "-thorit"ti6e
".t# "n% #t"tement# #ho5in' th"t the Ch-r.h h"# "$5"y# he$% D-n# S.ot-#3 5or2# in hi'h
e#teem. hi# i# tr-e in the fir#t 4$".e of hi# theo$o'y, b-t it ."n be #"i% to be e=-"$$y tr-e
of hi# 4hi$o#o4hy, 5hi.h in him, "# in "ny other #.ho$"#ti., i# intim"te$y .onne.te% 5ith
theo$o'i."$ %o.trine. Here "re #ome of the#e ".t# "n% #t"tement#.
Eminent S.oti#t# h"6e been r"i#e% to hi'h 4o#t# in the C"tho$i. Ch-r.h, #-.h "# C"r%in"$ 3
Loren<o Br"n."ti "n% C"r%in"$ S"rn"no, "n% e6en to the S-4reme Pontifi."te, #-.h "#
Po4e Si7t-# IV, Po4e Si7t-# V, "n% Po4e C$ement MIV. In the .it"tion 5ritten on the
o.."#ion of C"r%in"$ S"rn"no3# "44ointment, Po4e Si7t-# V #t"te% "mon' other thin'#F
9Yo- h"6e %e6ote% yo-r rem"r2"b$e, in%-#trio-# ".ti6ity to re#torin' to their inte'rity
m"ny 6o$-me# of D-n# S.ot-# "n% other 4io-# 5riter#, 5hi.h h"% been .orr-4te% thro-'h
mi#4rint#. For thi# re"#on "n% m"ny other# 2no5n to U# 4er#on"$$y, &e "re #-re yo- 5i$$
be 6ery -#ef-$ to U# "n% 're"t$y .ontrib-te to the 5e$f"re of the Rom"n Ch-r.h.9
B
E6i%ent$y, in Po4e Si7t-# V3# 6ie5, the <e"$ #ho5n by S"rn"no in m"2in' D-n# S.ot-#3
%o.trine 2no5n i# not #omethin' 5orthy of b$"me> r"ther it i# #omethin' th"t %e#er6e#
4r"i#e, for it fit# him to be ."$$e% to hi'her 4o#t# "n% 're"ter enter4ri#e# for the 'oo% of
the Ch-r.h.
M"ny 5or2# 5ritten by S.oti#ti. #.ho$"r# h"6e been %e%i."te% to 4o4e#, 5ho ne6er f"i$e%
to #ho5 their "44re.i"tion to the "-thor#. o F"ther Fer%in"n%o ;"r.i", 5ho h"%
4re#ente% Po4e Pi-# M 5ith hi# 2entis in Deum ,uotidiana ele5atio duce /# <oanne Duns
Scoto, C"r%in"$ Merry %e$ V"$ 5roteF 9Hi# Ho$ine## h"# been 6ery 4$e"#e% 5ith yo-r
boo2. He fo-n% it
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
B
&i$$ibror%-# L"m4en, /# <# Duns Scotus et Sancta Sedes E P-"r"..hiF y4o'r"4hi"
Co$$e'ii S. Bon"6ent-r"e, (*1*G, 4. 1C.
,(*A,
6ery intere#tin' "n% 4"rti.-$"r$y -#ef-$ for .$eri.# "n% #emin"ri"n#.9
o the #"me F"ther, fo$$o5in' the 4-b$i."tion of the fir#t 6o$-me# of the +pus +.oniense,
C"r%in"$ ;"#4"rri 5roteF 9Yo-r 6o$-me# h"6e been re.ei6e% by the Ho$y F"ther 5ith the
're"te#t 4$e"#-re. D-n# S.ot-# i# " thin2er 5ho %i#.-##e# mo#t 4rofo-n% m"tter# #o
".-te$y "n% "b-n%"nt$y th"t the re"%er 5i$$ re"%i$y "%mit th"t thi# ho$y m"n h"# been
.heri#he% by 5i#%om "# by " $o6in' mother.9
8

F-rthermore, it h"# been hi#tori."$$y "#.ert"ine% th"t " %e.ree of the S".re% Con're'"tion
of C"r%in"$# 5"# i##-e% %-rin' the Pontifi."te of Po4e P"-$ V, in#tr-.tin' the M"#ter of
the S".re% P"$".e th"t 9"nythin' th"t i# 4ro6e% to be the 5or2 of D-n# S.ot-# m"y be
4rinte% 5itho-t f-rther e7"min"tion.9
A

he Ho$y See h"# .$e"r$y m"nife#te% it# tho-'ht 5ith re'"r% to S.ot-# by "44ro6in'
thro-'ho-t the .ent-rie# the ;ener"$ Con#tit-tion# of the Fri"r# Minor, 5hi.h former$y
im4o#e% on the Profe##or# of the Or%er "%heren.e to D-n# S.ot-#3 %o.trine# in their
te".hin'. he 4re#ent Con#tit-tion# "re more $iber"$, "n% 4re#.ribe on$y th"t 9in the
4hi$o#o4hi."$ "n% theo$o'i."$ f".-$tie# the Le.tor# #h"$$ e"rne#t$y en%e"6or to fo$$o5 the
Fr"n.i#."n S.hoo$> they #h"$$ ho$% in hi'h re'"r% the other S.ho$"#ti.#, e#4e.i"$$y the
!n'e$i. Do.tor, St. hom"#, the He"6en$y P"tron of C"tho$i. S.hoo$#.9
+
Ho5e6er, the
Or%in"tion# of o$e%o, "44ro6e% by Po4e Urb"n VIII on O.tober B(, (+B8, in the brief
Ad E.imios, 4re#.ribe% ."te'ori."$$y "n% 5ith " ri'or th"t h"# been #in.e "b"n%one%
be."-#e of it# in.om4"tibi$ity 5ith the Fr"n.i#."n $"r'ene## of #4iritF 9&hene6er, either
%ire.t$y or in%ire.t$y, or"$$y or by 5ritin', the Le.tor# of 4hi$o#o4hy "n% theo$o'y h"6e
%e6i"te% from D-n# S.ot-#3 %o.trine, they "re to be irre6o."b$y %e4ri6e% of their
$e.tor"te.
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
8
Ibid#* 4. 1+.
A
Ibid#* 4. 1).
+
"he 3ule and %eneral Conftitutions of the +rder of riars 2inor E RomeF he ;ener"$
C-ri" of the Or%er, (*ABG, 4. (CC, "rt. 1B@, n. +.
,(*+,
!n% in or%er th"t -niformity in the 4hi$o#o4hi."$ %o.trine# of o-r mo#t S-bt$e Do.tor be
4re#er6e%, "# f"r "# 4o##ib$e, in o-r Or%er, the Mo#t Re6eren% F"ther ;ener"$ 5i$$ "t the
e"r$ie#t o44ort-nity entr-#t "t $e"#t fo-r F"ther# 5ho ho$% " %o.tor"te 5ith the t"#2 of
4re4"rin' " m"n-"$ of %i#.i4$ine# "..or%in' to S.ot-#3 tho-'ht, 5hi.h #h"$$ be fo$$o5e%
in the f-t-re by the Le.tor# of 4hi$o#o4hy.9
)
It i# e6i%ent th"t if from the C"tho$i.
6ie54oint D-n# S.ot-#3 %o.trine 5ere e6en in the $e"#t #-#4i.io-# or %"n'ero-#, the Ho$y
See .o-$% not offi.i"$$y "44ro6e #-.h %i#4o#ition#.
h"t S.oti#ti. te".hin' 5"# re.ei6e% free$y "n% 5itho-t 4reJ-%i.e in $"r'e .ir.$e# of
Chri#ti"n #.ho$"r# i# #-ffi.ient$y %emon#tr"te% by the f".t th"t " S.oti#ti. .h"ir e7i#te% "t
one time in "$$ -ni6er#itie# "n% theo$o'i."$ f".-$tie# in It"$y, Fr"n.e, En'$"n%, Po$"n%,
S4"in, L"tin !meri.", "n% e6en "t /ie6 in R-##i".
@
hin'# 5ent #o 5e$$ 5ith the
S.oti#ti. #.hoo$, th"t in the #e6enteenth .ent-ry C"r"m-e$, " 4rofe##or of Lo-6"in, .o-$%
m"2e the forthri'ht #t"tementF 9he S.oti#ti. #.hoo$ i# more n-mero-# th"n "$$ other
#.hoo$# t"2en to'ether.9
*

H"# the Ch-r.h3# min% .h"n'e% #in.e tho#e time#L It m"y #eem #o. here "re m"ny, in
f".t, 5ho be$ie6e th"t " 're"t .h"n'e h"# t"2en 4$".e in Ch-r.h %i#.i4$ine #in.e the
4-b$i."tion of the en.y.$i."$ Aeterni -atris, Po4e Pi-# M3# 9mot- 4ro4rio9 Doctoris
Angelici, "n% the t5enty,fo-r the#e# of the S".re% Con're'"tion of St-%ie# on M"r.h ),
(*(+. he#e "re "$$ %o.-ment# to be .on#i%ere% in or%er to e6"$-"te 4ro4er$y the
4re#.ri4tion# of C"non L"5, nn. A@* "n% (B++. ! C"tho$i., they .$"im, 5ho %e#ire# to
"bi%e, "# i# hi# %-ty, by Ch-r.h
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
)
L"m4en, op# cit#* 4. BC.
@
Cf. E4hrem Lon'4rK, 1a -hilosophie du /# Duns Scot, op# cit#* 44. (C,(1.
*
Ibid#* 4. *. Hhe #t"tement 9S.oti #.ho$" n-mero#ior e#t omnib-# "$ii# #im-$ #-m4ti#9 i#
%i#.-##e% by Fe$i7 B"2, O. F. M. Con6., in ranciscan Studies, MVI E (*A+G, (88,+A.
!"r# $I
,(*),
%ire.ti6e#, ."n no $on'er %e6i"te in "ny 5"y from the #4e.-$"ti6e $ine tr".e% by St.
hom"#> nor ."n he 'i6e "ny .on#i%er"tion to %o.trine# in .ontr"#t 5ith the homi#ti.
4rin.i4$e#.
I %o not %"re to m"2e "ny #t"tement .on.ernin' the me"nin' "n% 6"$-e of the#e %ire.ti6e#
of the Ch-r.h, nor %o I 5i#h to #-''e#t "ny inter4ret"tion th"t m"y #o-n% 4re#-m4t-o-#. I
5i$$ $e"6e the 5or% to C"r%in"$ Fr"n< Ehr$e, 5ho %i#.-##e# thi# 4rob$em e74re##$y "n%
5ith "-thority.
(C
he .on.$-#ion of hi# %i#.-##ion fo$$o5#F
&i#hin' to #-mm"ri<e the re#-$t# of o-r %i#.-##ion, 5e m-#t #"y th"t the Ch-r.h h"#
been 6ery 5i#e in #o e"rne#t$y .ommen%in' #.ho$"#ti. 4hi$o#o4hy "n% theo$o'y to her
#.hoo$# "n% men of $e"rnin', "# 5e$$ "# in 4re#.ribin' it for e..$e#i"#ti."$ in#tit-te#. For
e6eryone, e6en if of " %ifferent f"ith b-t free from 4reJ-%i.e, ."n re"%i$y #ee the h"n% of
%i6ine Pro6i%en.e in the %e6e$o4ment of thi# 4hi$o#o4hy. Be."-#e of their met"4hy#i."$
fo-n%"tion#, their metho%, "n% their h"rmony 5ith re6e$"tion, #.ho$"#ti. 4hi$o#o4hy "n%
#.ho$"#ti. theo$o'y "$one,,thi# $"tter bein' intim"te$y .onne.te% 5ith the former,,."n
%emon#tr"te "n% %e6e$o4 the 4rere=-i#ite# of re6e$"tion. hey "re "$#o their be#t
.omment"ry "n% %efen#e, #in.e they m"2e them 4"rt of " %efinite "n% -nifie% #y#tem.
One 5i$$ "$#o re"%i$y -n%er#t"n% 5hy the Po4e#, e#4e.i"$$y in thi# .ent-ry, 4$".e #o m-.h
em4h"#i# on the #t-%y of St. hom"# "n% hi# %o.trine. he time# "re too %iffi.-$t to "$$o5
-# to #4en% o-r be#t ener'ie# in mere #.ho$"#ti. %i#4-te# "n% .ontro6er#ie#. here 5i$$ no
%o-bt "$5"y# be %i#.re4"n.ie# of o4inion "n% .ontro6er#ie# 5hi.h nee% be %i#.-##e% in "
#.ientifi. m"nner. Ho5e6er, in
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(C
C"r%. Fr"n< Ehr$e, 1a scolastica e i suoi compiti odierni E -rinF S. E. I., (*BAG. HSee
"$#o Fr"n< Pe$#ter, 9he !-thority of St. hom"# in C"tho$i. S.hoo$# "n% the S".re%
S.ien.e#,9 ranciscan Studies, MIII, n. 8 E De.., (*ABG, (,1+> "n% C$"-%e Min%orff, 9!
Common Sen#e Vie5 of the 18 he#e#,9 American Ecclesiastical 3e5ie', LMM
E (*18G, AB(,BB. !"r# $I
,(*@,
thi# ."#e the re"$ me"nin' of the 4rob$em# i# the %e.i#i6e f".tor, not tr"%ition or the %e#ire
of thi# or th"t 4"rti.-$"r #.hoo$ to 4re%omin"te. It i# in 6ie5 of thi# f".t th"t the Ch-r.h
h"# %e#i'ne% St. hom"# "# the .ommon M"#ter. Fo$$o5in' hi# e7"m4$e, 5e m-#t %i#.-##
the 're"t 4rob$em# in #-.h " 5"y th"t tr-th 5i$$ "$5"y# 4re6"i$, not thi# or th"t 4"rti.-$"r
#.ho$"#ti. tr"%ition. In thi# .ommon "n% -nbi"#e% #e"r.h for tr-th St. hom"# i# re"$$y "
5on%erf-$ e7"m4$e. For he not on$y #ho5e% -# the 5"y, b-t he "$#o '"6e -# the me"n#
"n% $"i% %o5n the fo-n%"tion# for the #o$-tion of m"ny 4rob$em#.
Fin"$$y, $et -# f-$$y "44re.i"te the f".t th"t, %e#4ite the hi'h e#teem in 5hi.h #he ho$%# the
Common Do.tor, the Ch-r.h ref-#e# to #tre## the #"int3# %o.trine in #-.h 5i#e th"t the
o4inion# of other im4ort"nt #.hoo$# m"y "44e"r to be .on%emne% or in "ny 5"y
-n%err"te%. She 2no5# on$y too 5e$$ the im4ort"n.e of free .om4etition of i%e"# in the
#e"r.h for tr-th, for it "$one m"2e# 4o##ib$e the .om4$ete .$"rifi."tion of " 4rob$em, e6en
tho-'h #t"rtin' 4oint# m"y be %ifferent. !# $on' "# f"ith "n% $o6e "re 4re#er6e%, #-.h
.om4etition 5i$$ on$y benefit the tr-th "n% the Ch-r.h her#e$f, 5hi.h i# the 4rote.tor of
"$$ tr-th. hi# i# 5hy #he 'r"nt# the J-#t" $ibert"# to "$$ te".her#, #t-%ent#, "n% re#e"r.her#.
If "n in%i6i%-"$ #.ho$"r, "n in#tit-te, or " re$i'io-# or%er 5"nt# to "%here more #tri.t$y to
St. hom"# or to "nother M"#ter, they h"6e f-$$ ri'ht "n% free%om to %o #o.
((

he#e "re #-.h 4re.io-# 5or%# th"t they 5e$$ J-#tify the $en'th of the =-ot"tion. he#e
5or%# #ho-$% be en'r"6e% -4on .ert"in C"tho$i. #.hoo$# "n% in#tit-te#, 5here .o-r#e# "re
'i6en =-ite free$y on P$"to, Leibni<, "n% /"nt, 5hi$e the obJe.ti6e e74o#ition, or the mere
mentionin' of " %o.trine of St. Bon"6ent-re or D-n# S.ot-#, $et "$one of Ro#mini or
B$on%e$, i# .on#i%ere% "n "tt".2 on the inte'rity of the f"ith
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
((
Ibid#* 44. *(,*1. HCf. !$$o.-tion E O.t. (), (*ABG of Pi-# MII to the ;re'ori"n-m, in
Acta Aposilicae Sedis, MLVI E (*ABG, +@1,*C> .ite% in 4"rt in ranciscan Studies, MIV
E (*A8G, 1C8,1C*. !"r# $I
,(**,
"n% the 4e".e of .on#.ien.e. hi# i# .ert"in$y not in .onformity 5ith the %ire.ti6e# of the
Ch-r.h, for 5hi.h the ret-rn to St. hom"# 9me"n# in the fir#t 4$".e the ret-rn to hi#
%o.trine, "n% in the #e.on% 4$".e, "n% e6en more, the ret-rn to hi# #4irit "n% hi# metho%
of 5or2.9
(1
he Ch-r.h 4re#.ribe# the #t-%y of the Summa "heologiae in the #.hoo$#, not
be."-#e #he 5"nt# to im4o#e -4on -# "# " %o'm" the %o.trine# therein .ont"ine%, b-t
be."-#e the Summa "heologiae i# 9the mo#t .on.i#e #ynthe#i#9 of 9#.ho$"#ti. %o.trine#,
"n% mo#t #-it"b$e for the #.hoo$#.9
(B

he#e 4"'e# h"6e not been inten%e% to be " .om4$ete or %o.-mente% e74o#ition of the
S.oti#ti. tho-'ht, b-t if they e6ent-"$$y $e"% their re"%er to " more obJe.ti6e "n%
.on#.ientio-# #t-%y of D-n# S.ot-#, they h"6e "tt"ine% their 4-r4o#e. hey m"y "t the
#"me time re4re#ent " fir#t "ttem4t to in#-re 're"ter .om4rehen#ion of the S.oti#ti.
%o.trine "n% to .o-nter".t the 'ro-n%$e## .h"r'e# of 5hi.h D-n# S.ot-# h"# been "n% #ti$$
i# the -nfort-n"te 6i.tim.
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
(1
Ibid#* 4. A).
(B
Ibid#* 4. )1.
,1CC,
SELECTED BIBLIO#RAPHY
6

PRIMARY SOURCES
A" DUNS SCOTUS' OR!S
S.ot-# 0ohn D-n#. O4er" Omni". (1 6o$#. E%. L-2e &"%%in'. Lyon#, (+B*.
,,,,,,. O4er" Omni". E%itio no6" i-7t" e%itionem &"%%in'i. 1+ 6o$#. P"ri#F Vi6O#,
(@*(,(@*A.
,,,,,,. O4er" Omni", #t-%io et .-r" Commi##ioni# S.oti#ti."e "% fi%em .o%i.-m
e%it". A 6o$#. of the +rdinatio 4-b$i#he%. Ci6it"# V"ti."n"F y4i# 4o$y'$otti#
V"ti."ni#, (*AC.
,,,,,,. Commentaria +.oniensia. 1 6o$#. E%. M"ri"n-# Fern"n%e< ;"r.W" . P-"r"..hiF
y4o'r"4hi" Co$$e'ii S. Bon"6ent-r"e, (*(1,(*(8.
,,,,,,. De -rimo -rincipio. ! Re6i#e% e7t "n% " r"n#$"tion by St. E6"n Ro.he.
Bon"6ent-re, N. Y.F he Fr"n.i#."n In#tit-te, (*8*.
,,,,,,. +bras del Doctor Sutil <uan Duns Escoto. L"tin te7t "n% S4"ni#h tr"n#$"tion
from the V"ti."n .riti."$ e%ition of D-n# S.ot-#3 O4er" Omni". Vo$. IF Dios :no y
"rino. M"%ri%F Bib$iote." %e !-tore# Cri#ti"no#, (*+C. Other 6o$-me# to fo$$o5.
B" COLLECTIONS OF TE5TS
DKo%"t M"rie %e B"#$y. C"4it"$i" O4er" Be"ti 0. D-n# S.oti . 1 6o$#. Le H"6reF L"
Bonne P"ro$e, (*C@,(*((.
Fr"##en C$"-%i-#. Scotus Academicus. (1 6o$#. Ne5 e%ition by M"ri"n-# Fern"n%e<
;"r.W" "n% Cy4ri"n-# P"o$ini. RomeF y4o'r"4hi" S"$$-#ti"n", (*CC,(*C1.
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD
N
hi# bib$io'r"4hy h"# been 're"t$y en$"r'e% "n% bro-'ht -4 to %"te. E"r#G
,1C(,
Hieronym-# %e Montefortino. Ioannis Duns Scoti Summa "heologica. + 6o$#. Ne5
e%ition by M"ri"n-# Fern"n%e< ;"r.W" "n% Cy4ri"n-# P"o$ini. RomeF y4o'r"4hi"
S"$$-#ti"n", (*CC,(*CB.
Min'e# P"rtheni-#. Ioannis Duns Scoti Doctrina -hilosophica et "heologica. 1 6o$#.
P-"r"..hiF y4o'r"4hi" Co$$e'ii S. Bon"6ent-r"e, (*BC.
S."r"m-<<i Diome%e. Duns Scoto# Summula. E%. ("esti Cristiani#( F$oren.eF
Libreri" E%itri.e Fiorentin", (*B1.
SECONDARY SOURCES
A" #ENERAL STUDIES
B"$i. C"r$o. 9Cir." 4o#itione# f-n%"ment"$e# Io"nni# D-n# S.oti,9 Antonianum,
MMVIII E (*ABG, 1+(,BC+.
,,,,,,. (Duns Scoto* %io5anni* ( Enciclopedia Cattolica. Vo$. IV, .o$#. (*@1,(**C.
,,,,,,. (%io5anni Duns Scoto* ( %rande Antologia ilosofica. E%. I#tit-to 4er $"
.o$$"bor"<ione .-$t-r"$e. F$oren.eF S"n#oni, (*A). Vo$. IV, (BBA,(BA8.
,,,,,,. (Wadding* the Scotist* ( in ather 1u0e Wadding# Commemorati5e Volume.
D-b$inF Conmore "n% Reyno$%, (*A). P4. 8+B,AC). EIm4ort"nt for e6"$-"tion of
&"%%in'3# e%ition of D-n# S.ot-#3 O4er" Omni".G
Be$mon% SKr"4hin. 9Sim4$e# rem"r=-e# #-r $3i%Ko$o'ie .om4"rKe %e #"int hom"# et
%e D-n# S.ot,9 3e5ue de philosophie, (8, 6o$. MMIV E (*(8G, 181,+C.
,,,,,,. 9E##"i %e #ynthO#e 4hi$o#o4hi=-e %- #.oti#me,9 1a rance ranciscaine, MVI
E (*BBG, )B,(B(.
BKr"-% %e S"int,M"-ri.e. <ohn Duns Scotus# A "eacher for +ur "imes. r"n#. by St.
Co$-mb"n D-ffy. Bon"6ent-re, N. Y.F he Fr"n.i#."n In#tit-te, (*AA.
Bettoni Efrem. (Scoto* %io5anni Duns* ( Enciclopedia ilosofica. E%. I#tit-to 4er $"
.o$$"bor"<ione .-$t-r"$e. F$oren.eF S"n#oni, (*A). Vo$. IV, .o$#. 8+B,)1.
Boehner Phi$othe-#. "he ;istory of the ranciscan School, P"rt III, Duns Scotus
Em"n-#.ri4tG. St. Bon"6ent-re, N. Y.F he Fr"n.i#."n In#tit-te, (*8A. Re,
mimeo'r"4he% "t D-n# S.ot-# Co$$e'e, Detroit, (*8+.
,,,,,,. (Scotus' "eaching according to +c0ham* ( ranciscan Studies, VI E (*8+G,
(CC,(C)> B+1,)A.
Co4$e#ton Fre%eri.2. A ;istory of -hilosophy. &e#tmin#terF he Ne5m"n Pre##,
(*AC. Vo$. II, 44. 8)+,AA(.
,1C1,
DKo%"t M"rie %e B"#$y. Scotus Docens# 1a construction doctrinale du /# Docteur
subtil. Le H"6reF L" Bonne P"ro$e, (*B8.
Fern"n%e< M"ri"no ;"r.W". 1e.icon scholasticum philosophicotheologicum.
P-"r"..hiF y4o'r"4hi" Co$$e'ii S. Bon"6ent-r"e, (*C+, (*(C.
;"$i2o5#2i !ntoni-# M. 9De 4r"e.i4-i# .ontro6er#ii# 4hi$o#o4hi.otheo$o'i.i# inter
thomi#t"# et #.oti#t"#,9 Collectanea ranciscana Sla5ica, I E (*B)G, AA,@C.
;i$#on Xtienne. 9!6i.enne et $e 4oint %e %K4"rt %e D-n# S.ot,9 Archi5es d'histoire
doctrinale et litt=raire du 2oyen)>ge, II E (*1)G, @*,(8*.
,,,. 9Le# #ei<e 4remier# heorem"t" et $" 4en#Ke %e D-n# S.ot,9 Archi5es d'histoire
doctrinale et litt=raire du 2oyen>ge, MII,MIII E (*B), (*B@G, A,@+.
,,,. <ean Duns Scot# Introduction 6 ses positions fondamentales. P"ri#F Vrin, (*A1.
,,,. ;istory of Christian -hilosophy in the 2iddle Ages. Ne5 Yor2F R"n%om Ho-#e,
(*AA. P4. 8A8,+8.
H"rri# Ch"r$e# R. S. Duns Scotus. 1 6o$#. O7for%F C$"ren%on Pre##, (*1).
Hohm"nn Firmin. (#t D-n# S2ot-# !-'-#tini#t o%er !ri#tote$i2erL, 9 &i##en#.h"ft
-n% &ei#heit, IV E (*B)G, (B(,8C.
L"n%ry Bern"r%. Duns Scot. P"ri#F !$."n, (*11.
Lon'4rK E4hrem. 1a philosophie du /# Duns Scot. P"ri#F So.iKtK et Libr"irie St.
Fr"nToi# %3!##i#e, (*18.
M"=-"rt Fr"nToi#,M"6ier. 9F"-t,i$ re6i#er $e# J-'ement# %e# thomi#te# .on.ern"nt $"
%o.trine %e S.otL P-e$=-e# thO#e# %e $3inte$$e.t-"$i#me #.oti#te,9 3e5ue de
philosophie, B8, 6o$. IV E (*B8G, 8CC,BA.
Meyer F-$'en.e. 90ohn D-n# S.ot,9 "he Ecclesiastical 3e5ie', LIII E (*(@G, +B1,AC.
Min'e# P"rtheni-#. 9Io"nne# D-n# S.ot-#,9 "he ranciscan Educational
Conference, III, 44. 8*,+8.
O3Nei$ !$bert M. 9Le bienhe-re-7 0e"n D-n# S.ot en f".e %e #"int hom"# %3!=-in,9
1a rance ranciscaine, VIII E (*1AG, 8*(,AC(.
Pe$<er !-'-#te. 9! 4ro4o# %e 0e"n D-n# S.ot et %e# Kt-%e# #.oti#te#,9 3e5ue
n=oscolasti,ue de philosophie, MMV E (*1BG, 8(C,1C.
Por.e$$oni !mbro'io. 9L3inte$$ett-"$i#mo %i D-n# S.oto "$$" $-.e %e$$" n-o6"
e%i<ione,9 3i5ista di filosofia neoscolastica, MLIV E (*A1G, (*1,1(1.
Pr"%o Norberto %e$. 9E#.oto y S"nto omY#,9 Ciencia "omista, V E (*(8,(AG, n. 1@,
44. 1@,8A> n. 8*, 44. (*+,111.
,1CB,
R"ymon% %e Co-r.er"-$t. 9L" 4hi$o#o4hie .riti=-e %e D-n# S.ot et $e .riti.i#me %e
/"nt,9 ?tudes ranciscaines, MMII E (*C*G, ++*,@).
S.hm"$< ;er"r%. 9he Phi$o#o4hy of D-n# S.ot-#,9 "he ranciscan Educational
Conference, III E (*1(G, @*,(C+.
Sh"r4 Dorothe" E. ranciscan -hilosophy at +.ford in the 4III Century. Lon%onF
O7for% Uni6er#ity Pre##, (*BC.
honn"r% F. 0. A Short ;istory of -hilosophy. r"n#. by E%5"r% !. M"<i"r< , P"ri#F
De#.$Ke, (*AA. P4. 8B8,A1.
V"."nt 0e"n,Mi.he$,!$fre%. ?tudes compar=es sur la philosophie de S# "homas
d'A,uin et sur celle de Duns Scot. P"ri#,Lyon#, (@*(.
V"re#io C"ro$-# F. %e. -romptuarium scoticum. 1 6o$#. Veni.eF !n%re" Po$eti, (+*C.
Vy#2o.i$ C"4i#tr"n-#. 9Bre6i# .on#4e.t-# %o.trin"e 4hi$o#o4hi."e ". theo$o'i."e
Io"nni# D-n# S.oti,9 Collectanea ranciscana Sla5ica, I E (*B)G, B+C,*(.
&oe#tyne Q".h"ri"# 6"n %e. Scholae ranciscanae aptatus cursus philosophicus. 1
6o$#. M"$ine#F y4o'r"4hi" S. Fr"n.i#.i, (*1(, (*1A. Ne5 e%ition of 6o$. I in 1
#m"$$er 6o$-me#. Ibid#, (*B1, (*BB.
&-$f M"-ri.e %e. ;istory of 2ediae5al -hilosophy. r"n#. by Erne#t C. Me##en'er.
Lon%on,Ne5 Yor2F Lon'm"n#, ;reen "n% Co., (*1+. Vo$. II, 44. +*,*C.
B" SPECIAL STUDIES
B&o.ra'()
Bertoni !$e7"n%re. Le B. <ean Duns Scot* sa 5ie* ses doctrines* ses disciples.
Le6"ntoF i4o'r"fi" %e$$3Imm".o$"t", (*().
C"$$eb"-t !n%rK. 9! 4ro4o# %- B. D-n# S.ot %e Litt$e%e"n,9 Archi5um
ranciscanum ;istoricum, MMIV E (*B(G, BCA,1*.
;i-#to E'i%io M. Vita del /# %io5anni Duns Scoto. !##i#iF i4o'r"fi" in%-#tri"$e,
(*1(.
Litt$e !n%re5 ;. 9Chrono$o'i."$ Note# on the Life of D-n# S.ot-#,9 English
;istorical 3e5ie', MLVII E (*B1G, A+@,@1.
Pe$#ter Fr"n<. 9H"n%#.hrift$i.he# <- S2ot-# mit ne-en !n'"ben Zber #ein Leben,9
ran@is0anische Studien, M E (*1BG, (,B1.
B&+l&o.ra'()
B"$i. C"ro$-#. 3elatio a commissione scotistica e.hibita capitulo generali ratrum
2inorum Assisii A# D# ABCB celebrato. RomeF S.ho$" ty4o'r"4hi." 9Pio M, 9 (*B*.
Bettoni Efrem. Vent'anni di studi scotisti E (*1C, (*8CG. Mi$"nF 9Ri6i#t" %i fi$o#ofi"
neo#.o$"#ti.",9 (*8B.
,1C8,
Commi##io S.oti#ti.". 9De Or%in"tione I. D. S.oti %i#=-i#itio hi#tori.o,.riti."9, in
+pera +mnia. V"ti."n E%ition. Rome, (*AC. Vo$. I, 44. *N,1**N.
;r"Je5#2i M"-ri.e 0. 9S.oti#ti. Bib$io'r"4hy of the L"#t De."%e E(*1*,(*B*G9,
ranciscan Studies, I E (*8(G, n. (, 44. )B,)@> n. 1, 44. AA,)1> n. B, 44. )(,)+> II
E (*81G, +(,)(> (A@,)B.
,,,,,,. 9D-n# S.ot-# in the Li'ht of Mo%ern Re#e"r.h9, in -roceedings of the
American Catholic -hilosophical Association, MVIII E (*81G, (+@,@A.
H-"$$".h"in C. O. 9On Re.ent St-%ie# of the O4enin' P-e#tion in S.ot-#3#
Or%in"tio9, ranciscan Studies, MV E (*AAG, (,1*.
M.;re'or M. B. Sources and 1iterature of Scot. ;$"#'o5F C"$$-m, (*B8.
S.h"efer O%-$f-#. /ibliographia de 5ita* operibus et doctrina Iohannis Duns Scoti*
Doctoris Subtilis ac 2ariani* saec# 4I4)44. RomeF Her%er, (*AA.
Smeet# Urie$. 1ineamenta bibliographiae scotisticae. RomeF y4o'r"4hi"
!-'-#tini"n", (*81. It in.$-%e# the S.oti#ti. bib$io'r"4hy from the (Ath to the 1Cth
.ent-ry.
Lo.&c an1 E'&ste-olo.)
B"rth imothe-#. 9D-n# S2ot-# -n% %ie onto$o'i#.he ;r-n%$"'e -n#erer
Ver#t"n%e#er2enntni#9, ran@is0anische Studien, MMMIII E (*A(G, B8@,@8.
Be$mon% SKr"4hin. 9L3inte$$e.t ".tif %3"4rO# 0e"n D-n# S.ot9, 3e5ue de philosophie,
BC, 6o$. I E (*BCG, B(,A8.
,,,,,,. 9E##"i #-r $" thKorie %e $" .onn"i##"n.e %3"4rO# 0e"n D-n# S.ot9, 1a rance
ranciscaine, MVIII E (*BAG, A,B1> (*),1B8.
BKr-bK C"mi$$e. 9L" .onn"i##"n.e inte$$e.t-e$$e %- #in'-$ier m"tKrie$ .he< D-n#
S.ot9, ranciscan Studies, MIII E M"r.h, (*ABG, 1*,8*> E De.., (*ABG, 1),A@. Eo be
.ontin-e%. G
Bettoni Efrem. Dalla dottrina degli uni5ersali alla teoria della conoscen@a in Duns
Scoto. F$oren.eF V"$$e..hi, (*8(.
C"rrer"# y 0o"=-Wn !rt"-. 9L" %o.trin" %e $o# -ni6er#"$e# en 0-"n S.ot. Un"
.ontrib-.i[n " $" hi#tori" %e $" $['i." en e$ #i'$o MIII9, Archi5o Ibero)Americano,
MMMIV E (*B(G, A,1*> 1C*,BB.
D"y Seb"#ti"n 0. Intuiti5e Cognition# A Dey to the Significance of the 1ater
Scholastics. St. Bon"6ent-re, N. Y.F he Fr"n.i#."n In#tit-te, (*8). P4. B*,(B*.
Hei#er B"#i$. 9he 4rim-m .o'nit-m "..or%in' to D-n# S.ot-#9, ranciscan Studies,
II E (*81G, (*B,1(+.
/$-' H-bert. 9Die #inn$i.he Er2enntni# n".h %em #e$i'en 0oh"nne# D-n# S2ot-#9,
ran@is0anische Studien, MI E (*18G, 1B),A).
,1CA,
M"rtWne< 0-"n M. 9Criterio$o'i" e#.oti#t". Do.trin" te7t-"$ %e$ B. 0. D-n# E#.oto9,
Verdad y Vida, III E (*8AG, +A(,@(> IV E (*8+G, +B,@A.
Me##ner Reinho$%. Schauendes und begriffliches Er0ennen nach Duns S0otus.
Freib-r' in Br.F Her%er, (*81.
Pi."r% No6"t-#. 9De 4o#itione 4rob$em"ti# .o'nitioni# "4-% D-n# S.ot-m ". %e ei-#
r"tione obie.ti6"9, Antonianum, MIM E (*88G, 1@B,BC*.
R"ymon% %e Co-r.er"-$t. 9L" thKorie %e $3in%-.tion. D-n# S.ot, 4rK.-r#e-r %e
B".on9, ?tudes ranciscaines, MMI E (*C*G, ((B,1+> 1)C,)*.
So$eri ;. 9St-%i #.oti#ti %i 'no#eo$o'i" e %i teo%i.e"9, Sapien@a E (*A+G, )C,@B>
1CA,1(.
S5ie<"5#2i Stef"n. 9Le# intention# 4remiere# et $e# intention# #e.on%e# .he< 0e"n
D-n# S.ot9, Archi5es d'histoire doctrinale et litt=raire du 2oyen)>ge, IM E (*B8G,
1CA,+C.
o.ho5i.# P"-$-#. <oannis Duns Scoti de cognitionis doctrina. 9St-%i"
Frib-r'en#i"9. P"%erbonF Bonif".i-# DrZ.2erei, (*1+.
V"."nt 0e"n,Mi.he$,!$fre%. 9L" thKorie %e $" .onn"i##"n.e #e$on S. hom"# et #e$on
D-n# S.ot9, Annales de philosophie chr=tienne, MMI E (@@*,*CG, A,BC> (@A,1C(>
1(C,1A> B1(,88.
Ve-they LKon. 9L3int-ition #.oti#te et $e #en# %- .on.ret9, ?tudes ranciscaines,
MLIM E (*B)G, )+,*(.
Vier Peter C. E5idence and Its unction According to <ohn Duns Scotus. St.
Bon"6ent-re, N. Y.F he Fr"n.i#."n In#tit-te, (*A(.
&erner C"r$. Die -sychologie und Er0enntnislehre des Duns Scotus. 9Den#2#.hrift
!2"%. &i##en#.h"ft9, 6o$. 1+. &ien, (@)), 44. B8A,8B@.
Q-..here$$i Don"to. 9L" .o'ni<ione ne$ 4en#iero %e$ B. ;. D-n# S.oto9, Studi
rancescani, (1, 6o$. I E (*(8,(AG, (,(A.
,,,,,,. 9I$ 4rob$em" .riterio$o'i.o ne$ 4en#iero %e$ B. ;io6"nni D-n# S.oto9, Studi
rancescani, (1, 6o$. I E (*(8,(AG, 1C(,((.
Meta'()s&cs
B"rth imothe-#. 9De f-n%"mento -ni6o."tioni# "4-% Io"nnem D-n# S.ot-m9,
Antonianum, MIV E (*B*G, (@(,1C+> 1)),*@> B)B,*1.
,,,,,,. 9De "r'-menti# et -ni6o."tioni# enti# n"t-r" "4-% 0o"nnem D-n# S.ot-m9,
Collectanea ranciscana, MIV E (*88G, A,A+.
,,,,,,. 9De -ni6o."tioni# #.oti#ti."e intentione 4rin.i4"$i ne.non 6"$ore .riti.o9,
Antonianum, MMVIII E (*ABG, )1,((C.
,1C+,
,,,,,,. 9In%i6i%-"$itRt -n% !$$'emeinheit bei 0oh"n D-n# S.ot-#9, Wissenschaft und
Weisheit, MVI E (*ABG, (*(,1(B.
Be$mon% SKr"4hin. 9L3\tre tr"n#.en%"nt %3"4rO# D-n# S.ot9, 3e5ue de philosophie, *,
6o$. MIV E (*C*G, +),@).
,,,,,,. 9L3e##en<" e $3e#i#ten<" #e.on%o D-n# S.oto9, 3i5ista di filosofia
neoscolastica, II E (*(CG, 1@(,@*.
,,,,,,. 9L3-ni6o.itK #.oti#teF Se# fon%ement#9, 3e5ue de philosophie, (B, 6o$. MMII
E (*(BG, (B),A+.
,,,,,,. 9L3he..Ki#me #.oti#te9, ?tudes ranciscaines, MLVII E (*BAG, (A*,)C.
Chio..hetti Emi$io. 9L3-ni6o.it] %e$$3e##ere in Dio e ne$$e .re"t-re9, Sophia, M
E (*81G, (*A,1C+.
Co#t" Er#i$io. 9L3e##en<" %e$ re"$e in D-n# S.oto9, 3icerche religiose, V E (*1*G,
8(1,1@> VII E (*B(G, 11),8(.
;i$#on Xtienne. 9Met"4hy#i2 -n% heo$o'ie n".h S.ot-#9, ran@is0anische Studien,
MMII E (*BAG, 1C*,B(.
,,,,,,. 9L3obJet %e $" mKt"4hy#i=-e #e$on D-n# S.ot9, 2ediae5al Studies, M E (*8@G,
1(,*1.
;r"Je5#2i M"-ri.e 0. "he ormal Distinction of Duns Scotus. &"#hin'ton, D. C.F
he C"tho$i. Uni6er#ity of !meri." Pre##, (*88.
H"yen !n%rK. 9L3\tre et $" 4er#onne #e$on $e bienhe-re-7 D-n# S.ot9, 3e5ue
philosophi,ue de 1ou5ain, LIII E (*AAG, A1A,8(.
Hei#er B"#i$. 9he Met"4hy#i.# of D-n# S.ot-#9, ranciscan Studies, II E (*81G,
B)*,*+.
/r"-# 0oh"nne#. Die 1ehre des <ohannes Duns S0otus 5on der (natura communis#(
St-%i" Frib-r'en#i". P"%erbornF Bonif".i-#DrZ.2erei, (*1).
Lemie-7 BKr"-% %e S"int,M"-ri.e. 9E7i#tenti"$ Im4ort in the Phi$o#o4hy of D-n#
S.ot-#9, ranciscan Studies, IM E (*8*G, 1)8,B(B.
M".Don"'h Hi$"ire. 9L" notion %3\tre %"n# $" mKt"4hy#i=-e %e 0e"n D-n# S.ot9,
3e5ue n=oscolasti,ue de philosophie, MMM E (*1@G, 8CC,()> MMMI E (*1*G, @(,*+>
(8@,@(.
Me##ner Reinho$%. 9D"# In%i6i%-"tion#4rin<i4 in #2oti#ti#.her S.h"-9, Wissenschaft
und Weisheit, I E (*B8G, @,1).
Min'e# P"rtheni-#. 9Beitr"' <-r Lehre %e# D-n# S.ot-# Zber %ie Uni6o2"tion %e#
Sein#be'riffe#9, -hilosophisches <ahrbuch, MM E (*C)G, BC+,1B.
,,,,,,. Der angebliche e.cessi5e 3ealismus des Duns Scotus. MZn#ter i. &. F
!#.hen%orff#.he B-.hh"n%$-n', (*C@.
M-eh$en Heribert. Sein und -erson nach <ohannes Duns Scotus. &er$ in &. F
Dietri.h,Coe$%e, (*A8.
,1C),
OromW Mi'-e$. 9D-n# E#.oto y e$ obJeto %e $" Met"fW#i."9, in 2=todos y -rincipios
ilosEficos. M"%ri%F E%itori"$ Ci#nero#, (*+C. P4. 1+*,B(1.
,,,,,,. 9E$ #er y $" e7i#ten.i" %e Dio# en E#.oto9, in 2=todos y -rincipios ilosEficos.
M"%ri%F E%itori"$ Ci#nero#, (*+C. P4. B(A,1*.
Ro#enber' 0e"n R"n%"$$. "he -rinciple of Indi5iduation# A Comparati5e Study of St#
"homas* Scotus and Suare@# -h# D# "hesis. &"#hin'ton, D. C.F he C"tho$i.
Uni6er#ity of !meri." Pre##, (*AC.
S.i".." Mi.he$e Fe%eri.o. 1a (;aecceitas( di Duns Scoto# Studi sulla filosofia
medioe5ale e moderna. N"4$e#F Pere$$", (*BA.
Shir.e$ Cyri$ L. "he :ni5ocity of the Concept of /eing in the -hilosophy of Duns
Scotus. &"#hin'ton, D. C.F he C"tho$i. Uni6er#ity of !meri." Pre##, (*81.
Sotie$$o ;"brie$ %e. 9E$ 4-nto %e 4"rti%" %e $" met"fW#i." %e D-n# S.ot-#9,
Naturale@a y %racia, I E (*A8G, @A,(CB.
&o$ter !$$"n B. "he "ranscendentals and "heir unction in the 2etaphysics of
Duns Scotus. &"#hin'ton, D. C.F he C"tho$i. Uni6er#ity of !meri." Pre##, (*8+.
,,,,,,. Summula 2etaphysicae. Mi$5"-2eeF Br-.e, (*A@.
Cos-olo.)
!$b"ne#e Corne$io. 9De$$" n"t-r" %e$ tem4o #e.on%o i$ 6ener"bi$e Dottor #otti$e e
m"ri"no9, Studi rancescani, (1, 6o$. I E (*(8, (*(AG, 8+A,@A.
B"-%o-7 Bern"r%. 9De form" .or4oreit"ti# #.oti#ti."9, Antonianum, MIII E (*B@G,
81*,)8.
Bettoni Efrem. 9D-n# S.oto e $3"r'omento %e$ moto9, 3i5ista di filosofia
neoscolastica, MMMIII E (*8(G, 8)),@*.
Bor'm"nn P".ifi.-#. 9Die Ste$$-n'n"hme %e# D-n# S.ot-# <-m "ri#tote$i#.h,
thomi#ti#.hen Be5e'-n'#'e#et<F P-i%=-i% mo6et-r "b "$io mo6et-r9, Wissenschaft
und Weisheit, IV E (*B)G, B+,81.
C"m4be$$ Bertr"n% 0. "he -roblem of +ne or -lural Substantial orms in 2an as
ound in the Wor0s of St# "homas A,uinas and <ohn Duns Scotus. P"ter#on, N. 0.F
St. !nthony ;-i$% Pre##, (*8C.
Chiriotti E%i$io. 9I$ .on.etto %i m"teri" in D-n# S.oto9, %iornale critico della
filosofia italiana, MI E (*BCG, ((B,B8.
/$-' H-bert, 9Die Lehre %e# 0oh"nne# D-n# S2ot-# Zber %ie M"terie -n% Form n".h
%en P-e$$en %"r'e#te$$t9, -hilosophisches <ahrbuch, MMM E (*()G, 88,)@.
,1C@,
Ste$$" Pro#4ero. L3i$emorfi#mo %i ;io6"nni D-n# S.oto. -rinF So.iet] E%itri.e
Intern"<ion"$e, (*A+.
Vo't Ber"r%. 9he form" .or4oreit"ti# of D-n# S.ot-# "n% Mo%ern S.ien.e,9
ranciscan Studies, 18, 6o$. III E (*8BG, 8),+1.
Ps)c(olo.)
!-er 0oh"n. Die menschliche Willensfreiheit im 1ehrsystem des "homas 5on A,uin
und <ohannes Duns Scotus. M-ni.hF H-eber, (*B@.
Be$mon% SKr"4hin. 9PrKten%- "nti,inte$$e.t-"$i#me %- Do.te-r #-bti$,9 ?tudes
ranciscaines, MMMI E (*(8G, A+(,)B> MMMII E (*(8G, A,1C.
DDDDDD. 9Le r^$e %e $" 6o$ontK %"n# $" 4hi$o#o4hie %e D-n# S.ot,9 ?tudes
ranciscaines, MLIM E (*B)G, +AC,A*.
C"rrer"# y 0o"=-Wn !rt"-. Ensayo sobre el 5oluntarismo de <# Duns Scoto. ;eron"F
i4o'r"fi" C"rrer"#, (*1B.
Ch"-6et Fi%e$. 1as pasiones# 1as ideas filosEficas de <# Duns Escoto sobre las
pasiones. B"r.e$on"F Be$tr"m, (*B+.
C hio..hetti Emi$io. 9I$ 6o$ont"ri#mo %i ;. D-n# S.oto,9 Studi rancescani, MII,
Ser. B E (*8CG, 1B1,B*.
Cre#i !n'e$o. 9L" 4o#i<ione %i S.oto ne$$" =-e#tione %e$$3immort"$it] %e$$3"nim",9
1a Verna, MI E (*(B,(8G, 8*,+A.
Cre##5e$$ 0. R. 9D-n# S.ot-# on the &i$$,9 ranciscan Studies, MIII E 0-ne,Se4t.,
(*ABG, (8),A@.
Fior"6"nti !'o#tino. 9L" %i#tin<ione tr" $3"nim" e $e #-e f".o$t] ne$$" %ottrin" %e$
6en. D-n# S.oto,9 Studi rancescani, (1, 6o$. I E (*(8,(AG, 1BA,88.
;i$#on Xtienne. 9&i$$e -n% Sitt$i.h2eit n".h 0oh"nne# D-n# S2ot-#,9 Wissenschaft
und Weisheit, I E (*A@G, *,().
/$-' H-bert. 9Die Lehre %e# #e$i'en 0oh"nne# D-n# S2ot-# Zber %ie See$e,9
-hilosophisches <ahrbuch, MMMVI E (*1BG, (B(,8A> (*@,1(1> MMMVII E (*18G,
A),)A.
DDDDDD. 9L3".ti6itK "44Ktiti6e %e $3_me %3"4rO# $e bienhe-re-7 D-n# S.ot,9 ?tudes
ranciscaines, MMMVII E (*1AG, AB1,81> MMMVIII E (*1+G, )@,*)> 1)C,*1> A+8,*B.
DDDDDD. 9L3".ti6itK inte$$e.t-e$$e #e$on $e bienhe-re-7 D-n# S.ot,9 ?tudes
ranciscaines, MLI E (*1*G, A,1B> ((B,BC> 188,+*> B@(,*(> A(),*B@> MLII E (*BCG,
(1*,8A.
LK"n%re %e Se#m". 9L" 6o$ontK %"n# $" 4hi$o#o4hie %e 0. D-n# S.ot,9 Estudios
ranciscanos, 1(, 6o$. MMMIM E (*1)G, 11C,8*> A)1,*B.
Libertini C. lntelletto e 5olont6 in "ommaso e Duns Scoto. N"4$e#F Pere$$", (*1+.
,1C*,
Lon'4rK E4hrem. 9he P#y.ho$o'y of D-n# S.ot "n% it# Mo%ernity,9 "he
ranciscan Educational Conference, MIII E (*B(G, (*,)).
Min'e# P"rtheni-#. Ast Duns Scotus Indeterminist8 MZn#ter in &. F !#.hen%orff#.he
Ver"'#b-.hh"n%$-n', (*CA.
Pi"n" Ce$e#tino. 1a contro5ersia della distin@ione fra anima e poten@e* 2iscellanea*
Centro studi medie5ali, I E (*A+G, +A,(+@.
Ry"n 0ohn /. "he Doctrine of <ohn Duns Scotus on the Nature and Value of the
3ational Arguments for Immortality. M. !. he#i#. &"#hin'ton, D. C.F he C"tho$i.
Uni6er#ity of !meri." Pre##, (*B(.
Siebe.2 H. 9Die &i$$en#$ehre bei 0oh"nne# D-n# S.ot-#,9 Feitschrift fGr -hilosophie
und philosophische Driti0, MCII E (@*@G, ()*,1(+.
V"nni Sofi" Ro6i'hi. 9L3immort"$it] %e$$3"nim" ne$ 4en#iero %i ;io6"nni D-n#
S.oto,9 3i5ista di filosofia neoscolastica, MMIII E (*B(G, )@,(C8.
T(eo1&c)
B"rth imothe-#. 9De trib-# 6ii# %i6er#i# e7i#tenti"m %i6in"m "ttin'en%i. Di#=-i#itio
hi#tori.o,.o$$"ti6" inter #. hom"m, Henri.-m ;"n%"6en#em, D-n# S.ot-m,9
Antonianum, MVIII E (*8BG, *(,(().
Be$mon% SKr"4hin. 9L3e7i#ten.e %e Die- %3"4rO# D-n# S.ot,9 3e5ue de philosophie,
@, 6o$. MIII E (*C@G, 18(,+@> B+8,@(.
DDDDDD. 9L" .onn"i##"n.e %e Die- %3"4rO# D-n# S.ot,9 3e5ue de philosophie, (C,
6o$. MVII E (*(CG, 8*+,A(8.
DDDDDD. ?tudes sur la philosophie de Duns Scot# Dieu* e.istence et cognoscibilit=.
P"ri#F Be"-.he#ne, (*(B.
Bettoni Efrem. 1'ascesa a Dio in Duns Scoto. Mi$"nF 9Vit" e Pen#iero,9 (*8B.
DDDDDD. Il problema della conoscibilit6 di Dio nella scuola francescana. P"%-"F
Ce%"m, (*AC.
DDDDDD. 9De "r'-ment"tione Do.tori# S-bti$i# =-o"% e7i#tenti"m Dei,9 Antonianum,
MMVIII E (*ABG, B*,A@.
Bor'm"nn P".ifi.-#. 9`ber %ie Ste$$-n' %e# D-n# S.ot-# <-m #o'. onto$o'i#.hen
;otte#be5ei#,9 1e0toren0onferen@, VI,VII, 44. ((+,(*.
F".2$er Fr"n< P. Der Seinsbegriff in seiner /edeutung fGr die %otteser0enntnis des
Duns Scotus. Frie%ber',!-'#b-r'F B"-r, (*BB.
;i$#on Xtienne. 9L3e7i#ten.e %e Die- #e$on D-n# S.ot,9 2ediae5al Studies, MI
E (*8*G, 1B,+(.
,1(C,
,,,,,,. 9N"t-re et 4ortKe %e# 4re-6e# #.oti#te# %e $3e7i#ten.e %e Die-,9 2=langes
<oseph 2ar=chal, II, 44. B)@,*A.
/$ein 0o#e4h. Der %ottesbegriff des <ohannes Duns Scotus. P"%erbornF S.hanin'h,
(*(B.
Min'e# P"rtheni-#. Der %ottesbegriff des Duns S0otus. Vienn"F M"yr, (*C).
,,,,,,. Das VerhHltnis @'ischen %lauben und Wissen* "heologie und -hilosophie
nach D# Scotus. P"%erbornF S.hanin'h, (*C@.
O5en# 0o#e4h. 9he S4e.i"$ Ch"r".teri#ti. of the S.oti#ti. Proof th"t ;o% E7i#t#,9
Analecta %regoriana, LMVII, Serie# F".-$t"ti# Phi$o#o4hi."e, Se.t. !, n. + E (*A8G,
B((,1).
P-e.h LKon"r%. 9D-n# S.ot et $3"r'-ment %e #"int !n#e$me,9 Nos cahiers, II E (*B)G,
(@B,**.
,,,,,,. 9Une 4re-6e o-b$iKe %e $3e7i#ten.e %e Die-,9 Nos cahiers, IV E (*B*G, 11A,)(.
S.h5"mm Herm"nn. 9D"# 'att$i.he Vorher5i##en bei D-n# S.ot-# -n% #einem
er#ten !nhRn'ern9. -hilosophie und %ren@'issenschaften, A, (,8. Inn#br-.2F R"-.h,
(*B8.
&o$ter !$$"n B. 9D-n# S.ot-# on the N"t-re of M"n3# /no5$e%'e of ;o%,9 3e5ie'
of 2etaphysics, I, n. 1 EDe.., (*8)G, B,B+.
,,,,,,. 9he heo$o'i#m of D-n# S.ot-#,9 ranciscan Studies, VII E (*8)G, 1A),)B>
B+),*@.
,,,,,,. 9D-n# S.ot-# on the N"t-r"$ De#ire for the S-4ern"t-r"$,9 "he Ne'
Scholasticism, MMIII E (*8*G, 1@(,B().
,,,,,,. 9D-n# S.ot-# "n% the E7i#ten.e "n% N"t-re of ;o%,9 -roceedings of the
American Catholic -hilosophical Association, MMVIII E (*A8G, *8,(1(.
Et(&cs
Bin2o5#2i 0oh"nne#. Die Wertlehre des Duns Scotus. Ber$in,BonnF DZmm$er, (*B+.
Boehner Phi$othe-#. 9Die Ethi2 %e# Er2ennen# n".h D-n# S2ot-#,9 Wissenschaft und
Weisheit, II E (*BAG, (,().
B-%<i2 ;r"ti"n-#. De conceptu legis ad mentem Ioannis Duns Scoti. B-r$in'ton,
(*AA.
De6 ;re'ori-# O'$-. Ethica seu Ethica generalis ad mentem 5en# I# Scoti D# Subtilis.
0er-#"$emF y4i# PP. Fr"n.i#."$i-m, (*C+.
,,,,,,. 9I-# n"t-r"e #e- Ethi." #4e.i"$i# "% mentem 6en. I. S.oti D. #-bti$i#. C-m
tri4$i.e "44en%i.eF De =-"e#tione #o.i"$i, femini#mo et "rbitr"t- intern"tion"$i9.
0er-#"$emF y4i# PP. Fr"n.i#."$i-m, (*C+.
/$ein 0o#e4h. 9Der ;otte#be'riff %e# 0. D-n# S.ot-# 6or "$$em n".h #einer ethi#.hen
Seite betr".htet9. P"%erbornF S.hanin'h, (*(B.
,1((,
,,,,,,. 9Q-r Sitten$ehre %e# 0oh"nne# D-n# S2ot-#,9 ran@is0anische Studien, I
E (*(8G, 8C(,B)> II E (*(AG, (B),+*.
,,,,,,. 9Inte$$e2t -n% &i$$e "# %ie nR.h#ten P-e$$en %er #itt$i.hen !2te n".h 0oh"nne#
D-n# S2ot-#,9 ran@is0anische Studien, III E (*(+G, BC*,B@> VI E (*(*G, (C),11>
1(B,B8> 1*A,B11> VII E (*1CG, ((@,B8> (*C,1(B> VIII E (*1(G, 1+C,@1.
,,,,,,. 9I$ 4rim"to %e$$" 6o$ont] #e.on%o S.oto,9 3i5ista di filosofia neoscolastica,
MVII E (*1AG, 1C8,1C*.
Min'e# P"rtheni-#. 9Be%e-t-n' 6on ObJe2t, Um#tRn%en -n% Q5e.2 fZr %ie
Sitt$i.h2eit eine# !2te# n".h D-n# S.ot-#,9 -hilosophisches <ahrbuch, MIM E (*C+G,
BB@,8).
Mor.e$$oni !mbro'io. 1a legge morale in Duns Scoto. Do.tor"$ Di##ert"tion. Mi$"nF
Uni6er#ity of the S".re% He"rt, (*A(.
OromW Mi'-e$. 9Prin.i4io# bY#i.o# %e $" Eti." %e E#.oto,9 in 2=todos y -rincipios
ilosEficos. M"%ri%F E%itori"$ Ci#nero#, (*+C. P4. 11A,+).
Petr-<<e$$i# Ni.o$". 9St-%i #-$$3eti." %i S.oto,9 Archi5io di filosofia, M E (*8CG,
++,@)> 1(*,BB> B*C,8(+.
Pierni."re<y2 Eri.h. 9D"# N"t-r'e#et< bei 0oh"nne# D-n# S.ot-#,9 -hilosophisches
<ahrbuch, MLIII E (*BCG, +),*(.
S.h5en%in'er Fi%e$i#. 2etaphysi0 des Sittlichen nach <ohannes Duns Scotus. &er$
in &., (*B@.
Soto !nthony R. 9he Str-.t-re of So.iety "..or%in' to D-n# S.ot-#,9 ranciscan
Studies, MI E (*A(G, (*8,1(1> MII E (*A1G, )(,*C.
Str"ten5erth ;Znter. Die Naturrechtslehre des <ohannes Duns Scotus. ;attin'enF
V"n%enhoe.2 U R-4re.ht, (*A(.
Q-..here$$i Don"to. 9I$ 4en#iero %e$ b. ;io6"nni D-n# S.oto #-$$" .ontin'en<"
%e$$3or%ine eti.o,9 Studi rancescani, (1, 6o$. I, E (*(8,(AG, B@A,8C(.
Re0&e%s %(ere st*1&es on Scot&st&c '(&loso'() a''ear -ore fre7*entl):
Antonianum E=-"rter$yG. E%ite% by the 4rofe##or# of the !then"e-m !ntoni"n-m %e
Urbe. E Rome, (*1+. G
Archi5um ranciscanum ;istoricum E=-"rter$yG. P-b$i#he% by the Fr"n.i#."n F"ther#
of the Co$$e'i-m S. Bon"6ent-r"e. E P-"r"..hi, (*C@. G
Collectanea ranciscana E=-"rter$yG. E%ite% by the C"4-.hin F"ther#. E !##i#i, (*B(>
Rome, (*8(. G
Estudios ranciscanos E=-"rter$yG. E%ite% by the C"4-.hin F"ther# of B"r.e$on".
E B"r.e$on", (*C). G /no5n -nti$ (*8@ "# Estudis ranciscans.
,1(1,
?tudes ranciscaines Ebimonth$yG. E%ite% by the Fren.h C"4-.hin F"ther# . E P"ri#,
(@@*. G
1a rance ranciscaine E=-"rter$yG. E%ite% by the Fren.h Fri"r# Minor . E P"ri#,
(*(@. G
ranciscan Studies E=-"rter$yG. P-b$i#he% by he Fr"n.i#."n In#tit-te, St.
Bon"6ent-re Uni6er#ity, St. Bon"6ent-re, N. Y. ENe5 Serie#, (*8(. G
ran@is0anische Studien E=-"rter$yG. P-b$i#he% by the Fri"r# Minor. EP"%erborn in
&., (*(B. G
-hilosophisches <ahrbuch der %Irres)%esellschaft E=-"rter$yG. Fo-n%e% by C.
;-tber$et "n% 0. Poh$e. E F-$%", (@@@. G
3i5ista di filosofia neoscolastica Ebimonth$yG. Fo-n%e% by F"ther !'o#tino ;eme$$i.
E%ite% by the f".-$ty of 4hi$o#o4hy "t the Uni6er#ity of the S".re% He"rt. E Mi$"n,
(*C*. G
Studi rancescani E=-"rter$yG. E%ite% by the It"$i"n Fri"r# Minor. E F$oren.e, (*(8. G
Verdad y Vida E=-"rter$yG. P-b$i#he% by the S4"ni#h Fr"n.i#."n F"ther#. E M"%ri%,
(*8B. G
Wissenschaft und Weisheit E=-"rter$yG. P-b$i#he% by the Fri"r# Minor of MZn.hen,
;$"%b".h "n% S"$<b-r'. E&er$ in &., (*B8. G
,1(B,