Chapter 6

DISSEMINATION OF AERONAUTICAL
METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION
6.1

GENERAL

6.1.1 Efficient telecommunications are essential for the speedy dissemination of aeronautical meteorological information to all users. Suitable telecommunication facilities must therefore be available at aerodromes
to ensure rapid communications between meteorological offices and stations, and to allow these offices and
stations to supply the necessary meteorological information to ATS units (control towers, approach control,
etc.), operators and other aeronautical users at the aerodrome. Automatic telecommunication and information
systems, telephones, and teletypewriters are used for this purpose; if used between meteorological offices and
ATS units, telephones should allow contact with the required points within 15 seconds (even if switchboards
are used), and printed communications within 5 minutes, including any necessary retransmission.
6.1.2 For the dissemination of OPMET information beyond the aerodrome, the AFTN and the AFS satellite
distribution broadcast systems (see 6.3) are the primary communication means. Both the network and the
broadcast are part of the AFS, which embraces all telecommunication systems used for international air
navigation, except ground-to-air transmissions. ICAO international OPMET data banks, which can be accessed
through the AFTN, support inter-regional and regional exchanges and dissemination of OPMET information. In
accordance with the principles for the planning of OPMET exchanges, endorsed by the COM/MET Divisional
Meeting (1982), the OPMET data exchange system should make use of a limited number of international data
banks; the number and location of these data banks and the areas to be served by them should be established by
regional air navigation agreement. Seven international OPMET data banks have been established by regional air
navigation agreement in Brasilia, Brussels, Dakar, Pretoria, Toulouse, Vienna and Washington. In addition, five
OPMET data banks in Bangkok, Brisbane, Nadi, Singapore and Tokyo have been designated to support the
ROBEX scheme (see 6.2.6) in the ASIA/PAC Regions.
6.1.3 Some concern has been expressed by a number of States regarding the use of OPMET data for
non-aviation purposes. Guidelines for access to aeronautical meteorological information has been developed
by ICAO in coordination with WMO and is given in Appendix 9.

6.2

DISSEMINATION OF OPMET INFORMATION ON THE AFTN

6.2.1 OPMET information in alphanumeric form is transmitted on the AFTN (and on most other networks) in
the form of "bulletins", each bulletin containing one or more METAR, TAF or other types of information (but
always only one type per bulletin) and the appropriate bulletin heading. The heading is essential to permit
recognition by users and handlers, including computers, of type, time and origin of the data contained in the
bulletin. It should not be confused with the "AFTN message heading" which determines priority, routing and
other telecommunication aspects of the message. All meteorological bulletins transmitted via the AFTN have to
be "encapsulated" into the text part of the AFTN message format.

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Note. Details concerning the AFTN message format are given in Annex 10 Aeronautical
Telecommunications, Volume II Communication Procedures including those with PANS status.
6.2.2 The meteorological bulletin abbreviated heading consists of a single line, precedes the OPMET
data contained in the bulletin, and normally comprises three groups as follows:
a) an identifier;
b) an ICAO location indicator;
c) a date-time group; and
d) if necessary, a fourth group can be added as an identifier for a delayed, corrected or amended
bulletin.
The meaning of these four groups is as follows:
The identifier comprises four letters and two figures: the first and second letters are the data-type
designators, the third and fourth letters are the geographical designators, and the figures are added
to identify two or more bulletins originated by the same centre. The data designators are:
SA
SP
FT
FC
WA
WS
WC
WV
FK
FV
UA
FA

METAR including trend forecasts, if provided

SPECI including trend forecasts, if provided
TAF valid for 12 hours or more
TAF valid for less than 12 hours
AIRMET information
SIGMET information
SIGMET information for tropical cyclones
SIGMET information for volcanic ash
Tropical cyclone advisory message
Volcanic ash advisory message
Air-report (AIREP) GAMET
forecasts

Example. SAZB02 = Second of two bulletins containing routine reports in

the METAR code form (SA) from Zambia (ZB).

Note. A complete list of geographical designators is given in WMO Publication No. 386 Manual on
the Global Telecommunication System; the data designators listed above are taken from the same WMO
publication.
The ICAO location indicator consists of four letters (e.g. YUDO [fictitious location]) and identifies the
meteorological office that compiled the bulletin. The complete list of location indicators is published
in Location Indicators (Doc 7910).
The date-time group consists of six figures, the first two figures indicating the day of the month and
the next four figures indicating:

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a) for METAR and SPECI, the time of observation in UTC;

b) for TAF, route and area forecasts, the full hour in UTC (of which the last two figures are always 00)
preceding the transmission time; for other forecasts, the standard time of observation in UTC on
which the forecast is based;
c) for other meteorological bulletins, such as SIGMET information, the time of origin in UTC of the
text of the bulletin(s).

Example. 151200 = METAR based on observations made on the 15th of the month at
1200 UTC.

Note. In the case of bulletins, the time of observation of each report needs to be clearly identified.
If necessary, the abbreviated heading may include a fourth group consisting of three letters to identify
delayed (RRA), corrected (CCA) or amended (AAA) bulletins. If additional delayed, corrected or
amended bulletins are necessary, they should be identified by RRB, RRC, etc.; CCB, CCC, etc.; and
AAB, AAC, etc.

Example. A complete heading will be as follows:

SAZB02 YUDO 151200 RRA = Delayed second of two bulletins of METAR code
form for 1200 UTC on the 15th from Zambia, compiled by YUDO.*
* Fictitious location

6.2.3 Bulletins containing OPMET information and disseminated on the AFTN are given priorities
depending on their urgency; warnings (SIGMET information), amendments to forecasts, and other meteorological
information of immediate concern to aircraft in flight or about to depart are given a relatively high priority; next are
METAR, TAF, and other messages exchanged between meteorological offices.
Note. Details concerning message priorities on the AFTN are given in Annex 10 Aeronautical
Telecommunications, Volume II Communication Procedures including those with PANS status.
6.2.4 Messages containing meteorological data should be filed promptly for transmission on the AFTN in
good time. METAR and SPECI are normally filed within five minutes of the time of the observation, and TAF
at least one hour before the commencement of their validity.
6.2.5 The time interval between the time of filing to the time of receipt of a message is called the "transit"
time. Messages containing OPMET data transmitted on the AFTN should normally have transit times of less
than five minutes, except for METAR, SPECI and TAF exchanged over distances exceeding 900 km which
may have transit times of up to ten minutes.
6.2.6 In some regions, special collection and dissemination systems have been designed for the more
efficient handling of OPMET information exchanged on AFTN circuits as, for example, the Regional Operational
Meteorological Bulletin Exchange (ROBEX) in the MID/ASIA/PAC Regions, and the Africa-Indian Ocean
Meteorological Bulletin Exchange (AMBEX) in the AFI Region.

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6.3

DISSEMINATION OF AERONAUTICAL METEOROLOGICAL

INFORMATION ON ICAO AFS SATELLITE BROADCASTS

6.3.1 WAFS forecasts are disseminated through three ICAO AFS satellite broadcasts, directly from
WAFCs to the meteorological offices. A global set of OPMET information is also included in these satellite
broadcasts. Where the necessary arrangements have been made, the broadcasts may also be received by
other users, such as ATS units and operators. The transmission of WAFS data through satellite broadcasts
is in the form of digital data, comprising upper wind and upper-air temperature and humidity forecasts in the
GRIB code form and significant weather forecasts in the BUFR code form.
6.3.2 The dissemination of WAFS forecasts through the AFS satellite broadcasts is the most efficient
method, as it combines excellent quality with relatively low-cost, user-friendly receiving equipment. States that
have not already done so are therefore encouraged to arrange for the reception of the broadcasts which
provide global coverage. The procedures and conditions concerning authorized access to the WAFS satellite
broadcasts are given in Appendix 1.
Note. For details on the methods to be used in the various ICAO regions for the exchange of OPMET
information, see the ANP/FASID. Details on regional networks or systems for the exchange of OPMET
information are published by ICAO regional offices on a regular basis.

6.4

DISSEMINATION OF OPMET INFORMATION

ON THE INTERNET

The Internet has become increasingly reliable for the dissemination of data over recent years. Use has been
made of the Internet by some States for the dissemination of OPMET data. Care is needed to ensure that
security and the reliability of the data are considered when using such a system that is open to the public.
Further guidance on the use of the Internet has been issued by ICAO (Guidelines on the Use of the Public
Internet for Aeronautical Applications (Doc 9855) refers).

6.5 INTERROGATION PROCEDURES FOR

INTERNATIONAL OPMET DATABANKS
6.5.1 In addition to the dissemination means described in 6.2 and 6.3, OPMET data can also be
obtained by interrogation of one of the ICAO international OPMET databanks. This is effected by means of a
standardized message which triggers the automatic retrieval of the requested information and its immediate
transmission to the originator. Except in special cases, the information given to the user is always the most
recent available.
6.5.2 In order to be accepted by the databank, the interrogation message must be in agreement with
the following principles:
a) it must contain the proper AFTN address used for interrogation (e.g. SBBRYZYX for Brasilia,
EBBRYZYX for Brussels, LOWMYZYX for Vienna, KWBCYZYX for Washington); and
b) only one line of interrogation (69 characters of text) is allowed.

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6.5.3
order:

The standard interrogation for one message shall include the elements listed below in the following

a) "RQM/" indicating the start of a data request line;

b) data-type identifier;
c) a four-letter ICAO location indicator; and
d) the equal sign (=) indicating the end of the interrogation line, e.g. RQM/SAMTSJ=.
Note. MTSJ is a fictitious location indicator.
6.5.4 The accepted data-type designators are as given in 6.2.2. Some of the data types listed in that
paragraph may not be available in all the international OPMET databanks.
6.5.5

The following special interrogation procedures are available if more than one message is needed:

a) the same data type may be requested for a number of stations without repeating the data-type
identifier. The location indicators have to be separated by commas (,) which indicate the continuation
of the request for the same type of data, e.g. RQM/SAEHAM,EHRD=;
b) various data types may be interrogated in the same message using the oblique (/) as a separator,
e.g. RQM/SAKMIA/FTKMIA=.
6.5.6 There are additional features used for interrogation that are not available in all the international
OPMET databanks. These are described in detail in the "catalogues of OPMET data available at the OPMET
databanks", prepared and updated on a regular basis by the ICAO regional offices concerned. It should be
noted that some international OPMET databanks restrict access to one authorized user per State, and the
computer will not respond to an unauthorized interrogation.

6.6

DISSEMINATION OF AERONAUTICAL METEOROLOGICAL

INFORMATION TO AIRCRAFT IN FLIGHT

6.6.1 The transmission of aeronautical meteorological information to aircraft in flight is the responsibility of
the ATS units. Details on the meteorological information provided to aircraft in flight can be found in the
Manual on Coordination between Air Traffic Services, Aeronautical Information Services and Aeronautical
Meteorological Services (Doc 9377).
6.6.2 VOLMET broadcasts by VHF or HF voice communications and D-VOLMET by data links are parts
of aeronautical mobile service communications. Both communication systems are established and operated
in States, usually by the ATS authorities, in accordance with regional air navigation agreement. Depending
on these agreements, METAR, SPECI (including trend forecasts, where required), TAF, and SIGMET
information messages are supplied through these telecommunications systems to aircraft in flight. Details
relating to the cooperation of the meteorological and ATS authorities in the provision of the services are
dealt with in the Manual on Coordination between Air Traffic Services, Aeronautical Information Services and
Aeronautical Meteorological Services (Doc 9377). The standard meteorological phraseologies to be used in
VOLMET broadcasts by voice communication are given in Appendix 1 to that manual.

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Note. The following data link services of the data link flight information service (D-FIS) application should
be used for the supply of OPMET data, referred to above, to aircraft in flight: D-METAR service, D-TAF service,
D-SIGMET service. For details on these data link services, see the Manual of Air Traffic Services Data Link
Applications (Doc 9694).

___________________

Chapter 7
AIRCRAFT OBSERVATIONS AND REPORTS
7.1

GENERAL

There are two kinds of aircraft observations as listed below and discussed in detail in the following paragraphs:
a) routine aircraft observations during en-route and climb-out phases of the flight; and
b) special and other non-routine aircraft observations during any phase of the flight.

7.2

7.2.1

REPORTING OF AIRCRAFT OBSERVATIONS

DURING FLIGHT

Aircraft observations are to be reported using the following means:

a) air-ground data link. This is the preferred mode of reporting; and

b) voice communication. This is to be used only if the air-ground data link is not available or appropriate.
7.2.2 Aircraft observations are to be reported during flight at the time the observation is made or as
soon thereafter as is practicable.

7.3

ROUTINE AIRCRAFT OBSERVATIONS

7.3.1

Frequency of reporting

When air-ground data link is used and automatic dependent surveillance (ADS) or secondary surveillance
radar (SSR) Mode S is being applied, automated routine observations are made every 15 minutes during
the en-route phase and every 30 seconds during the climb-out phase for the first 10 minutes of the flight.
When voice communications are used, routine meteorological observations by aircraft are made only during
the en-route phase of the flight at ATS reporting points or intervals:
a) at which the applicable ATS procedures require routine position reports; and
b) which correspond most closely to intervals of one hour of flying time.
For helicopter operations to and from aerodromes on offshore structures, routine observations are to be
made from helicopters at points and times as agreed between the meteorological authorities and the
helicopter operators concerned.

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Note 1. In most ICAO regions, specific ATS/MET reporting points have been designated. Lists of
these points are available from the ICAO regional offices.
Note 2. On aeronautical charts, the ATS/MET reporting points, in addition to the two-five letter coded
designator, are indicated by the following symbols:
compulsory aircraft report
on request
7.3.2

Exemptions from reporting

Where voice communications are used, an aircraft is exempted from making routine observations when:
a) the aircraft is not equipped with RNAV equipment; or
b) the flight duration is 2 hours or less; or
c) the aircraft is at a distance equivalent to less than one hour of flying time from the next intended
point of landing; or
d) the altitude of the flight path is below 1 500 m (5 000 ft).
In some regions, with high-density air traffic and/or with adequate ground-based observing networks, additional
exemptions are prescribed by regional air navigation agreement for all aircraft.
Note. When air-ground data link is used, no exemptions are to be applied.

7.3.3

Designation procedures

In the case of air routes with high-density air traffic (e.g. organized tracks), an aircraft from among the aircraft
operating at each flight level shall be designated, at approximately hourly intervals, to make routine observations in
accordance with the frequency specified in 7.3.1, as appropriate. These designation procedures for the enroute phase of the flight are prescribed by regional air navigation agreement. In the case of the requirement to
report during the climb-out phase, an aircraft is to be designated, at approximately hourly intervals, at each
aerodrome to make routine observations in accordance with 7.3.1. The details concerning the required frequency
to make routine aircraft observations and the associated designation procedures are shown in Table 7-1.
Note. Details on exemption and designation procedures for the en-route phase of the flight are
contained in the Regional Supplementary Procedures (Doc 7030), Part 3 Meteorology.

7.4

SPECIAL AND OTHER NON-ROUTINE

AIRCRAFT OBSERVATIONS

7.4.1

Special aircraft observations

Special observations are required to be made by all aircraft operating on international air routes whenever
the following conditions are encountered or observed:

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7-3

a) severe turbulence; or
b) severe icing; or
c) severe mountain wave; or
d) thunderstorms, without hail, that are:

obscured; or
embedded; or
widespread; or
in squall lines; or
e) thunderstorms, with hail, that are:

obscured; or
embedded; or
widespread; or
in squall lines; or
f)

heavy duststorms or heavy sandstorms; or

g) volcanic ash cloud; or

h) pre-eruption volcanic activity or volcanic eruption.

Table 7-1. Frequency and associated

designation procedures of routine air-reports
Voice communications

Air-ground data link

En-route phase

Frequency

low-density
traffic

high-density
traffic

low-density
traffic

high-density
traffic

All aircraft

Designated
aircraft

All aircraft

Designated
aircraft

one every ATS/MET reporting point

(simultaneously with position
reports) or 1 every hour
Designation
procedures

En-route phase

none

An aircraft at
hourly intervals1

one every 15 min

none

An aircraft at
hourly intervals1

Climb-out phase
(Terminal area)

Designated
aircraft
one every 30 s for
the first 10 min of
the flight
An aircraft at
hourly intervals at
each international
aerodrome

1. Subject to regional air navigation agreement included in the Regional Supplementary Procedures (Doc 7030), Part 3 Meteorology.

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Note 1. The exemptions from routine observations, mentioned in 7.3.2, do not apply to special
observations which are required to be made by all aircraft during any phase of the flight and in all regions.
Note 2. Pre-eruption volcanic activity in this context means unusual and/or increasing volcanic activity
which could presage a volcanic eruption.
Note 3. When air-ground data link is used, special air-reports constitute a data link application mentioned in
7.5.6, Note 1. To facilitate the issuance of special air-reports by the pilot in the data link environment, a future data
link application with a menu-driven system for the cockpit is being developed. An example of this type of userfriendly system, not requiring any additions of free text, is shown in Table 7-2.
Note 4. Special reports of turbulence and icing during climb-out and approach are especially important,
since no satisfactory method of observing these phenomena from the ground is available at this time.

7.4.2

Other non-routine observations

Other non-routine aircraft observations are made when meteorological conditions are encountered which are
different from those listed under 7.4.1 (e.g. wind shear) and which, in the opinion of the pilot-in-command,
may affect the safety or markedly affect the efficiency of other aircraft operations. These observations are to
be made through voice communications by advising the appropriate ATS unit as soon as practicable. In the
case of wind shear reports:
a) the aircraft type must be included; and
b) pilots must inform appropriate ATS units as soon as practicable if forecast wind shear conditions
are not encountered.

7.5

CONTENT OF AIR-REPORTS

7.5.1 A report consisting of a position report and of meteorological information is called a "routine airreport". (It may also contain operational information.) Reports containing special aircraft observations are called
"special air-reports" and, in most cases, constitute a basis for the issuance of SIGMETs.

Table 7-2. Downlink message menu incorporating conditions

prompting the issuance of special air-reports

SEVERE TURBULENCE
SEVERE ICING
SEVERE MOUNTAIN WAVE
THUNDERSTORMS WITHOUT HAIL
THUNDERSTORMS WITH HAIL
HEAVY DUSTSTORM/SANDSTORM
VOLCANIC ASH CLOUD
PRE-ERUPTION VOLCANIC ACTIVITY/VOLCANIC ERUPTION

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7.5.2 When voice communications are used, the elements contained in routine and special air-reports
are as follows:
Routine air-reports:

Special air-reports:

Message type designator

Message type designator

Section 1 (position information)

Aircraft identification
Position or latitude and longitude
Time
Flight level or altitude
Next position and time over
Ensuing significant point

Section 1 (position information)

Aircraft identification
Position or latitude or longitude
Time
Flight level or altitude
Section 3 (meteorological information)
Condition prompting the issuance of a
special air-report1

Section 2 (operational information)

Estimated time of arrival
Endurance
Section 3 (meteorological information)
Temperature
Wind direction
Wind speed
Turbulence
Aircraft icing
Humidity (if available)
1. One condition to be selected from the list presented under 7.4.1.

7.5.3 When air-ground data link is used and ADS or SSR Mode S is being applied, the elements
contained in routine air-reports are as follows:
Message type designator
Aircraft identification
Data block 1
Latitude
Longitude
Level Time
Data block 2
Wind direction
Wind speed
Wind quality flag
Temperature
Turbulence (if available)
Humidity (if available)

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Note. When ADS or SSR Mode S is being applied, the requirements of routine air-reports may be the
combination of the basic ADS/SSR Mode S data block (data block 1) and the meteorological information
data block (data block 2), available from ADS or SSR Mode S reports. The ADS message format is specified in
the Procedures for Air Navigation Services Air Traffic Management (PANS-ATM, Doc 4444), 4.11.4 and
Chapter 13, and the SSR Mode S message format is specified in Annex 10 Aeronautical
Telecommunications, Volume III Part I Digital Data Communication Systems, Chapter 5. The template
for the ADS message is in Appendix 10 to this manual.
7.5.4 When air-ground data link is used and ADS and SSR Mode S are not being applied, the
elements contained in routine air-reports are as in routine air-reports by voice communications, i.e. as
indicated in 7.5.2.
Note. The controller-pilot data link communications (CPDLC) application entitled "Position report" may be
used for these air-reports. The details of the data link application are specified in the Manual of Air Traffic
Services Data Link Applications (Doc 9694) and Annex 10 Aeronautical Telecommunications, Volume
III Part I Digital Data Communication Systems.
7.5.5 The meteorological content of routine reports using voice communications and air-ground data link,
respectively, is summarized in Table 7-3.
7.5.6

When air-ground data link is used, the elements contained in special air-reports are as follows:

Message designator Aircraft

identification
Data block 1
Latitude
Longitude
Level Time
Data block 2
Wind direction
Wind speed
Wind quality flag
Temperature
Turbulence (if available)
Humidity (if available)
Data block 3
Condition prompting the issuance of a special air-report (one condition to be selected from the list in
7.4.1).
Note 1. The data link flight information service (D-FIS) application entitled "Special air-report service"
may be used for these air-reports. The details of this data link application are specified in the Manual of Air
Traffic Services Data Link Applications (Doc 9694) and Annex 10 Aeronautical Telecommunications,
Volume III Part I Digital Data Communication Systems.

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Table 7-3. Meteorological content of routine air-reports

(All the reports include information on the position of the aircraft in four dimensions)
Reports transmitted via
voice communications and
air-ground data link ADS and SSR Mode S
not being applied

air-ground data link, ADS or SSR

Mode S being applied

Temperature
Wind direction
Wind speed
Turbulence
Aircraft icing
Humidity (if available)

Wind direction
Wind speed
Wind quality flag
Temperature
Turbulence (if available)
Humidity (if available)

Note 2. In the case of the transmission of a special air-report of pre-eruption volcanic activity, a
volcanic eruption or volcanic ash cloud, there are additional requirements (see 7.8).
Note 3. The template for special air-reports (downlink) is given in Annex 3, Appendix 4, Table A4-2.

7.6

CRITERIA FOR REPORTING METEOROLOGICAL AND RELATED

PARAMETERS IN AUTOMATED AIR-REPORTS

When air-ground data link is used, the wind direction and speed, wind quality flag, temperature, turbulence
and humidity, to be included in automated air-reports, are reported in accordance with the criteria shown in
Annex 3, Appendix 4, Section 2.

7.7

EXCHANGE OF AIR-REPORTS

7.7.1

Basic principles

Air traffic services and meteorological authorities should establish appropriate arrangements to ensure that
routine and special air-reports reported to ATS units by aircraft in flight are transmitted without delay to the
world area forecast centres (WAFCs). In the case of all special air-reports and those routine reports which
are received by voice communications, these are also to be transmitted to the associated MWO.

7.7.2

Additional exchange of air-reports

beyond MWOs

The MWO assembles the routine reports received by voice communications and transmits these to other
meteorological offices in accordance with regional air navigation agreement.

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Special air-reports are not normally exchanged regionally beyond the MWO. However, further dissemination
is required in the following circumstances:
a) When a special air-report is received but the forecaster considers that the phenomenon causing the
report is not expected to persist and, therefore, does not warrant issuance of a SIGMET, the special
air-report should nevertheless be disseminated in the same way that SIGMET messages are
disseminated, i.e. to MWOs and other meteorological offices in accordance with regional air navigation
agreement; and
b) Special air-reports of pre-eruption volcanic activity, volcanic eruption or volcanic ash cloud are to be
transmitted to the VAACs.

7.7.3

Additional exchange of air-reports beyond WAFCs

Air-reports exchanged beyond WAFCs are considered as basic meteorological data and therefore their
further dissemination is subject to WMO provisions.
Note 1. The exchange requirements of routine air-reports received by voice communications between
meteorological offices are usually shown in the ANP/FASID.
Note 2. An example of a dissemination pattern of air-reports is shown in Table 7-4.

7.8

RECORDING AND POST-FLIGHT REPORTING OF AIRCRAFT

OBSERVATIONS OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY

Special aircraft observations of pre-eruption volcanic activity, volcanic eruption or volcanic ash cloud are the
only type of air-report that requires a post-flight report, which should be recorded using the special air-report
of volcanic activity form (MODEL VAR). A copy of the form is shown in Appendix 1 to the Procedures for Air
Navigation Services Air Traffic Management (PANS-ATM, Doc 4444). It is to be included with the flight
documentation provided to flight crews operating on routes which could be affected by volcanic ash clouds.
The completed form is to be handed in by the flight crew to the meteorological office and, if available, airline
representative at the next point of landing.

7.9

DETAILED INSTRUCTIONS CONCERNING THE RETRANSMISSION

OF AIR-REPORTS RECEIVED BY MWOs

The following paragraphs provide details on the content of routine and special air-reports received by voice
communications (see also Example 7-1). It is essential that air-reports be compiled by the ATS units and
retransmitted by the MWO concerned in the correct order and format to permit their use in meteorological
and other computers. Of special importance is the application of the indicator (ARS) for a special air-report.
Note. MWOs do not need to retransmit operational information concerning "next position and time
over", "estimated time of arrival" or "endurance".

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Table 7-4. Dissemination pattern of air-reports

("" indicates the centre(s)/office(s) to which the air-report received is to be transmitted)
Type of air-report received at the ATS unit
Routine by airground data link
initially
by ATS unit
Dissemination

1.
2.
3.

subsequently
by MWO

WAFCs

Special by airground data link

Routine by voice
communications

Special by voice
communications

MWO
WAFCs

MWO

MWO

WAFCs
MET offices1

VAACs2

WAFCs
VAACs2
MET offices3
MWOs3

In accordance with regional air navigation agreement.

Only special air-reports of pre-eruption volcanic activity, volcanic eruption or volcanic ash cloud.
To be disseminated in the same way as SIGMET messages (i.e. to MWOs and other MET offices in accordance with regional air
navigation agreement) only if the special air-report does not warrant issuance of a SIGMET.

Example 7-1.

a)

AIREP and AIREP SPECIAL messages as recorded

on the ground by the MWO concerned

AIREP message
BAGABCD 49N050W 1317 F310 MS47 255/65KMH TURB MOD ICE FBL RH075
Meaning:
Routine air-report from British Airways aircraft GABCD. Report refers to position 49 degrees north and 50
degrees west at 1317 UTC, at flight level 310. The outside temperature is -47 degrees Celsius, the (spot) wind
measured at the position is 255 degrees 65 kilometres per hour. Moderate turbulence and light aircraft icing
are experienced at the time of the observation. Relative humidity is 75 per cent.

b)

SPECIAL AIREP message

ARS VA812 2020N07005W 1215 F180 MTW SEV
Meaning:
Special air-report from VIASA flight number 812. Report refers to position 20 degrees 20 minutes north and 70
degrees 5 minutes west at 1215 UTC, at flight level 180. Severe mountain wave has been encountered.

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Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

7.9.1

Message type designator

(ARS)

Air-reports are routine by default. A message type designator is, therefore, required only for special airreports, i.e. "ARS".
Note. Where air-reports are handled by automatic data processing equipment that cannot accept this
message type designator, the use of a different message type designator is permitted by regional air
navigation agreement, provided that:
a) the data transmitted is in accordance with that specified in the special air-report format; and
b) measures are taken to ensure that special air-report messages are forwarded to the appropriate
meteorological unit and to other aircraft likely to be affected.

7.9.2 Aircraft identification

(BAGABCD or VA812)
Aircraft identification consists of either the operator's designator (BA) and aircraft registration (GABCD), or
flight number (VA812), reported as one unit without any spaces.

7.9.3 Position
(49N050W, 2020N07005W)
Position is given in degrees latitude and longitude in whole degrees (two figures for latitude, followed without
a space by N or S, three figures for longitude, followed without a space by E or W); degrees and minutes
may also be used (four figures for latitude and five for longitude). If a coded indicator (two to five characters)
for a significant point (e.g. LN, MAY, HADDY), or a significant point followed by the magnetic bearing
(degrees in three figures) and distance (three figures and KM or NM) of that point (e.g. DUB180040NM) has
been used in the message received, the MWO concerned should convert this information into a position
expressed as latitude and longitude.

7.9.4 Time
(1317, 1215)
The time of aircraft, at the position indicated, is shown in hours and minutes UTC (4 figures).

7.9.5

Flight level or altitude

(F310, F180)

The flight level is shown by an "F" followed by the actual level; the altitude is shown by an "F" followed by 3
figures and "M" or "FT", as appropriate. This is followed by "ASC" (level) or "DES" (level) when ascending or
descending to a new level after passing the significant point.

Chapter 7.

Aircraft Observations and Reports

7-11

7.9.6

Air temperature
(MS47)

Temperature (corrected for instrument error and airspeed) is shown in degrees Celsius (two figures)
preceded, without a space, by "PS" (plus) or "MS" (minus), as appropriate.

7.9.7

Wind direction and wind speed

(255/65KMH)

The wind report refers to a "spot" wind at the position given for the report. Direction is in degrees true (three
figures) and wind speed in kilometres per hour or knots (two or three figures) separated by a "/", indicating
the unit used. Record calm as "00000".

7.9.8 Turbulence
(TURB MOD)
Turbulence is reported using the abbreviation TURB followed by FBL, MOD or SEV (light, moderate or severe),
as appropriate.
Note. Severe turbulence is reported as soon as possible by means of an AIREP SPECIAL.

7.9.9

Aircraft icing
(ICE FBL)

Icing is recorded in the same way as turbulence, using the abbreviation ICE followed by FBL, MOD or SEV,
as appropriate.
Note. Severe icing requires an AIREP SPECIAL.

7.9.10 Humidity
(RH075)
If reported, humidity is shown by "RH" followed, without a space, by the humidity in per cent (three figures).
Note. The reporting of humidity is optional.

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Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

7.9.11

Phenomenon prompting a special air-report

(MTW SEV)

Record the phenomenon reported as follows:

severe turbulence as "TURB SEV"
severe icing as "ICE SEV"
severe mountain wave as "MTW SEV"
thunderstorm without hail1 as "TS"
thunderstorm with hail1 as "TSGR"
heavy duststorm or sandstorm as "HVY SS"
volcanic ash cloud as "VA CLD"
pre-eruption volcanic activity or a volcanic eruption as "VA"
Note. Detailed instructions for making and transmitting air-reports, together with examples of air-reports,
are contained in the Procedures for Air Navigation Services Air Traffic Management (PANS-ATM, Doc
4444).

___________________

1. The thunderstorms to be reported should be confined to those which are:

obscured in haze; or
embedded in cloud; or
widespread; or
forming a squall line.

Chapter 8
AERONAUTICAL CLIMATOLOGICAL INFORMATION
8.1 Aerodrome climatological information is primarily required by operators to assist them in their planning
for flight operations particularly for pre-operational route planning. The information required is prepared in the
form of aerodrome climatological tables and summaries.
8.2 Meteorological authorities should make arrangements for collecting and retaining the necessary
observational data and have the capability to prepare climatological tables and summaries for each international
aerodrome within their territory. The content of aerodrome climatological tables and summaries is given in
Annex 3, Appendix 7, 3.1. The format of aerodrome climatological tables and summaries is given in WMO
Publication No. 49, Technical Regulations, Volume II, C.3.2.
8.3 Aerodrome climatological tables and summaries are exchanged on request between meteorological
authorities as necessary. Operators and other aeronautical users requiring such information should contact the
meteorological authority concerned.

___________________

8-1

Chapter 9
RELEVANT DOCUMENTS
9.1

ICAO DOCUMENTS OF A SPECIFICALLY METEOROLOGICAL NATURE

The following ICAO documents give additional or more detailed information on meteorological subjects that
may be found useful. These documents contain:
a) Standards, Recommended Practices and guidance material dealing with aeronautical meteorology,
parts of which are summarized in this manual (Annex 3 to the Convention on International Civil
Aviation: Part I Core SARPs and Part II Appendices and Attachments);
b) specific regional meteorological procedures, facilities, services, etc. (regional supplementary
procedures, ANP/FASID, regional guides); and
c) detailed guidance in ICAO manuals on specific subjects connected with aeronautical meteorology
(RVR, etc.).

Annex 3 Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation

(International Standards and Recommended Practices)
This Annex contains international regulatory material covering principles and objectives, Standards and
Recommended Practices (SARPs) and guidance material which have worldwide applicability. It establishes the
specific responsibilities of States for providing meteorological services and the responsibility of operators using
these services. The Annex is divided into two parts: Part I contains the core SARPs which are of primary
interest to management level personnel, and Part II contains technical requirements and specifications of
primary interest to operational personnel. The attachments (green pages) comprise material supplementary to
the SARPs or included as a guide to their application.

Regional Supplementary Procedures (Doc 7030)

Regional supplementary procedures (SUPPS) are approved by the Council of ICAO for application in the
respective regions. Currently, the document contains specific procedures for the regional application of
Annex 3, Chapter 5 (Aircraft Observations and Reports) as well as various specific regional procedures
related to communications, air traffic services, etc.

ANPs/FASIDs
These documents detail the requirements for facilities and services (including meteorology) in the various
ICAO regions. Each ANP includes a section dealing with meteorology, both in the part containing the basic
regional ANP and in the part containing the FASID. The former part introduces basic planning principles,
operational requirements and planning criteria relating to the meteorological service to be provided to
international air navigation in the ICAO region concerned. These principles, requirements and criteria stem
9-1

9-2

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

from relevant provisions of Annex 3 and, in particular, those calling for regional air navigation agreement. This
service is to be considered as the minimum for planning of meteorological facilities and/or services by States in
the region. A detailed description and the list of the meteorological facilities and services to be provided by
States in order to fulfil the requirements of the Basic ANP is contained in the FASID. The meteorology parts of
the Basic ANP and the FASID cover, as necessary, all or some of the following topics: meteorological service
required at aerodromes, MWOs, meteorological observations and reports, aircraft observation and reports,
forecasts, regional aspects of the world area forecast system (WAFS), TCACs, regional aspects of the IAVW.
Current ANPs include:
Africa-Indian Ocean Region (Doc 7474)
Volume I Basic ANP
Volume II FASID
Asia and Pacific Regions (Doc 9673)
Caribbean and South American Regions (Doc 8733)
Volume I Basic ANP
Volume II FASID
European Region (Doc 7754)
Volume I Basic ANP
Volume II FASID
Middle East Region (Doc 9708)
North Atlantic, North American and Pacific Regions (Doc 8755) (out of date)
North Atlantic Region (Doc 9634)
Facilities and Services Implementation Document (FASID) North Atlantic Region (Doc 9635)
Manuals
In addition to this manual, the following manuals provide detailed guidance or information on specific
aspects connected with meteorological services to international air navigation:
Doc 7488

Manual on the ICAO Standard Atmosphere (extended to 80 kilometres (262 500 ft))

Doc 9328

Manual of Runway Visual Range Observing and Reporting Practices

Doc 9377

Manual on Coordination between Air Traffic Services, Aeronautical Information Services

and Aeronautical Meteorological Services

Doc 9691

Manual on Volcanic Ash, Radioactive Material and Toxic Chemical Clouds

Doc 9817

Manual on Low-level Wind Shear

Doc 9837

Manual on Automatic Meteorological Observing Systems at Aerodromes

Doc 9873

Manual on the Quality Management System for the Provision of Meteorological Service
for International Air Navigation

Chapter 9.

Relevant Documents

9-3

Regional guides
Most ICAO regional offices prepare and make available regional guides on various subjects including: regional
SIGMET guides, the ROBEX system; the AMBEX system; catalogue of information available in international
OPMET databanks; ATS/MET reporting points, etc. For details, regional offices should be approached directly.

IAVW documents
Handbook on the International Airways Volcano Watch (IAVW) Operational Procedures and Contact List
(Doc 9766) (available at http://www.icao.int/anb/iavwopsg).

9.2

WMO DOCUMENTS

Apart from issuing documents of a general meteorological character, WMO also publishes documents which
deal with aeronautical meteorology. The following documents are relevant:
WMO Technical Regulations, Volume II (WMO-No. 49) (equivalent in status to ICAO Standards and
Recommended Practices and Procedures for Air Navigation Services).
Part C.3.1 Standards and Recommended Practices: identical, except for a few minor editorial
differences, to Annex 3.
Part C.3.2 Aeronautical Climatology: enlarges on Annex 3, Chapter 8, and gives model forms for
aerodrome climatological summaries.
Part C.3.3 Format and Preparation of Flight Documentation: enlarges on Annex 3, Chapter 9, and
gives model charts and forms. The latter are included in Appendix 9 to the present manual.

Manuals (these often have a higher status than ICAO manuals)

Manual on Codes (WMO-No. 306): contains details of all meteorological codes, including those relevant
to aviation.
Manual on the Global Telecommunication System (WMO-No. 386): contains practices and procedures
to be used in the collection, exchange and distribution of observational and processed information on a
worldwide scale.
Manual on the Global Data-Processing System (WMO-No. 485): contains practices and procedures to be
used in the processing, storage and retrieval of meteorological information. The manual, among others,
includes regulations relating to the provision of service by WMO RSMCs in response to a nuclear
emergency.
Manual on the Global Observing System (WMO-No. 544): contains practices and procedures for methods,
techniques, and facilities to be used for making observations on a worldwide scale.

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Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

Guides
Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation (WMO-No. 8): outlines basic standards
of instrument and observing practices.
Guidelines for the Education and Training of Personnel in Meteorology and Operational Hydrology
(WMO-No. 258, and its Supplement no. 1 Training and Qualification Requirements for Aeronautical
meteorological Personnel).
Guide on the Global Data-Processing System (WMO-No. 305).
Guide on the Global Observing System (WMO-No. 488).
Guide on Meteorological Observation and Information Distribution Systems at Aerodromes (WMO-No. 731).
Guide to Practices for Meteorological Offices Serving Aviation (WMO-No. 732).
Documentation on Regional Specialized Meteorological Centres (RSMC) Support for Environmental
Emergency Response: target for meteorologists at NMSs (WMO-TD No. 778).

9.3

OTHER ICAO DOCUMENTS

In addition to the above-mentioned documents dealing with aeronautical meteorological subjects,

meteorological offices serving international civil aviation also require other ICAO documents. A detailed list
of these as well as of the ICAO meteorological documents needed is given below. The list is divided into two
parts:
Part 1 ICAO publications required at both the administrative and the operational levels of meteorological
services.
Part 2 ICAO publications required mainly at the administrative level of meteorological services.

ICAO PUBLICATIONS REQUIRED BY METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES

PART 1 ICAO publications required at the administrative
and operational levels of meteorological services
Annex 3

Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation

Annex 5

Units of Measurement to be Used in Air and Ground Operations

Doc 7030

Regional Supplementary Procedures

Doc 7488

Manual of the ICAO Standard Atmosphere (extended to 80 kilometres (262 500 feet))

Doc 7910

Location Indicators

Chapter 9.

Relevant Documents

9-5

Doc 8400

Procedures for Air Navigation Services ICAO Abbreviations and Codes

Doc 8585

Designators for Aircraft Operating Agencies, Aeronautical Authorities and Services

ANPs1

Air navigation plans and associated facilities and services implementation document
(FASID) (see 9.1)

Doc 8896

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

Doc 9328

Manual of Runway Visual Range Observing and Reporting Practices

Doc 9377

Manual on Coordination between Air Traffic Services, Aeronautical Information Services

and Aeronautical Meteorological Services

Doc 9691

Manual on Volcanic Ash, Radioactive Material and Toxic Chemical Clouds

Doc 9713

International Civil Aviation Vocabulary, Volumes I and II

Doc 9766

Handbook on the International Airways Volcano Watch (IAVW) Operational Procedures

and Contact List (only available at http://www.icao.int/anb/iavwopsg)

Doc 9817

Manual on Low-level Wind Shear

Doc 9837

Manual on Automatic Meteorological Observing Systems at Aerodromes

Doc 9873

Manual on the Quality Management System for the Provision of Meteorological Service
for International Air Navigation

ICAO Journal

(official ICAO magazine issued six times per year)

PART 2 ICAO publications required mainly at the administrative level
of meteorological services

Annex 2

Rules of the Air

Annex 4

Aeronautical Charts

Annex 6

Operation of Aircraft
Part I International Commercial Air Transport Aeroplanes
Part II International General Aviation Aeroplanes
Part III International Operations Helicopters

Annex 8

Airworthiness of Aircraft

Annex 10

Aeronautical Telecommunications
Volume I Radio Navigation Aids
Volume II Communication Procedures including those with PANS status
Volume III (Part I Digital Data Communication Systems; Part II Voice
Communication Systems)

1. States need to have available the ANP for the ICAO regions.

9-6

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

Volume IV Surveillance Radar and Collision Avoidance Systems

Volume V Aeronautical Radio Frequency Spectrum Utilization
Annex 11

Air Traffic Services

Annex 12

Search and Rescue

Annex 13

Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation

Annex 14

Aerodromes
Volume I Aerodrome Design and Operations
Volume II Heliports

Annex 15

Aeronautical Information Services

Doc 4444

Procedures for Air Navigation Services Air Traffic Management (PANS-ATM)

Doc 6920

Manual of Aircraft Accident Investigation

Doc 7100

Tariffs for Airports and Air Navigation Services

Doc 7475

Working Arrangements between the International Civil Aviation Organization and the
World Meteorological Organization

Doc 8126

Aeronautical Information Services Manual

Doc 8168

Procedures for Air Navigation Services Aircraft Operations

Volume I Flight Procedures
Volume II Construction of Visual and Instrument Flight Procedures

Doc 8259

Manual on the Planning and Engineering of the Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication

Network
ICAO's Policies on Charges for Airports and Air Navigation Services

Doc 9082
Doc 9137

Airport Services Manual

Part 1 Rescue and Fire Fighting
Part 2 Pavement Surface Conditions
Part 3 Bird Control and Reduction
Part 5 Removal of Disabled Aircraft
Part 6 Control of Obstacles
Part 7 Airport Emergency Planning Part
8 Airport Operational Services
Part 9 Airport Maintenance Practices

Doc 9150

Stolport Manual

Doc 9157

Aerodrome Design Manual

Part 1 Runways
Part 2 Taxiways, Aprons and Holding Bays
Part 3 Pavements Part 4
Visual Aids
Part 5 Electrical Systems

Chapter 9.

Relevant Documents

9-7

Doc 9161

Manual on Air Navigation Services Economics

Doc 9184

Airport Planning Manual

Part 1 Master Planning
Part 2 Land Use and Environmental Control
Part 3 Guidelines for Consultant/Construction Services

Doc 9261

Heliport Manual

Doc 9683

Human Factors Training Manual

Doc 9731

International Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue (IAMSAR) Manual

Catalogue of ICAO Publications

___________________

Appendix 1
INFORMATION ON THE WORLD AREA
FORECAST SYSTEM (WAFS)
(See Chapter 1, 1.5)

1.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

1.1 The world area forecast system (WAFS) brings to meteorological forecasting the concept of
centralization, in designated centres, of forecasting activities for the pre-flight planning and the en-route
phases of flights. Its general aspects were initially developed by the Communications/Meteorology Divisional
Meeting (1982), held conjointly with the Seventh Session of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
Commission for Aeronautical Meteorology. A major review and development of the WAFS was conducted
most recently at the Meteorology Divisional Meeting (2002) held conjointly with the Twelfth Session of the
WMO Commission for Aeronautical Meteorology.
1.2 The objective of the system is to provide meteorological authorities and other users (e.g. pilots,
airline operators) with global aeronautical meteorological en-route forecasts in digital form. This objective is
achieved through a comprehensive, integrated, worldwide, uniform and cost-effective system which takes
full advantage of evolving technologies. Currently, two world area forecast centres (WAFCs), i.e. WAFC
London and WAFC Washington issue global upper-air forecasts in the GRIB code form and medium- and
high-level SIGWX forecasts in the BUFR code form.
1.3 The WAFS forecasts are disseminated on three satellite broadcasts (i.e. the aeronautical fixed
service (AFS) satellite distribution systems) implemented by the two WAFC provider States (United Kingdom
and United States). They provide for global coverage by means of three International Telecommunications
Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) satellites as follows:
a) International Satellite Communications System 1 (ISCS1) from WAFC Washington covering the CAR,
NAM, NAT and SAM Regions;
b) International Satellite Communications System 2 (ISCS2) from WAFC Washington covering the Asia
(eastern part) and PAC Regions; and
c) Satellite Distribution System for Information Relating to Air Navigation (SADIS) from WAFC London
covering the AFI, Asia (western part), EUR and MID Regions.
Diagrams of the coverage of these satellites are reproduced in Figures A1-1, A1-2 and A1-3.
1.4

The information broadcast by means of these services currently includes:

a) WAFS global grid-point forecasts, the GRIB code form, of:

1) upper wind,
2) upper-air temperature and humidity,
A1-1

A1-2

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

0
5

Figure A1-1.

Footprint of the International Satellite Communications System 1 (ISCS1)

by WAFC Washington. The INTELSAT satellite over 34.5W
(an Atlantic Ocean satellite) is used for the broadcast.

Note. The 0 elevation angle contour is the theoretical extent of coverage, while the 5 elevation angle
is considered to be the practical extent of coverage according to nominal design criteria.

Appendix 1.

Information on the World Area Forecast System (WAFS)

A1-3

0
5

Figure A1-2.

Footprint of the International Satellite Communications System 2 (ISCS2)

by WAFC Washington. The INTELSAT satellite over 177W
(a Pacific Ocean satellite) is used for the broadcast.

Note. The 0 elevation angle contour is the theoretical extent of coverage, while the 5 elevation angle
is considered to be the practical extent of coverage according to nominal design criteria.

A1-4

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

0
5

Figure A1-3. Footprint of the Satellite Distribution System for Information Relating to
Air Navigation (SADIS) by WAFC London. The INTELSAT satellite over 63E
(an Indian Ocean satellite) is used for the broadcast.
Note. The 0 elevation angle contour is the theoretical extent of coverage, while the 5 elevation angle
is considered to be the practical extent of coverage according to nominal design criteria.

Appendix 1.

Information on the World Area Forecast System (WAFS)

A1-5

3) geopotential altitude of flight levels;

4) flight level and temperature of tropopause; and
5) direction, speed and flight level of maximum wind;
b) WAFS global significant weather forecasts in the BUFR code; and
c) alphanumeric OPMET messages (e.g. METAR, TAF and SIGMET, volcanic ash and tropical cyclone
advisories).
In order to make maximum use of the satellite broadcast bandwidth available, a global set of alphanumeric
OPMET messages is disseminated through the satellite distribution systems in addition to WAFS forecasts.
The data are received by States and users through very small aperture terminals (VSAT) or through the
FTP-service.
1.5 The information broadcast is not encrypted; however, a mechanism exists to allow the control
management centre of the service provider, on the advice from the provider State, to control which VSAT
receives the information broadcast.
1.6 The WAFS is expected to develop to ensure that it continues to meet evolving aeronautical
requirements in a cost-effective manner. Its development is guided by the multi-regional World Area
Forecast System Operations Group (WAFSOPSG).

2.

GUIDELINES FOR AUTHORIZED ACCESS TO

THE WAFS SATELLITE BROADCAST

The guidelines reproduced below were developed by ICAO to assist States in arranging for access to the
WAFS satellite broadcast.

1.

General

1.1 The satellite broadcast constitutes a sub-system of the ICAO aeronautical fixed
service (AFS) providing an international point-to-multipoint telecommunication service via
satellite for the dissemination of aeronautical information to ICAO Contracting States.
1.2 The aeronautical information disseminated by the satellite broadcast includes primarily
operational meteorological (OPMET) information consisting of the WAFS upper wind and
temperature and significant weather forecasts in digital grid-point and graphical formats and
alphanumeric messages.
1.3 Through the use of the satellite broadcast, Contracting States may wish to meet their
obligation under Article 28 of the Convention on International Civil Aviation regarding the supply
to users of meteorological information for the provision of meteorological service for
international air navigation.

A1-6

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

1.4 Recovery by Contracting States of associated costs through charges on international

civil aviation should be based on the principles contained in Article 15 of the Convention on
International Civil Aviation and ICAO's Policies on Charges for Airports and Air Navigation
Services (Doc 9082).

2.

Authorized access to the satellite broadcast

2.1 It is the prerogative of each Contracting State to determine the distribution of the
OPMET information to users, in the State concerned, as well as means, links and information
flow to be used for this purpose. In view of this, it is for each Contracting State to determine the
users in the State concerned to be provided with the authorized access to the satellite broadcast.
2.2 Where the meteorological service for international air navigation is provided by or
through arrangements made by the meteorological authority in compliance with the standard
contained in Annex 3 Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation to the Convention on
International Civil Aviation, Chapter 2, 2.1.4, the meteorological authorities, world area forecast
centres, and aerodrome and other meteorological offices should fully enjoy the benefits of the
satellite broadcast to receive the OPMET information broadcast. Furthermore, it is at the
discretion of each Contracting State to determine, on advice from its meteorological authority,
whether any of the following users will be provided with authorized access to the satellite
broadcast: operators; air traffic services units; search and rescue services units; aeronautical
information services units; volcanic ash and tropical cyclone advisory centres; and other
aeronautical users.
2.3 Each Contracting State will notify ICAO and, for the purpose of efficiency, also the
provider State for the satellite broadcast concerned, regarding the users in that State it has
authorized to access the satellite broadcast.
Note. Where the satellite broadcast also comprises a sub-system of the World
Meteorological Organization Global Telecommunication System (WMO GTS), in accordance with
the action by Council on Recommendation 4.2/5 Relationship of satellite communication
system to the WMO's GTS, of the Communications/Meteorology Divisional Meeting (1982), the
WMO Member State concerned determines the users authorized to receive basic synoptic data
and analyses via the satellite broadcast and notifies ICAO through WMO, accordingly.

3.

DUTIES OF METEOROLOGICAL OFFICES

IN THE CONTEXT OF THE WAFS

It should be noted that while the WAFS provides en-route weather forecasts, the preparation of
meteorological observations and aerodrome forecasts (TAF) remains the responsibility of individual
meteorological offices. With the global implementation of the WAFS, they can now dedicate much more of
their resources to these essential tasks.

___________________

Appendix 2
LOCATION OF INSTRUMENTS AT AERODROMES
(See 2.1.4)

1.

GENERAL

1.1 The proper location of meteorological instruments, or of the sensors connected with the instruments,1
presents many more difficulties at aerodromes than at synoptic meteorological stations. While in both cases
the purpose of the instruments is to obtain as accurate information as possible on certain meteorological
parameters, at the synoptic meteorological stations the only requirement in respect of location is adequate
instrument exposure. At aerodromes, there is a range of requirements and conditions in addition to adequate
instrument exposure which the instrument location must satisfy, and in particular these include the following:
a) a representative measurement for the aerodrome as a whole, and for take-off and landing
operations in particular;
b)

compliance with obstacle restriction provisions;

c) location in certain operational areas, requiring frangibility of instrument support construction; and
d) suitability of location in respect of terrain conditions, power supply and communication facilities.
1.2 This Appendix deals with the location of the main types of meteorological instruments and instrument
systems in use at aerodromes, i.e. those for the measurement of surface wind, runway visual range (RVR),
height of cloud base, temperatures and pressure. The information is relatively general because aerodromes
vary greatly in respect of the types of operations for which they are used, and the types of terrain, aspects
which may considerably affect the location of instruments.

2.

THE AERODROME ENVIRONMENT

2.1 Before dealing with the location of instruments at aerodromes, there is a need for a brief description of
the aerodrome environment in general. It is an environment of great complexity and size, covering at times
large areas with runways attaining lengths of 4 km. The runway complex may be near built-up areas with public,
administrative or technical functions. (Figure A2-1 gives a schematic representation of an aerodrome and its
most important features.)
2.2 The difficulties that such a large and complex area as an aerodrome can create for the provision of
timely and representative meteorological measurements are often considerable:
a) the size of the runway complex, which frequently cannot be adequately covered by a single
instrument or sensor;

1. The term "instrument" is often used in both senses.

A2-1

Figure A2-1.

Schematic representation of an aerodrome and its most important features

(date)

Fences not following

boundary line

Airport boundary

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

Water supply

A2-2

Appendix 2.

Location of Instruments at Aerodromes

A2-3

b) difficulty of access to certain parts of the aerodrome, which may prevent the location of instruments
at the most suitable sites or access for maintenance purposes;
c) the obstacle restriction regulations, which may have similar effects;
d) the size of buildings or of other constructions (towers, masts, etc.), which may prevent adequate
instrument exposure;
e) the effects of aircraft movement and exhausts (particularly during taxiing and turning operations),
and of large car parks and their associated emissions.
2.3 To overcome these difficulties, the meteorological authority must maintain close contact with the
authority responsible for the aerodrome and its master plan. This involves daily contact, as well as long-range
planning, because the setting up of instrument sites and the laying of cables and other connected activities
must not interfere with other aerodrome systems, disturb the normal functioning of the aerodrome, or become
unduly expensive. Close cooperation with operators whose requirements often determine instrument location is
also necessary. Finally, the local air traffic services (ATS) authority is also concerned with these difficulties as
its units often use duplicate indicators and may have requirements of its own for the location of the relevant
sensors.
2.4 In addition to close cooperation with aerodrome and ATS authorities and with operators, the
effective determination of the most appropriate location of instruments requires a detailed on-site analysis by a
meteorologist. The analysis could involve field trials, particularly in circumstances where the topography
and/or prevailing weather are complex, while in more straightforward cases a simple on-site inspection may
be sufficient. In the case of new aerodromes, it is usual to establish an observing station, or at least a
minimum set of instruments, before the aerodrome is built in order to obtain information on meteorological
conditions likely to affect operations at the aerodrome.

3.

OBSTACLE RESTRICTIONS

3.1 In the choice of sites for instruments at aerodromes, account must be taken first and foremost of
obstacle restrictions at the aerodrome. The meteorological instruments/sensors that are listed as objects
which may constitute "obstacles" are anemometers, ceilometers and transmissometers/forward-scatter
meters (for details see the Airport Services Manual (Doc 9137), Part 6 Control of Obstacles, Chapter 5).
Specifications governing the restriction of obstacles at aerodromes are given in Annex 14, Volume I,
Chapters 4 and 9. The objective of these specifications is to define the airspace at the aerodromes so as to
ensure that it is free from obstacles thereby permitting the intended aeroplane operations to be conducted
safely. This is achieved by establishing a series of obstacle limitation surfaces that define the limits to which
objects may project into the airspace.
3.2 Aerodromes intended for use by international civil aviation are classified according to a reference
code. This code provides a simple method for interrelating the numerous specifications concerning the
characteristics of aerodromes, so as to provide a series of aerodrome facilities that are suitable for the
aeroplanes that are intended to operate at the aerodrome. The code is composed of two elements as shown in
Table A2-1; the first element is numerical (1 to 4) and is related to aeroplane performance, the second is a
letter (A, B, C, D or E) related to aircraft dimensions. The width of the runways, the runway strips and the
slope of the obstacle limitation surfaces, etc., vary according to the aerodrome reference code.
3.3 The more important obstacle limitation surfaces, from the standpoint of the siting of meteorological
instruments, are the transitional surfaces which limit obstacle height along the side of the runway. The

A2-4

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

recommended runway width, strip width and slope of the transitional surfaces are given in Table A2-2, which is
derived from provisions given in Annex 14, Volume I. It may be seen that all runways should be protected by
a transitional surface that begins at the edge of the runway strip and slopes upwards and outwards away from
the runway. The width of the strip and the slope of the transitional surface depend on the runway reference
code number. A precision approach runway is protected by a second "inner" transitional surface and the
airspace over the runway between the two inner surfaces is referred to as the obstacle free zone (OFZ).
Once the reference code number for a particular runway is known, on the basis of Table A2-1, it is possible
to obtain the recommended minimum dimensions and slopes of the associated strip and transitional surfaces
from Table A2-2.
3.4 A cross-section of the transitional surfaces recommended for a precision approach runway of
reference code number 3 or 4 is shown in Figure A2-2. The positions closest to the runway at which various
meteorological instruments may be located without infringing the transitional surfaces are also indicated in
Figure A2-2. Unless there are exceptional local circumstances, no meteorological instruments should
infringe upon the OFZ. Where this is unavoidable, in order to ensure representative observations, the sensor
support must be frangible, lighted and preferably shielded by an existing essential navigation aid. The
principle of "shielding" in relation to obstacles is dealt with in the Airport Services Manual (Doc 9137), Part 6
Control of Obstacles, Chapter 2. The most important provisions governing the siting of meteorological
instruments are summarized in Table A2-3.
3.5 In addition to taking account of the distance from runway centre lines, in siting meteorological
instruments, care must always be exercised to ensure that the instruments do not present an obstacle to
aircraft using taxiways.

Table A2-1. Aerodrome reference code

(extract from Annex 14, Volume I)
Code element 1

Code element 2

Code
number
(1)

Aeroplane reference
field length
(2)

Code
letter
(3)

Wing span
(4)

Outer main gear

wheel spana
(5)

Less than 800 m

Up to but not
including 15 m

Up to but not
including 4.5 m

800 m up to but not

including 1 200 m

15 m up to but not
including 24 m

4.5 m up to but not

including 6 m

1 200 m up to but not

including 1 800 m

24 m up to but not
including 36 m

6 m up to but not
including 9 m

1 800 m and over

36 m up to but not
including 52 m

9 m up to but not
including 14 m

52 m up to but not
including 65 m

9 m up to but not
including 14 m

65 m up to but not
including 80 m

14 m up to but not
including 16m

a. Distance between the outside edges of the main gear wheels.

Appendix 2.

Location of Instruments at Aerodromes

Table A2-2.

A2-5

Dimensions and slopes of obstacle limitation surfaces approach runways

(taken from Annex 14, Volume I)
RUNWAY CLASSIFICATION
Precision approach category
Non-instrument
Code number

Surface and dimensionsa

Non-precision approach
Code number

I
Code number

II or III
Code number

1,2

1,2

3,4

3,4

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

(11)

Slope

5%

5%

5%

5%

5%

5%

5%

5%

5%

5%

Height

35 m

55 m

75 m

100 m

60 m

75 m

100 m

60 m

100 m

100 m

(1)
CONICAL

INNER HORIZONTAL
Height

45 m

45 m

45 m

45 m

45 m

45 m

45 m

45 m

45 m

45 m

Radius

2 000 m

2 500 m

4 000 m

4 000 m

3 500 m

4 000 m

4 000 m

3 500 m

4 000 m

4 000 m

Width

90 m

120 me

120 me

Distance from threshold

60 m

60 m

60 m

Length

900 m

900 m

900 m

2.5%

2%

2%

INNER APPROACH

Slope
APPROACH
Length of inner edge

60 m

80 m

150 m

150 m

150 m

300 m

300 m

150 m

300 m

300 m

Distance from threshold

30 m

60 m

60 m

60 m

60 m

60 m

60 m

60 m

60 m

60 m

Divergence (each side)

10%

10%

10%

10%

15%

15%

15%

15%

15%

15%

Length

1 600 m

2 500 m

3 000 m

3 000 m

2 500 m

3 000 m

3 000 m

3 000 m

3 000 m

3 000 m

Slope

5%

4%

3.33%

2.5%

3.33%

2%

2%

2.5%

2%

2%

Length

3 600 mb

3 600 mb

Slope

2.5%

2.5%

Length

8 400 mb

8 400 mb

Total length

15 000 m 15 000 m

20%

20%

14.3%

14.3%

20%

14.3%

14.3%

14.3%

14.3%

14.3%

40%

33.3%

33.3%

Length of inner edge

90 m

Distance from threshold

Divergence (each side)

10%

10%

10%

Slope

4%

3.33%

3.33%

First section

Second section
12 000 m 3 600 mb
3%

2.5%

8 400 mb

3 600 mb
2.5%

Horizontal section
8 400 mb

15 000 m 15 000 m

15 000 m

TRANSITIONAL
Slope
INNER TRANSITIONAL
Slope
BALKED LANDING SURFACE

a.
b.
c.
d.

All dimensions are measured horizontally unless specified otherwise.

Variable length.
Distance to the end of strip.
Or end of runway whichever is less.

120 me
1 800 m

120 me
d

1 800 md

e. Where the code letter is F (Column (3) of Table A2-1), the width is increased to
155 m. For information on code letter F aeroplanes equipped with digital avionics
that provide steering commands to maintain an established track during the goaround manoeuvre, see ICAO Circular 301 New Larger Aeroplanes
Infringement of the Obstacle Free Zone: Operational Measures and Aeronautical
Study.

A2-6

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

"OBSTACLE FREE ZONE" Generally speaking no MET sensors should infringe this region unless
exceptional local circumstances so dictate. In the latter case sensor supports must be
frangible, lighted and if possible sensor should be "shielded" by an existing obstacle.
1) Transmissometer sited between 66 m and 120 m from runway centre line 2) Ceilometer may be sited in this
region if not located near middle marker 3) If essential to locate within strip, anemometer height 10 m
minimum distance from centre line = 90 m.
Usual location of anemometer masts minimum distance from runway centre line for 6 m mast is = 192 m and
for a 10 m mast = 220 m, assuming surface wind observations made in this region are
representative of conditions over runway.

Figure A2-2.

Obstacle limitation surfaces

Appendix 2.

Location of Instruments at Aerodromes

A2-7

Table A2-3. Location of meteorological instruments at aerodromes

(Meteorological instruments which may constitute obstacles are given in the
Airport Services Manual, Part 6 Control of Obstacles (Doc 9137).
Minimum distances from runways are illustrated in Figure A2-2.))
Meteorological
element
observed
or measured

Typical
equipment

Typical
dimensions
of equipment

Operational
area for which
element is to
be representative

Siting
provision in
Annex 3

Remarks

Surface wind
speed and
direction

Anemometer and
wind vane

Usually mounted on
tubular or lattice mast
10 m (30 ft) high.
Single tube mast for
both instruments
appropriate in
proximity to runways.

Conditions along the

runway and touchdown
zone in local reports;
conditions above the
whole runway (complex)
in METAR and SPECI.
Where prevailing wind
varies significantly at
different sections of the
runway, multiple
anemometers are
required.

No specific
provisions so long
as observations
are representative
of relevant
operational areas.

Siting will be governed by

obstacle limitation surfaces
and local prevailing surface
wind regime. Generally
speaking, if the wind field over
the aerodrome is
homogeneous, one
strategically sited anemometer
may suffice, preferably sited so
as not to infringe transitional
surfaces. However, depending
on local conditions, it may be
necessary to locate a frangible
and lighted mast within the
runway strip. Only in
exceptional circumstances
should the mast infringe the
obstacle-free zone (i.e.
inner
transitional surface) for
precision approach runways. In
the latter case, the mast must
be frangible, lighted and
preferably shielded by an
existing essential navigation
aid. The site must not be
affected by buildings, etc., or
by aircraft operations (e.g. jet
efflux during taxiing).

RVR

Transmissometer
or forward-scatter
meter
obstacle

Usually two units,

transmitter and
receiver. In the case

Up to three
transmissometers or
forward-scatter meters

Not more than

120 m laterally
from runway

Should be sited within 120 m

laterally from runway centre
line but not infringing

of transmissometer,
per runway (i.e.
they are separated
runways for which RVR
over baseline (length
is required). For
of the order of 20 m
touchdown zone, the
depending on range
mid-point and stop-end
of visibilities to be
of the runway.
assessed). Height of
units approximately
2.5 m (7.5 ft) above
the runway. Solid
foundation plinths required.

centre line. For

touchdown zone,
mid-point and
stop-end, units
should be 300 m,
1 000 m and
1 500 m along
runway from
threshold,
respectively.

free zone (i.e. inner transitional

surface) for precision approach
runways. Should be frangible
structure, e.g. tubular supports
and shearing bolts at
foundation.

Ceilometer

Usually less than

1.5 m (5 ft) high but
rather solid structure
including foundation
plinth.

At the middle
marker site of the
instrument landing
system or at a
distance of 900 to
1 200 m (3 000 to
4 000 ft) from the
landing threshold.

May be located at the middle

marker site or within the
runway strip but preferably not
infringing the obstacle free
zone (i.e. inner transitional
surface) for precision approach
runways.

Height of cloud
base

Generally
representative of the
approach area in local
reports and of the
aerodrome and its
vicinity in METAR and
SPECI.

A2-8

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

4.

ADEQUATE INSTRUMENT EXPOSURE

4.1 On the whole, requirements for instrument exposure at aerodromes are similar to those at other (e.g.
synoptic) stations.2 The main requirement is for the instrument or its sensor, be it an anemometer for surface wind
measurement or a thermometer for temperature measurement, to be freely exposed to atmospheric
conditions. This is sometimes difficult to achieve at aerodromes where circumstances may force the
meteorological instruments to be in a location where it is difficult to obtain representative measurements. At times, a
meteorological station and its instruments may start out at an unobstructed site, only to be gradually surrounded by
masts or buildings.
4.2 In some cases, instruments may need to be protected against non-atmospheric influences, for example,
from jet aircraft exhausts. This applies particularly to wind and temperature instruments, which should not be
affected by exhausts from moving or parked aircraft but should be moved to more suitable sites.
4.3 The adequate exposure of wind sensors often presents the most crucial and difficult problem in
respect of instrument location at aerodromes. Some details in this respect are given below under
"Representative Measurements".
4.4 As far as temperature and dew point measurements are concerned, exposure problems may occur
at some aerodromes, particularly those with high temperatures and little wind. Experiments have shown that
in those cases temperatures measured over grass or in an area surrounded by vegetation may be
considerably different from those experienced over the runway surface. Where those differences are found
to exceed 1C, arrangements need to be made to shift the site of the temperature measurement to one that is
better exposed, or use distant reading thermometers. The latter solution is now employed at an increasing
number of aerodromes.

5.
5.1

REPRESENTATIVE MEASUREMENTS

The need for "representative" measurements arises largely because:

a) one usually cannot measure atmospheric parameters at exactly those places where they affect the
aircraft, i.e. at or over the runway; and
b) even if one could, it would normally be impossible to carry out measurements on a sufficiently dense
scale so as to obtain an accurate picture of atmospheric conditions over the whole runway or runway
complex.
5.2 As a consequence, one is forced to adopt a sampling technique which, in turn, is made difficult by
the inhomogeneity of the atmosphere over as large an area as that covered by an aerodrome, often made
more complicated by terrain features or buildings. There is, therefore, a need for well thought-out and
researched sampling techniques, tailored to the needs of and conditions at each individual aerodrome, which
will provide measurements representing, within acceptable margins, conditions actually experienced in the
area of interest. Experiments with surface wind measurements in a number of States unfortunately have
shown that it is often not possible to state what "acceptable margins" are. They are not necessarily identical

2. Annex 3, Appendix 3, 1.2, calls for meteorological instruments at aeronautical meteorological stations to be exposed, operated and
maintained in accordance with the practices, procedures and specifications promulgated by WMO. Detailed guidance in this respect will be found in
the WMO Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation.

Appendix 2.

Location of Instruments at Aerodromes

A2-9

with "accuracy" requirements of measurements (see Annex 3, Attachment A) with which they are sometimes
confused, although accuracy requirements can be used in the case of some parameters (for example,
temperature (1C, see 4.4)) as a first approximation.
5.3 As requirements for representative measurements depend to a considerable extent on types of
aircraft and operations, close cooperation with operators will usually solve these problems. Frequently, it is the
operators (i.e. pilots) who are the first to notice if measurements are not representative, and they should be
encouraged to report such cases.
5.4 While the question of representative measurements has a temporal as well as a spatial aspect, only
the latter will be considered here, although the two are sometimes interconnected. For example, it has been
shown that the degree of roughness of the terrain between the location of an anemometer and the runway may
affect the optimum averaging period to be used for wind observations. Spatial representativeness has a
vertical and a horizontal aspect, and the two will be considered separately in the following paragraphs. The
vertical aspect is partly connected with the need to provide measurements of conditions at a level or levels
above the runway surface of particular relevance to aircraft landing or taking off (e.g. height of jet intake); in
addition, there is the need to avoid effects of the ground and of obstacles which may influence the height at
which measurements are being taken. The horizontal aspects are those which determine the number and
location of instruments/sensors so as to provide satisfactory information on meteorological conditions for all
operations at the airport, irrespective of its size or terrain configuration.

5.5

Surface wind

5.5.1 The location of the sensor(s) in the vertical should be such as to provide wind information
representative of conditions 10 m (30 ft) above the runway. To obtain information meeting this requirement it is
essential that the sensor(s) be installed over open terrain which, in this context, is defined as terrain where any
obstacles to the wind flow (buildings, trees, etc.) are at a distance corresponding to at least ten times the height of
the obstruction. However, thin masts or masts of open (lattice) construction may be disregarded in such
calculations.
5.5.2 The WMO Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation provides general
guidance on what to do when normal, unobstructed exposure is not possible, including recommended use of
the following formula for reduction of wind speed to a height of 10 m (30 ft), if the sensor (while still in the
open) must be placed above that height:
Vh = V10 [0.233 + 0.656 log10 (h + 4.75)]
In this (Hellman's) formula, Vh is the wind speed at height h metres, and V10 is the wind speed at 10 m (30 ft)
above the ground.
5.5.3 As far as providing representative measurements of surface wind in the horizontal is concerned,
the size, complexity of terrain and other features of aerodromes, and the different types of runway (nonprecision, precision, etc.) and operations make this question particularly difficult. According to Annex 3,
Chapter 4, 4.6.1, the portions of the aerodrome, runway or runway complex for which surface wind reports
should be representative are as follows:
For local reports used for departing aircraft along the runway (but particularly the lift-off zone): see 5.5.4
of this appendix.
For local reports used for arriving aircraft: the touchdown zone.
For METAR and SPECI: the whole runway (if only one); the runway complex (if more than one runway).

A2-10

5.5.4

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

With regard to the siting of wind sensors, Annex 3, Appendix 3, 4.1.1.2, stipulates that:

Representative surface wind observations should be obtained by the use of sensors appropriately
sited. Sensors for surface wind observations for local routine and special reports should be sited to
give the best practicable indication of conditions along the runway and touchdown zones. At
aerodromes where topography or prevalent weather conditions cause significant differences in
surface wind at various sections of the runway, additional sensors should be provided.
5.5.5 Information provided in States' aeronautical information publications (AIPs) shows that anemometers
are generally installed in the centrefield or near the intersections of runways. At some aerodromes, anemometers
are installed close to approach ends or thresholds of runways, while in a few others they are near midpoints of a
runway. At an increasing number of aerodromes, multiple anemometers are provided. The case of
Amsterdam/Schiphol (four sensors, one each near the threshold of a runway) is illustrated in Figure A2-3, which
also provides a good example of how instrument location should be indicated on aerodrome charts.
5.5.6 The foregoing shows that it is not possible to give detailed guidance on where surface wind
measurements at aerodromes should be carried out, and how many sensors are needed for the purpose.
Conditions and requirements vary from aerodrome to aerodrome and, in many cases, only trials and
experiments over periods of time will provide answers for optimum and cost-effective installations (i.e.
minimum numbers of sensors to provide the information required). It is in this connection that close
cooperation with aerodrome authorities and operators will be particularly necessary.

5.6

RVR

5.6.1 The height corresponding to the average eye level of a pilot in an aircraft on the ground is
approximately 5 m (15 ft). Since the runway lights are at or near ground level, this implies an average height
of about 2.5 m (7.5 ft) for the light path to a pilot's eye which is the height at which RVR should be assessed.
5.6.2 Forward-scatter meters may be used in addition to transmissometers although for calibration
purposes at least one transmissometer should be installed.
5.6.3 In respect of locations of observations, Annex 3, Chapter 4, 4.6.3.4, calls for RVR observations to
be representative of the touchdown zone and, as may be selected by the authority concerned, of the middle
and corresponding far sections of the runway. The site for observations to be representative of the touchdown
zone should be located about 300 m along the runway from the threshold. The sites for observations to be
representative of the middle and far sections of the runway should be located at a distance of between 1 000 m
and 1 500 m respectively along the runway from the threshold and at a distance of about 300 m from the other
end of the runway. The exact position of these sites and, if necessary, additional sites, should be decided after
considering aeronautical, meteorological and climatological factors such as runway length, swamps and other
fog-prone areas.
5.6.4 According to the above-mentioned RVR manual, existing installations follow these provisions
closely. All have one observation site opposite the touchdown zone usually 300 m from the threshold
and many transmissometer systems have one to three supplementary observation sites. One of these is
usually near the stop-end, which becomes the touchdown zone when the runway is used in the reverse
direction.

Appendix 2.

Location of Instruments at Aerodromes

A2-11

ELEV - 11

Ceiling light

500
2 000

Scale 1: 40 000
0
500
1 000
0
2 000

LEGEND
Runway visual range observation site
Cup anemometer
Temperature observation site
Ceilometer

Figure A2-3.

Typical layout plan of meteorological instruments at an aerodrome

A2-12

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

5.6.5 When RVR measurements are made in connection with Category I operations alone, one site
opposite the touchdown zone is considered to be sufficient. For Category II operations, it is mandatory to
have two sensors, one at the touchdown zone and another one in the vicinity of the mid-point of the runway.
For Category III operations, three sites per runway (touchdown zone, mid-point and stop-end) are required.
5.6.6 Because visibility can vary considerably along a runway, particularly when fog is forming, the RVR
manual points out that useful information can be obtained from multiple transmissometers even if only
Category I operations are being undertaken. To obtain timely information on formation and approach of
advection fog, some States have also installed transmissometers at some distance from the aerodrome in
the direction from which advection fog normally approaches.
5.6.7 As regards distance from runways, the point from which RVR assessment is made should be such
as to present a minimum of hazard to aircraft, to instruments and to observers who should never be exposed
to the risk of being hit by aircraft taking off or landing. However, in order that the observations may be closely
representative of conditions over the runway, observation sites should be near the runway. This point is
recognized in Annex 3, Appendix 3, 4.3.1.2, which indicates that it is desirable to locate the RVR observing
site at a lateral distance from the runway centre line of not more than 120 m.

5.7

Cloud

5.7.1 Observations of the height of the cloud base should refer to the aerodrome elevation or to the
threshold elevation of precision approach runways where these are 15 m (50 ft) or more below aerodrome
elevation.
5.7.2 Cloud observations should, according to Annex 3, Chapter 4, 4.6.5, be representative of the
following portions of the aerodrome:
For local reports used for arriving and departing aircraft:
the approach area.
For METAR and SPECI: the aerodrome and its vicinity.
5.7.3 Ceilometers are normally installed at middle markers. At some aerodromes separate ceilometers
are used for each middle marker. In some cases, middle marker sites may be of difficult access, e.g. on small
islands, in swamps. However, the fact that a marker is installed there and needs to be serviced should usually
mean that a power supply is available and access is possible for maintenance, etc.

5.8

Temperature/dew point

5.8.1 Requirements for temperature and dew point values are generally understood to refer to the
average height of aircraft engines. This requirement is normally satisfied by dry and wet bulb temperature
measurements in a well ventilated screen (from which the dew point temperature may be calculated).
5.8.2 Temperature measurements should be representative of the whole runway complex. As mentioned
earlier under instrument exposure, this requirement may not be satisfied by normal meteorological
measurements in screens in instrument enclosures. For this reason, most aerodromes have dry bulb and wet
bulb thermometers located somewhere on the runway complex, usually of a distant reading type. In fact, the
thermometers are often collocated with (one of the) anemometers.

Appendix 2.

Location of Instruments at Aerodromes

A2-13

5.9

Pressure

5.9.1 The sensors (barometers) used for obtaining pressure values for the computation of altimeter
settings are usually located inside buildings. They may be precision aneroid or mercury barometers; one
mercury barometer is normally sufficient for an aerodrome, unless, as is sometimes the case, a separate
barometer or altimeter is kept in the local ATS unit (normally an aerodrome control tower). If a precision
aneroid barometer is used for convenience, it should be checked against the station mercury barometer at
least weekly.
5.9.2 In accordance with Annex 3, Appendix 3, 4.7.2, the reference level for the computation of the QFE
should be the official aerodrome elevation or, in the case of precision approach runways whose thresholds
are 2 m (7 ft) or more below the aerodrome elevation, the relevant threshold elevation. As barometers are
normally located in the meteorological office, which is not necessarily at the reference height (i.e. aerodrome
elevation or precision approach threshold), a correction has to be applied to the barometer reading to
account for this height difference when computing the QFE. When installing the barometer in the
meteorological office, care should be taken to ensure the wall on which the station mercury barometer is to
be mounted, or the position chosen to hold a precision aneroid barometer, is not subject to vibrations, direct
sunlight or draughts.
5.9.3 Another aspect to be taken into consideration is the use of air -conditioning in large (or
sometimes even in smaller) buildings as this creates an artificial atmosphere. In that case, the sensor should
be vented to the outside atmosphere (e.g. pitot-static arrangements).

6.

CONCLUSION

The siting of meteorological instruments at aerodromes requires close coordination between the
meteorological and civil aviation authorities. The most important practical steps to be taken in choosing
appropriate locations may be summarized as follows:
Step 1:

Ascertain the geometry of the relevant obstacle limitation surfaces at the aerodrome, particularly
the transitional and inner transitional surfaces. Particular aerodromes could comprise parallel and
crossing runways which complicates the geometry. Assess the type of aircraft operations at the
aerodrome (e.g. visual flight rules (VFR) or instrument flight rules (IFR) traffic) and frequency of
use of runways (e.g. preferred landing directions), which runways are equipped with instrument
landing system (ILS), possible noise abatement take-off directions, etc. Check aerodrome master
plan for possible plans for expansion of the aerodrome runways, taxiways, buildings, etc. Check
location and height of existing essential navigation aids such as glide path antenna, localizer, etc.

Step 2:

Prepare meteorological survey of the aerodrome based upon climatological statistics of the
aerodrome itself or nearby observing stations. The assistance of pilots and air traffic control officers
familiar with the aerodrome will be essential in this regard. In preparing the survey, account should
be taken of the topography of the aerodrome and surrounding land, preferably by on-site inspection
by an aviation meteorologist. Location and effect of swamp areas, hills, coastline, slope of runways,
local industrial pollution, etc., and their possible effect on the operationally significant points around
the aerodrome, e.g. touchdown zone, take-off areas, etc., should be considered.

A2-14

Step 3:

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

Decide on the location of the instruments/sensors that would provide representative measurements
as required by Annex 3 and, at the same time, allows for adequate exposure. Observe obstacle
limitation surfaces in choosing sites as shown in Figure A2-2. In particular, anemometer masts
normally should be sited outside runway strips and should not infringe the transitional slope. Where it
is necessary to locate them within the strip, the mast should be frangible, lighted and the site should
only be as close to the runway as is absolutely essential. Unless there are exceptional local
circumstances, anemometer masts should not infringe the obstacle free zone. If the latter is
necessary, then the mast must be frangible, lighted and preferably shielded by an existing essential
navigation aid. Take into account also the accessibility of the sites, the availability of power,
telephone and other lines without undue costs or interference with aerodrome use. Consideration
should also be given to installing the minimum number required to provide representative values.
This is cost-effective and ensures a minimum number of possible obstacles on the aerodrome.

___________________

Appendix 3
REPORTING OF PREVAILING VISIBILITY USING
FULLY AUTOMATIC OBSERVING SYSTEMS
(See 2.3.9.7)

1. In METAR/SPECI, it is recommended that visibility be representative of the aerodrome and, where

applicable, provide an indication of changes in direction. The visibility to be reported is the so-called
prevailing visibility, which is defined in Annex 3 as:
Prevailing visibility. The greatest visibility value, observed in accordance with the definition of "visibility",
which is reached within at least half the horizon circle or within at least half of the surface of the aerodrome. These
areas could comprise contiguous or non-contiguous sectors.
Note. This value may be assessed by human observation and/or instrumented systems. When
instruments are installed, they are used to obtain the best estimate of the prevailing visibility.

When the visibility is not the same in different directions and when the lowest visibility is different from the
prevailing visibility, and 1) less than 1 500 m or 2) less than 50 per cent of the prevailing visibility and less
than 5 000 m, the lowest visibility should also be reported and its general direction in relation to the
aerodrome indicated.
2. The advantage of having a human observe visibility using the meteorological station as a reference
point is that the observation is based on an overview that covers a large volume of the atmosphere.
However, there are limitations related to how effectively objects or lights can be detected by the human eye.
For example, as shown in Figure A3-1 a), if the meteorological station and observer are located in a foggy
area with a visibility of 300 m, the observer does not see anything beyond those 300 m. Without instruments,
the observer therefore cannot be aware of visibility conditions beyond 300 m. The visibility representative of
the whole aerodrome is therefore unknown. Conversely, if partial fog is located 2 000 m from the observer
as shown in Figure A3-1 b), with a visible mark at 2 000 m, the observer indicates a visibility of 2 000 m,
even though visibility in the partial fog is much less (for example, 300 m indicated by a sensor).
3. It is therefore important to understand that instrumented and human visibility observations are
comparable only when the atmosphere is homogenous. When this is not the case, human observation and
automatic observation each have their limitations. The concept of prevailing visibility, and how it may be
established using automatic systems, can be explained with the aid of Tables A3-1 and A3-2. When visibility
sensors are sited in such a manner that no directional variations are available, the "prevailing" visibility value
reported is followed by the abbreviation "NDV".
4. Table A3-2 provides four examples of how to report visibility with automatic systems using five
sensors which are located along the runways and in various sectors in relation to the aerodrome reference
point as shown in column one. Example 1 demonstrates a straightforward case whereby measurements
from all of the sensors are similar to each other and hence the visibility around such an aerodrome would be
homogeneous. In this case the median value (V3 = 3 422 m) should be taken as the prevailing visibility and
would be reported as 3 400 m. The median value is taken rather than the mean value to ensure that the
prevailing visibility actually represents the true value as observed in a part of the aerodrome. Otherwise it
would be possible to have a reported value that was not strictly observed at any part of the aerodrome.
A3-1

A3-2

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

5. Example 2 demonstrates a situation whereby the five sensor readings are split into two groups, i.e.
three readings in the range 3 300 m to 3 500 m and two readings in the range 2 400 m and 2 500 m.
However, if it is assumed that all the sensors cover an equal area of aerodrome, the definition of prevailing
visibility suggests that the visibility would still be reported as the median value (3 333 m which would be
reported as 3 300 m).
6. Examples 3 and 4 demonstrate situations whereby both the prevailing visibility and the minimum
visibility should be reported. Example 3 contains a series of measurements including one measurement
below the critical value of 1 500 m. In this case the prevailing visibility should be reported as 1 900 m (the
median value V3) with a minimum visibility also reported at 1 300 m. Example 4 shows a similar situation
whereby the lowest reading of 1 611 m is less than 50 per cent of the prevailing visibility value of 3 333 m
(the median value V3). In this case both the prevailing visibility and the minimum visibility should be reported
as 3 300 m and 1 600 m, respectively.

Observer
Clear
2 000 m

300 m

Observer

300 m
Aerodrome

Aerodrome

Observer
Clear
2 000 m

300 m

Observer

300 m
Aerodrome

Aerodrome
a) fog

b) partial fog

Figure A3-1.

Examples of observation errors

Appendix 3.

Reporting of Prevailing Visibility Using Fully Automatic Observing Systems

A3-3

Table A3-1. Determining prevailing visibility with one to five sensors

(The minimum visibility may also have to be reported,
in accordance with criteria in 6 above.)
Number of
sensors

Visibility values observed

(note: V1 < V2 < V3 < V4 < V5)

Prevailing visibility to be reported

1*

V1

V1

V1, V2

V1

V1, V2, V3

V2

V1, V2, V3, V4

V2

V1, V2, V3, V4, V5

V3

* When no directional variations can be detected, the visibility value should be followed by "NDV" (no directional
variations available).

Table A3-2. Examples of reporting visibility in

METAR and SPECI using five sensors
Sensor
(and its location*)

Example 1

Example 2

Example 3

Example 4

Sensor 1 (SE)

3 333

3 333

1 357

3 333

Sensor 2 (NW)

3 455

3 455

1 850

4 455

Sensor 3 (NE)

3 372

3 372

1 900

2 844

Sensor 4 (NE)

3 422

2 400

2 026

1 611

Sensor 5 (SW)

3 520

2 424

1 977

3 520

Values to be reported

3 400

3 300

1 900 1 300SE

3 300 1 600NE

* With reference to the aerodrome reference point.

A3-4

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

7. The examples discussed in Table A3-2 make the assumption that each of the sensors used represents
an equal part of the aerodrome concerned (e.g. 20 per cent each) and therefore carries an equal weighting in any
calculations made. In some cases the local climatology of the aerodrome may indicate that sensors may be
representative of fog-prone areas or simply may represent more operationally significant parts of the aerodrome.
Such considerations should be carried out on an individual basis. In these cases it would be necessary to
establish the percentage of the area of the aerodrome that is nominally to be represented by each sensor.
Following this the prevailing visibility can be derived using its definition which requires that the prevailing visibility
is the visibility value reached at least within half of the surface of the aerodrome.
8. Annex 3 provisions also state that when the visibility is fluctuating rapidly, and prevailing visibility
cannot be determined, only the lowest visibility should be reported. This case applies only for visibility
assessed by a human observer since, with automatic systems, it is always possible to determine prevailing
visibility.

___________________

Appendix 4
CRITERIA FOR TREND FORECASTS
(See 3.5.3)

Element
1.

Surface wind

Observed value
(given in report)

Trend forecasts to be issued when

one or more of the following changes are expected

Mean speed

Change in direction

Mean speed after the change in direction

1.1

Less than 20 km/h (10 kt)

60 or more

20 km/h (10 kt) or more

1.2

20 km/h (10 kt) or more

60 or more

Any speed

1.3

Any speed

Changes through values of operational

significance*

1.4

Any speed

Change in mean speed

20 km/h (10 kt) or more

2.

Visibility

3.

Weather

Visibility reaching or passing any one of the following values:

150 m 350 m
600 m 800 m
1 500 m 3 000
m
5 000 m**

Onset, cessation or change in intensity

3.1

freezing precipitation
moderate or heavy
precipitation (including
showers thereof)
duststorm or sandstorm
thunderstorm (with
precipitation)
other weather phenomena
given in Annex 3, Appen- dix 3,
4.4.2.3, only if they are expected to
cause a
significant change in
visibility

3.2

ice crystals
freezing fog
low drifting dust, sand or
snow
blowing dust, sand or snow
thunderstorm (without
precipitation)
squall
funnel cloud (tornado or
water spout)

Onset or cessation

A4-1

A4-2

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

Observed value
(given in report)

Element
4.

Cloud

Trend forecasts to be issued when

one or more of the following changes are expected

Amount

Initial height of base

Amount

Change in height of base

4.1

BKN or OVC

Below 450 m
(1 500 ft) and expected to lift

BKN or OVC

Changing to, or passing

through, any one of the
following values:
30 m (100 ft)
60 m (200 ft)
150 m (500 ft)
300 m (1 000 ft)
450 m (1 500 ft)

4.2

BKN or OVC

At or above 30 m
(100 ft) and expected to lower

BKN or OVC

Passing through any one

of the following values:
30 m (100 ft)
60 m (200 ft)
150 m (500 ft)
300 m (1 000 ft)
450 m (1 500 ft)

4.3

NSC, FEW or SCT

Below 450 m
(1 500 ft)

BKN or OVC

Any height of cloud

4.4

BKN or OVC

Below 450 m
(1 500 ft)

NSC, FEW or
SCT

Any height of cloud

4.5

NSC, FEW or SCT

At or above 450 m
(1 500 ft)

BKN or OVC

Below 450 m
(1 500 ft)

4.6

BKN or OVC

At or above
450 m (1 500 ft)

NSC, FEW or
SCT

Below 450 m
(1 500 ft)

5.

Vertical
visibility (at
aerodromes
where such
observations
are available)

Sky expected to become or

remain obscured

Vertical visibility passing

any one of the following
values:
30 m (100 ft)
60 m (200 ft)
150 m (500 ft)
300 m (1 000 ft)

The threshold values considered to be of operational significance are to be established by the meteorological authority in consultation with the appropriate ATS
authority and the operators concerned, taking into account changes in the wind which would require a change in the runway(s) in use, and/or which would indicate that
the runway tailwind or crosswind component will change through values representing the main operating limits for typical aircraft operating at the airport.
5 000 m is also used as a criterion when significant numbers of flights are conducted in accordance with the visual flight rules.

**

Note. Additional criteria may be agreed between the meteorological authority and the operators
concerned based on local operating minima.

___________________

Appendix 5
NOTIFYING WAFCS OF SIGNIFICANT DISCREPANCIES
(See 3.7.2.5)

1.

PURPOSE OF THE REPORT

a) To permit the meteorological offices to inform the WAFCs about significant discrepancies on
significant weather (SIGWX) forecasts issued by WAFCs, in accordance with Annex 3 criteria
(Annex 3, Appendix 2, 2.2 refers); and
b) to report significant discrepancies efficiently and unambiguously.

2.

BENEFITS OF THE NOTIFICATION

A WAFC benefits from being informed of possible discrepancies for the following reasons:
a) valuable feedback on the content of the forecasts;
b) enabling forecasters to take into account feedback in future forecasts; or
c) enabling formal review of the quality of WAFC output.

3.

STEPS TO BE FOLLOWED BY
A METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE

a) WAFS SIGWX forecast is received by a meteorological office;

b) a meteorological office detects a significant discrepancy, in accordance with the criteria for the
amendment of SIGWX forecasts in Annex 3 (Annex 3, Appendix 2, 2.2 refers) (see also the attachment
to this Appendix); no other differences should be reported;
c) the meteorological office describes the significant discrepancy using the following rules:
1) a notification of significant discrepancy concerning a forecast shall be elaborated and sent
between six and nine hours before the commencement of the validity period of the forecast;
2) the notification is to be sent only to the WAFC concerned;

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A5-2

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

3) the notification is to be sent via email or fax using the following e-mail addresses or fax numbers:
Centre

Fax number

E-mail address

WAFC Washington

+1 816 880 0652

[email protected]

WAFC London

+44 1392 885681

[email protected]

Note. Any correspondence with WAFC London to be clearly marked with

the following text: "For the attention of WAFC London forecasters."
4) the notification of significant discrepancies shall be prepared using the form in the attachment to
this Appendix;
5) the notification is to be written in English.

4.

STEPS TO BE FOLLOWED BY A WAFC

The WAFC concerned acknowledges the receipt of the notification of the significant discrepancy to the
meteorological office that originated it, together with a brief comment thereon and any action taken, using
the same means of communication employed by the meteorological office.

Appendix 5.

Notifying WAFCs of Significant Discrepancies

A5-3

ATTACHMENT TO APPENDIX 5
FORM TO BE USED FOR THE NOTIFICATION OF A SIGNIFICANT DISCREPANCY
ON SIGNIFICANT WEATHER FORECASTS

FORECAST INVOLVED
Originating WAFC
ICAO Area
Flight Level
Validity Time
Validity Date

DESCRIPTION OF THE DISCREPANCY(IES)

Error in expected position or intensity of phenomena; new expected phenomena
WAFC Forecast
Phenomena

FL

Position

Proposal
Intensity

FL

Position

Intensity

Reference

Turbulence
Icing
Cumulonimbus
Sandstorms Duststorms
Volcanic activity
Radioactive material
into the atmosphere

Note. The column "Reference" is to specify, for example, the observation, aircraft report or the
forecast model field that directed the meteorological office to inform of a significant discrepancy. A copy of
this information may be added to the form, if necessary.

___________________

Appendix 6
AN OPERATIONAL WIND SHEAR AND INVERSION WARNING
SYSTEM FOR HELSINKI-VANTAA AIRPORT
(See 4.6.6)

1.

THE MEASURING SITE AND AIRPORT

1.1 A 300 m high (1 000 ft) mast was installed 20 km southwest of the airport. Its elevation is 50 metres,
the same as that of the airport. The terrain around the mast station is sparse forest. This kind of terrain covers
most of the final approaches to Helsinki-Vantaa airport. The mast station is 7 km from the seashore while the
airport itself is 15 km from the seashore, thus allowing for timely sea fog observations.
1.2 The effect of distance of the mast station from the airport was studied by comparing aircraftmeasured INS-winds with mast-measured two-minute mean winds. Results show a correlation of 0.83-0.85
for speed and 0.98-0.99 for direction at measuring levels of 90 m to 300 m (300 ft to 1 000 ft) INS-winds with
mast-measured two-minute mean winds. The INS-winds are on average 4 km/h (2 kt) higher than mast winds.
1.3 During strong inversions, the surface temperatures at the airport and at the mast station coincide
within 1C and surface inversions measured at the mast station also represent conditions at the airport.

2.

SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

2.1 The system is a modified automatic weather station, which has several additional wind,
temperature and humidity sensors compared to the usual surface weather station. Figure A6-1 represents
the system near Kuopio Airport. In this system, the data collection is performed via a cassette count.
2.2 Because of freezing conditions during the winter, wind is measured with modified Vaisala
anemometers, equipped with Lambrecht cups. These cups give more torque and also absorb IR-radiation
more easily, because their aluminium surface is painted black. Besides normal axial heating, the anemometers
have IR-radiators situated above them. These radiators have a maximum output of 1.5 kw. Temperature is
measured with Pt-100 thermo-elements and humidity with linearized Lambrecht hair hygrometers.
Temperature and humidity sensors are shielded against radiation and rain and all sensors are also shielded
against falling ice blocks.

3.

WEATHER-WATCH

3.1 Vertical wind shear is calculated between measuring levels using two-minute mean winds. Levels 90
m to 210 m (300 ft to 700 ft) and 210 m to 300 m (700 ft to 1 000 ft) are used in routine warning services;
measurements from levels 30 m to 90 m (100 ft to 300 ft) are affected by local terrain. Calculation of wind
shear magnitude is done by the formula
V ws =V21 + V22 - 2V1V2 cos
A6-1

A6-2

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

BS MAST
W TH

FT GND
1 050

980

TH

860

740

TH

560

380

TH

230
10

Cassette

Microprocessor
system

300 BPS

Terminal
airport

W = WIND: anemometer T =
Temperature: PT-100
H = Humidity: hair hygrometer

Figure A6-1.

System configuration

where V1 and V2 are wind speeds at the levels in question and the angle between winds. This shear
magnitude is then scaled to the unit kt/100 ft. If a predetermined value is exceeded, the system reports it by
a bell signal and shows the shear values. The shear alarm limit at the mast station is set at 42 km/h/100 m
(7 kt/100 ft), and this means about 0.1 per cent of the cases or about ten shear cases of this strength or
more per year. The number of aircraft reports concerning wind shear has been about nine cases per year at
Helsinki-Vantaa Airport.
3.2 A watch is also kept for temperature inversions by comparing temperatures at higher levels with the
surface temperature. Adjacent levels are also compared, which means a total of 13 comparisons in this
subroutine. If a predetermined value is exceeded, the system reports it by a bell signal and gives temperature
values. The inversion alarm limit at the mast station is set to correspond to an inversion of 10C in the lowest
300 m (1 000 ft) layer.

4.
4.1

ROUTINE WARNING SERVICES AND USE OF MAST DATA

The mast system is a part of the unified warning service (see flow diagram in Figure A6-2).

4.2 On receiving an alarm signal from the mast system, the meteorologist on duty makes the final
decision as to whether a warning should be given. The warning message is immediately reported in the
ATIS broadcast. The warning message is also shown on the airport internal video network.
4.3 Besides wind shear and inversions, the strength of low-level turbulence can be estimated by the
mast system. The system reports wind speed and direction variations over the averaging interval. If the speed
variations exceed 40 km/h (20 kt) at levels 90 m to 300 m (300 ft to 1 000 ft), a turbulence warning is given.

Appendix 6. An Operational Wind Shear and Inversion Warning

System for Helsinki-Vantaa Airport

PILOT REPORTS
Wind shear
Turbulence
Inversion
Icing

A6-3

TWR
Frequency

ATC
Video

ACFTS

MAST SYSTEM
Wind shear
Turbulence
Inversion

METEO

SOUNDINGS/
WEATHER RADAR/
SURFACE OBSERVATIONS
Icing

ATIS
Broadcast

BRIEFING
Video

Figure A6-2.

PILOTS

Warning service

4.4 Besides its use for warning purposes, the mast data is also used for routine forecasting. The
uppermost level gives a fairly good estimate of wind for approach and holding purposes. Continuous
temperature profiles provide important information when estimating the passage of a front. For example, the
temperature rise associated with warm fronts (especially in winter) is seen clearly starting from the top of the
mast. Humidity profiles have been used successfully when making TREND forecasts, especially in case of
advective fog or low cloud from the sea sector. The humidity rise is always very rapid and starts from the
lowest levels in the case of a dense sea fog. Fog associated with a frontal warm advection causes the humidity to
rise first at upper levels.

___________________

Appendix 7
USE OF METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION FOR
PRE-FLIGHT PLANNING BY OPERATORS
AND FLIGHT CREW
(See 5.1.11)

1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1 The meteorological information to be supplied to operators and flight crew is covered in Chapter 9 of
Annex 3 and in Chapter 5 of this manual. The purpose of this Appendix is to describe the type of
information used in pre-flight planning, which provides aviation meteorologists and assistants with a basic
understanding of the significance each item of information has in the preparation for a flight. Although some
re-planning is often carried out in flight (e.g. when considering the acceptance of a different flight level, an
alternative airway routing offered by air traffic control or a change of destination), the use made of the
meteorological information required for such re-planning is similar to that in pre-flight planning.
1.2 Flight preparation has three phases: the take-off and climb to cruise altitude; the cruise to top of
descent; and the approach and landing. These phases are not treated separately as they are interdependent,
but for explanatory purposes, it is convenient to consider the specific use made of meteorological information in
each of the three phases.

2.

TAKE-OFF AND CLIMB-OUT

2.1

General

2.1.1 It is the pilot's duty to optimize the performance of the aircraft, in order to maximize the economics of the
operation while at the same time complying with all the requirements for take-off (including take-off minima)
specified by the operator and approved by the State of the Operator and by the authority responsible for the
aerodrome. The planning for the take-off and climb-out phases includes calculating, by the pilot, the maximum
permissible take-off mass (standard operating mass + passengers + cargo + fuel, etc.) given the constraints at a
particular aerodrome. These constraints include runway length, runway slope, climb-out gradients (which ensure
clearance of obstacles with one engine failed), aerodrome elevation, and current meteorological conditions, i.e.
surface wind (specifically headwind component and limiting tailwind and crosswind components), temperature
and pressure. Humidity, although theoretically also affecting aircraft performance, can be neglected as its effect is
minimal. Runway contamination (snow or slush covered, wet, icy, etc.) also plays an important role, but is not
usually regarded as "meteorological information". Where aircraft take-off mass is not limited by aircraft
performance considerations in the prevailing meteorological conditions, temperature has an effect on take-off
speeds and on engine power settings and on the possible need to initiate engine and airframe anti-ice
procedures.
2.1.2 The list of items that have to be considered in take-off calculations is rendered more manageable
by the use of graphs, charts, nomograms and tables, etc., produced by the operator to assist the pilot or
flight operations officer. In many operations, flight planning, particularly for the en-route stage, is carried out
A7-1

A7-2

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

by computer. The pilot is able to control at least some of the many variables affecting the take -off
performance of the aircraft; one example would be the choice of flap setting, another would be the cargo
mass and/or fuel to be uplifted, although clearly the desire is to maximize the payload consistent with takeoff requirements. Any of the various requirements may limit the operation, resulting in a lower payload or fuel
uplift than desired, which may result in the need to land en route in order to refuel or, in extreme
circumstances, preclude take-off (at a given mass) altogether.

2.2

Surface wind

2.2.1 The magnitude of the effects of meteorological parameters on take-off performance varies with
different aircraft types, although the sense of the effect (positive or negative) is the same. Headwinds will
permit a greater mass to be lifted on take-off, as the presence of a headwind will permit a higher airspeed to
be achieved on the runway and therefore more lift to be generated by the aerodynamic surfaces. In contrast, a
tailwind results in the reduction of the maximum permissible take-off mass as a lower airspeed is achieved.
Otherwise expressed, headwinds permit more weight to be lifted on take-off, while tailwinds decrease the
maximum permissible take-off weight.
2.2.2 The following are some figures to indicate the magnitudes of the above effects. An example
expressed in terms of mass would be that for each knot increase in headwind component, an Airbus A300
can lift some 400 kg more mass on take-off. For a Boeing 767-30, the increase would be around 220 kg for
the same increase in headwind component. In addition to the headwind/tailwind component, consideration
must also be given to the crosswind component. Each aircraft has crosswind limits (for large jet transports,
typically between 15 kt and 35 kt for different runway conditions, e.g. wet or icy, or dry), beyond which it is
very difficult for the pilot to maintain aircraft alignment along the runway, particularly in the case of an engine
failure.

2.3

Temperature

2.3.1 Temperature affects air density; higher temperatures cause a decrease in density which reduces
lift and hence maximum permissible take-off mass and also has detrimental effects on engine efficiency and
hence attainable speeds. Lower temperatures have the opposite effect.
2.3.2 A temperature rise of 10C can, for a B737, reduce the permissible take-off mass by 600 kg. A
decrease in temperature allows an increase in permissible take-off mass. In the case of the A310, for each
degree that the temperature is below reference, the mass can be increased by 210 kg, all other factors being
equal. Temperature also has an effect on the relationship between true airspeed and the airspeed indicated
in the cockpit (indicated airspeed). Therefore, high ambient temperatures mean that for a given indicated
airspeed the true airspeed is higher and the kinetic energy to be absorbed by the brakes and tires after
landing or an abandoned take-off is also greater. Landing an aircraft on a short runway or abandoning takeoff from high speed requires the aircraft brakes to absorb extremely large amounts of kinetic energy which,
in turn, results in the brake assembly being heated to such high temperatures that brake cooling times as
long as one hour could be necessary. The cooling time depends on, among other things, the outside air
temperature. Flight crew are provided with nomograms to calculate this effect.

2.4

Pressure

2.4.1 Pressure also affects air density; the lower the surface pressure, the lower the air density and the
lower the lift and the poorer the engine performance (and vice versa).

Appendix 7. Use of Meteorological Information for Pre-Flight Planning

by Operators and Flight Crew

A7-3

2.4.2 For a B767-300 a 10 hPa pressure change at a sea level aerodrome has about the same effect as
a 3C temperature change. Similarly, for each hectopascal that the pressure rises above 1 013.2 hPa, an
additional 150 kg can be carried by an Airbus A300.

2.5

Combined effects of surface wind,

temperature and pressure

Figure A7-1 illustrates the combined effects of the above-mentioned parameters on take-off performance,
and Figure A7-2 gives a sample illustration of an actual take-off mass versus runway length calculation.

3.

CRUISE TO TOP OF DESCENT

3.1

General

The meteorological parameters of importance in the preparation of flight plans for the cruise phase of flights
consist in the first instance of upper-air temperatures and upper winds. Weather conditions en route and
meteorological conditions at destination and at destination alternate and en-route alternate aerodromes also
play an important role.

3.2

Temperature

As in the case of take-off performance, temperature is an important element in flight planning because, by
affecting air density, it influences engine performance, fuel efficiency, true airspeed, and aircraft operating
ceilings and optimum cruising levels, irrespective of aircraft type (piston, jet, etc.). For early types of jet engines,
the fuel consumption increased by about 1 per cent for each degree Celsius rise in temperature above
standard. For modern wide-bodied aircraft, the engines of which are more powerful and fuel efficient, fuel
consumption increases only by about 3 per cent for each 10C temperature increase. However, as fuel
constitutes about 30 per cent of the total take-off mass of modern jets which can exceed 200 tonnes, this
means that some 2 tonnes of additional fuel may be required for a 10C temperature rise. For a given aircraft
mass, temperature together with wind determines the flight level at which fuel efficiency and range (with a
given cruise speed) will be at an optimum. Figure A7-3 illustrates the effects of various temperature deviations
from standard temperature on optimum flight levels for a B737 aircraft.

3.3

Upper winds

Upper winds have an even more obvious effect on aircraft efficiency, decreasing or increasing flight time and
consequently decreasing or increasing fuel consumption (if same ground speed is to be maintained). With
modern wide-bodied jet aircraft, a 50 kt headwind decreases the range of the aircraft by about 11 per cent at
best cruise speed; a tailwind has the reverse effect. For flight planning, the effects of wind components are
usually calculated in terms of "equivalent still air distance" which is as follows:
equivalent still air distance =

TAS
TAS wind component

SLOPE - %

Figure A7-1. Effects of meteorological parameters on take-off performance

REF LINE
505
5 .10 .1 2.2 2.2
0 .9
5 2.00 2.0 2 2 0
0 5 1.9 1 2.3
1 . 8 1 .8

1
7
9
5
RUNWAY LENGTH AVAILABLE - 1 000 FT1

0 KT
S
-10 TAIL

20
OAT - C

40

FOR A/C OFF FIELD LENGTH,

OR CLIMB LIMIT MASS, ENTER
WITH A/C OFF TAKE-OFF EPR AND
REDUCE MASS OBTAINED BY 400 KG

REF LINE

20 WIND

10 - 20

FOR WING ANTI-ICE ON, REDUCE

THE CLIMB LIMIT GROSS MASS
BY 2 000 KG (NOT TO BE USED AT
AMBIENT TEMPERATURES
ABOVE 10C)

1
2
4
6
8
PRESSURE ALTITUDE - 1 000 FT 0

1.95 1.90 85
1. 1.80

REF LINE

6
8
2
4
PRESS. ALT - 1 000 FT
40 HEAD

2.20 2.15 10
2. 2.05 2.00

DN-2

35

2.2

-1

KE-O
TA

REF LINE

EPR
FF

CLIMB LIMIT
MAX GROSS MASS AT BRAKE RELEASE 1 000 KG
FIELD LENGTH LIMIT
35

4
0

40

45

OF PR
ETA F
K

45

5
0

A/C F
F
OON
A/

E
2.
3

UP 2

50

ANTI-SKID OPERATING
55
55

TAKE-OFF
PERFORMANCE
FLAPS 1

A7-4 Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

Appendix 7. Use of Meteorological Information for Pre-Flight Planning

by Operators and Flight Crew

A7-5

Calculation for maximum permissible take-off mass (for DC-8)

Type of A/C

Condition

DC-8 -6 2

RW

OAT

Wind

Wc

QNH

Depth of
slush etc.

Braking
action

Flight/Date
Estimated
Airport

Actual

CPH

2 2 R +2 C 2 310 kt - 10 10 0 5 1.0ush
0
sl cm

POOR

Calculation

23

Flaps

16 5 .6

Gross mass
Rating/intermix (not DC-8)

TOW versus RW and OBSTACLES

OAT correction (27

27 0 )

Wind correction (10 3 3 0 )

QNH correction (8

1.3

16 0 )

Ice protection (not 747)

ENG.

Rain removal (DC-8 only)

Climb requirement limited mass

3 .3

+
176.2

0 .7

ON

Frost/ice on tanks (not 747)

Equation
runway-short.

620
600

Water, slush, snow

Braking action

m
m

Runway-shortening

Systems U/S

1 220

Sum of negative corrections

(5634)

7.3

+
+

Sum of equation runway-short.

3343b

+
+

TOW versus RW and OBSTACLES

31.0
3 3 .0

3 3 .0

14 3 .2
16 2 .5

Climb requirement limited mass

Rating/intermix (not DC-8)
OAT correction

(13 6 0 0 )

QNH correction

(8 16 0 )

+
+

ENG.
Rain removal (DC-8 only) ON
Ice protection (not 747)

+
7.8

1.3

0 .5
1.3

+ 17 0 .3

Frost/ice on tanks (not 747)

Sum of negative corrections
CLIMB REQUIREMENT
LIMITED MASS
PERFORMANCE LIM. TOW
For decision of derating

Figure A7-2.

167.2

NEVER EXCEED MASS

MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE TOW

3.1

3.1
Min of
1 &2

14 3 .2
3

Min of
123

15 2 .0
14 3 .2

Sample of an actual take-off mass calculation

A7-6

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

ALTITUDE
CAPABILITY
OPERATIONS MANUAL

20

LONG RANGE
CRUISE
15

25

20

C
I
SA -15

OPTIMUM
ALTITUDE

ISA +5 ISA
C
ISA +10C
LIMITS
THRUST
A +15C
IS
IS
UE
C
ISA
+20 25
SA C
I+

PRESSURE ALTITUDE 1 000 FT

30

IS
A ISA
-5
10
C C

40

30

ISA +25C

ISA +20C

ISA +ISA +1 ISA

15C 0C +5C

RUST LIMITS

20

15
50
40
30
GROSS MASS 1 000 KG

PRESSURE ALTITUDE 1 000 FT

50
40
GROSS MASS 1 000 KG

25

IND .74
MACH

MA

15

35

IND .72
MACH

30

OPTIMUM
ALTITUDE

ISE
CR TH
A U
MX

25

35
OPTIMUM
ALTITUDE
PRESSURE ALTITUDE 1 000 FT

20

30

40
ISA +20C IS A + 51 I + 10
LIMIT
S
C
C
THRUST
SA +25C
SA
I
RU S
X I E
C

25

PRESSURE ALTITUDE 1 000 FT

30

35

OPTIMUM
ALTITUDE

5C
THRUSCRUISE
T
LIMIT S

PRESSURE ALTITUDE 1 000 FT

35

40

I
+20CISA +15CISA
ISA +2SA
+10C
MAX

40

30

50
40
30
GROSS MASS 1 000 KG

ISA -10C ISA C

ISA +10

ISA+ 20C

20

10

SHORT DISTANCE
CRUISE ALTITUDE

100
200
300
TRIP DISTANCE NAM

MAX

400

CR

IND .78
MACH

15

50
40
30
GROSS MASS 1 000 KG

Figure A7-3.

Optimum flight level (for B737) as a function of take-off mass and

temperature deviation from standard

Appendix 7. Use of Meteorological Information for Pre-Flight Planning

by Operators and Flight Crew

A7-7

An example of a graph used for this calculation is given in Figure A7-4. This figure illustrates the effects of
wind components, sometimes called "equivalent headwinds", on aircraft performance. In this connection, it
should be noted that the wind component used in the still-air distance equation does not take into account
only headwind or tailwind components but also the effect of crosswinds. The equivalent still-air distance is
then used to calculate the fuel required for the flight, including necessary reserves.

3.4

Meteorological conditions

3.4.1 Meteorological conditions en route and meteorological conditions at destination and alternate
aerodromes are elements that are superimposed on the initial flight plan based on temperature and wind.
Adverse en-route weather conditions may force the choice of a flight level or route segment not conforming
with the optimum one given by the flight plan, although such changes are rare with modern high-flying jet
aircraft. Unfavourable conditions expected at a destination may force a delay in take-off, or the preparation
of additional flight plan segments to alternate aerodromes.
3.4.2 During flight, pilots may wish to optimize the aircraft performance by taking advantage of more
favourable winds at another flight level. This situation may arise because initially the aircraft was unable to
climb to this level due to air traffic control constraints, or it was too heavy to climb to the level with the most
favourable tailwinds. As the aircraft mass progressively decreases as fuel is burned off, the pilot may
request reclearance to a higher level. The information available to the pilot in considering these matters is
greatly enhanced by the increased use of an on-board inertial reference system (IRS), which has the
capability of giving instantaneous wind readouts. Many systems also give information on the increased
headwind that can be tolerated by going to a higher level so as to take advantage of the decreased fuel
consumption normally found at higher flight levels. This is usually referred to as a "wind/altitude trade".

4.

LANDING CALCULATIONS

4.1 For landing there are two basic considerations: the length of the runway and missed-approach
capability. The speed flown by the aircraft on approach is a function of the stall speed which is determined
by the aircraft mass, all other things being equal. The speed on touchdown will be the indicated airspeed
flown plus or minus the headwind/tailwind. The presence of a headwind means that the aircraft will land at a
lower ground speed and will therefore use less distance to stop. The opposite effect is felt with a tailwind.
The stopping distance on the runway is also affected by the runway being wet, as brakes are less effective
in these conditions. In addition, aircraft have tailwind and crosswind limits, and again these are lower in wet
conditions than in dry; typical limits are shown in Figure A7-5.
4.2 For the missed approach possibility the same factors as runway length must be considered, e.g.
temperature and pressure-altitude. Also, when icing conditions are present, ice formation on the wing and
fuselage will adversely affect performance. A chart illustrating the effect of relevant meteorological factors on
landing performance including climb capability for a missed approach procedure is given in Figure A7-6.

10
0

100

50 NM EQUIVALENT S
N
M

TILL AIR DISTA NCE

HEADWIND TAILWIND
(kt) (kt)

c
Win o

Figure A7-4. The effects of wind on aircraft performance

Win d

- 72 kt
9
300 NM

Headwind component
Wind correction angle
ESAD

35

400

ESAD
or
Partial distances
ESAD

b) Ground distance
Tailwind
component
Find:

250
300
350
Ground distance (NM)

255 NM
100 kt
50

200

4
0

Find:

200 NM

150

500

550
GR - 875 OP

500

N
6 M
50
N M
60
0 N
M
5
50
N M

700NM

750 NM

NM

NM
800

850
0

90

550

400 NM + 322 NM = 722 NM

362 NM + 292 NM = 654 NM

654 NM

722 NM
+ 50 kt

450

NM

Examples: a) Ground distance

Wind strength
Relative wind angle

50

450

45
0

180
180

100 NM

150

100

250 M
EXAMPLE [b]

400

NM

50

Ground distance (NM)

250
300
350

300

170
190

5
0

50

200

EXAMPLE [a]

150

N
M

140
220
rre 16
ctio 210 160
150
n angl
12 200
e
8

15
0

100

150

100

150 N M

50

Based on TAS = 480 kt

Applicable for TAS = 480 30 kt

0
50

120
240
20
130
230

100
260
24
110
250

n
str g
e

80
280
200
90
270

310
60
300
70
290

wind
ativ angle
20 10 0
Re e
30 340 350 360
l
40 330
kt
(
th ) 50 320

ESAD GRAPH
(Equivalent still air distance)

A7-8 Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

NM

Appendix 7. Use of Meteorological Information for Pre-Flight Planning

by Operators and Flight Crew

5
5
60
Win
knot
d
s

50

45

40

35
20

10

30

25

20

1
0
15

Headwind

120 130 140 160 180

5 kt
10 kt

40

30

15 kt

30 kt
Cross wind limits incl. gusts

Wind inclination

Figure A7-5.

20 kt
25 kt

50

60

70

80

100

90

110

150 170

10

Tailwind

A7-9

Typical wind limit diagram

A7-10

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

DO NOT EXCEED STRUCTURAL LIMITS

LANDING PERFORMANCE
FLAPS 40
ANTI-SKID OPERATING
AUTOMATIC SPEED BRAKES*

REF LINE

REF LINE

10 8

TITUDE 5

1 000 FT
D 24

PRES SURE AL

TW

10
9

20

40

DRY WET 30

WIND-KTS

HW

RUNWAY
CONDITION

40

35

50

45

FIELD LENGTH LIMIT GROSS MASS - 1 000 KG

REF LINE

3
-10

REF LINE

RUNWAY AVAILABLE - 1 000 FT

RUNWAY AVAILABLE - 1 000 FT

FIELD LENGTH LIMIT

ANTI-SKID INOPERATIVE
MANUAL SPEED BRAKES ONLY
UDE -

PR ESSU RE AL

1 000

10
8
6

FT

TIT

2
0

6
5
-10

DRY WET 30
35
40
45
RUNWAY
TW
WIND-KTS
HW
CONDITION
FIELD LENGTH LIMIT GROSS MASS - 1 000 KG
* FOR MANUAL SPEED BRAKES,
REDUCE FIELD LENGTH LIMIT GROSS MASS 3 600 KG
CLIMB LIMIT
0

20

40

ANTI-ICE CORRECTION:
FOR WING ANTI-ICE ON,
REDUCE CLIMB LIMIT
GROSS MASS BY 2 500 KG

40
0
OAT - C

U
L TD
E TI
UA
E SR
PS
R

20

2
4

F
0
1 T
E- 0 0

WHEN OPERATING IN ICING

CONDITIONS DURING ANY PART OF
THE FLIGHT WITH FORECAST
LANDING TEMPERATURE BELOW
8C (46F) REDUCE CLIMB LIMIT
GROSS MASS BY 41 000 KG

50

10
-20
30

Figure A7-6.

35
40
45
CLIMB LIMIT GROSS MASS - 1 000 KG

Landing performance calculations

___________________

50

Appendix 8
COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS IN
METEOROLOGICAL MESSAGES
(See 5.2.2)
(extract from the Procedures for Air Navigation Services
ICAO Abbreviations and Codes (PANS-ABC, Doc 8400))

Note. Decodes of the abbreviations should be applied in phraseologies used in meteorological briefings and
consultations.

A
AAA
ABV
AC
ADS
AFTN
AIREP

AIRMET
ALT
AMD
APC
H
AS
ASHTAM
ASPEEDG
ASPEEDL
AT
ATS

(or AAB, AAC etc., in sequence) Amended meteorological message (message type designator)
Above
Altocumulus
Automatic dependent surveillance
Aeronautical fixed telecommunication network
Air-report
Information concerning en-route weather phenomena which may affect the safety of low-level
aircraft operations
Altitude
Amend or amended (used to indicate amended meteorological message; message type designator)
Approach
Altostratus
A special series NOTAM notifying a pre-eruption or post-eruption change in activity of a volcano,
a volcanic eruption and/or volcanic ash cloud of operational significance
Airspeed gain Airspeed
loss
At (followed by time at which weather change is forecast to occur)
Air traffic services

BCFG
BECMG
BKN
BL
BLW
BR
BTN
BUFR

Fog patches
Becoming
Broken
Blowing (followed by DU = dust, SA = sand or SN = snow)
Below
Mist
Between
Binary universal form for the representation of meteorological data (a WMO code form)

A8-1

A8-2

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

C
C
C
CALM
CAT
CAVOK
CB
CC
CCA
CI
CLD
CLIMB-OUT
COR
CPDLC
CS
CTA
CU

Centre (preceded by runway designator number to identify a parallel runway)

Degrees Celsius (Centigrade)
Calm
Clear air turbulence
(to be pronounced "KAV-OH-KAY") Visibility, cloud and present weather better than prescribed
values or conditions
(to be pronounced "CEE BEE") Cumulonimbus
Cirrocumulus
(or CCB, CCC etc., in sequence) Corrected meteorological message (message type designator)
Cirrus Cloud
Climb-out area
Correct or correction or corrected (used to indicate corrected meteorological message; message
type designator)
Controller-pilot data link communications
Cirrostratus Control
area
Cumulus

D
DEG
DIF
DP
DR
DS
D
U
D-VOLMET
DZ

Downward (tendency in RVR during previous 10 minutes)

Degrees Diffuse
Dew point temperature
Low drifting (followed by DU = dust, SA = sand or SN = snow)
Duststorm
Dust
Data link VOLMET
Drizzle

E
Embedded in a layer (to indicate cumulonimbus embedded in layers of other clouds)
Stop-end (related to RVR)

EMBD
END

FBL
FC
FCST
FEW
FG
FIR
FL
FLUC

F
Light (used to indicate the intensity of weather phenomena, interference or static reports, e.g. FBL
RA = light rain)
Funnel cloud (tornado or water spout)
Forecast
Few Fog
Flight information region
Flight level
Fluctuating or fluctuation or fluctuated

Appendix 8.

FM
FRONT
FT
FU
FZ
FZDZ
FZFG
FZRA

Commonly Used Abbreviations in Meteorological Messages

A8-3

From (followed by time weather change is forecast to begin)

Front (relating to weather)
Feet (dimensional unit)
Smoke
Freezing
Freezing drizzle
Freezing fog
Freezing rain

G
G
GAMET
GR
GRIB
GS

Variations from the mean wind speed (gusts) (followed by figures in METAR/SPECI and TAF code
forms)
Area forecast for low-level flights
Hail
Processed meteorological data in the form of grid point values expressed in binary form
(meteorological code)
Small hail and/or snow pellets

H
H
HPA
HR
HURCN
HVY
HZ

High pressure area or the centre of high pressure

Hectopascal
Hours
Hurricane
Heavy (used to indicate the intensity of weather phenomena, e.g. HVY RA = heavy rain)
Haze

I
IAVW
IC
ICE
INC
INTSF
ISOL

International airways volcano watch

Ice crystals (very small ice crystals in suspension, also known as diamond dust)
Icing
In cloud
Intensify or intensifying
Isolated

K
KM
KMH
KT

Kilometres
Kilometres per hour
Knots

L
L
LAT

Low pressure area or the centre of low pressure

Latitude

A8-4

LOC
LONG
LTD
LVL
LYR

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

Local or locally or location or located

Longitude
Limited
Level
Layer or layered

M
M
M
MA
X
MBST
MET
METAR
MET REPORT
MID
MIFG
MNM
MOD
MOV
MS
MSL
MT
MTW
MWO

Metres (preceded by figures)

Minimum value of runway visual range (followed by figures in METAR/SPECI)
Maximum
Microburst
Meteorological or meteorology
Aerodrome routine meteorological report (in meteorological code)
Local routine meteorological report (in abbreviated plain language)
Mid-point (related to RVR)
Shallow fog
Minimum
Moderate (used to indicate the intensity of weather phenomena, interference or static reports, e.g.
MODRA = moderate rain)
Move or moving or movement
Minus
Mean sea level
Mountain
Mountain waves
Meteorological watch office

N
N
NC
NE
NIL*
NM
NOSIG
NOTAM

NS
NSC
NS
W
NW

No distinct tendency (in RVR during previous 10 minutes)

North or northern latitude
No change Northeast
None or I have nothing to send to you
Nautical miles
No significant change (used in trend-type landing forecasts)
A notice containing information concerning the establishment, condition or change in any
aeronautical facility, service, procedure or hazard, the timely knowledge of which is essential to
personnel concerned with flight operations
Nimbostratus
Nil significant cloud
Nil significant weather
North-west

OBS
OBSC
OCNL

Observe or observed or observation

Obscure or obscured or obscuring
Occasional or occasionally

Appendix 8.

OPMET
OVC

Commonly Used Abbreviations in Meteorological Messages

A8-5

Operational meteorological (information)

Overcast

P
P
PL
PO
PRFG
PROB
PS
PSYS

Indicator for maximum value of wind speed or runway visual range (used in the METAR, SPECI
and TAF code forms)
Ice pellets
Dust/sand whirls (dust devils)
Aerodrome partially covered by fog
Probability
Plus
Pressure system(s)

Q
QFE
QNH

Atmospheric pressure at aerodrome elevation (or at runway threshold)

Altimeter sub-scale setting to obtain elevation when on the ground

R
R
RA
RAG
RE
RNAV
ROBEX
RRA
RTD
RVR
RWY

Runway visual range (followed by figures in METAR/SPECI)

Rain
Ragged
Recent (used to qualify weather phenomena, e.g. RERA = recent rain)
(to be pronounced "AR-NAV") Area navigation
Regional OPMET bulletin exchange (scheme)
(or RRB, RRC etc., in sequence) Delayed meteorological message (message type designator)
Delayed (used to indicate delayed meteorological message; message type designator)
Runway visual range
Runway

S
S
S
SA
SARPS
SC
SCT
SEA
SECN
SEV
SFC
SG
SH
SIG

State of the sea (followed by figures in METAR/SPECI)

South or southern latitude
Sand
Standards and Recommended Practices [ICAO]
Stratocumulus
Scattered
Sea (used in connection with sea-surface temperature and state of the sea)
Section
Severe (used e.g. to qualify icing and turbulence reports)
Surface
Snow grains
Showers (followed by RA = rain, SN = snow, PE = ice pellets, GR = hail, GS = small hail and/or
snow pellets or combinations thereof, e.g. SHRASN = showers of rain and snow)
Significant

A8-6

SIGMET
SN
SNOCLO
SPECI
SPECIAL
SQ
SQL
SS
STNR
STS
SW

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

Information concerning en-route weather phenomena which may affect the safety of aircraft
operations
Snow
Aerodrome closed due to snow (used in METAR/SPECI)
Aerodrome special meteorological report (in meteorological code)
Local special meteorological report (in abbreviated plain language)
Squall
Squall line
Sandstorm
Stationary
Stratus
South-west

T
T
TAF
TC
TCAC
TCU
TDO
TEMPO
TL
TN
TO
TOP
TREND
TS
TS
TURB
TX

Temperature
Aerodrome forecast (in meteorological code form)
Tropical cyclone
Tropical cyclone advisory centre
Towering cumulus
Tornado
Temporary or temporarily
Till (followed by time by which weather change is forecast to end)
Minimum temperature (followed by figures in TAF)
To (place)
Cloud top
Trend forecast
Thunderstorm (in aerodrome reports and forecasts, TS used alone means thunder heard but no
precipitation at the aerodrome)
Thunderstorm (followed by RA = RAIN, SN = snow, PE = ice pellets, GR = hail, GS = small hail
and/or snow pellets or combinations thereof, e.g. TSRASN = thunderstorm with rain and snow)
Turbulence
Maximum temperature (followed by figures in TAF)

U
U
UIR
UTC

Upward (tendency in RVR during previous 10 minutes)

Upper flight information region
Coordinated Universal Time

V
V
VA
VAAC
VC

Variations from the mean wind direction (preceded and followed by figures in METAR/SPECI, e.g.
350V070)
Volcanic ash
Volcanic ash advisory centre
Vicinity of the aerodrome (followed by FG = fog, FC = funnel cloud, SH = shower, PO = dust/sand
whirls, BLDU = blowing dust, BLSA = blowing sand, BLSN = blowing snow, DS = duststorm, SS =
sandstorm, TS = thunderstorm or VA = volcanic ash, e.g. VCFG = vicinity fog)

Appendix 8.

VER
VHF
VIS
VOLMET
VRB
VV

Commonly Used Abbreviations in Meteorological Messages

Vertical
Very high frequency [30 MHz to 300 MHz]
Visibility
Meteorological information for aircraft in flight
Variable
Vertical visibility (followed by figures in METAR/SPECI and TAF)

W
W
W
WAFC
WAFS
WI
WIND
WKN
WRNG
WS
WSPD
WX

West or western longitude

Sea-surface temperature (followed by figures in METAR/SPECI)
World area forecast centre
World area forecast system
Within
Wind
Weaken or weakening
Warning
Wind shear Wind
speed
Weather

Z
Z

Coordinated Universal Time (in meteorological messages)

Abbreviation not included in the PANS-ABC (Doc 8400).

When radiotelephony is used, the abbreviations and terms are transmitted as spoken words.
When radiotelephony is used, the abbreviations and terms are transmitted using the individual letters in non-phonetic form.
Signal is also available for use in communicating with stations of the maritime mobile service.

___________________

A8-7

Appendix 9
GUIDELINES FOR ACCESS TO AERONAUTICAL
METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION
Note 1. Guidelines for access to aeronautical meteorological information were noted by the Council on
23 February 2004 (171/4).
Note 2. "Guidelines for authorized access to the world area forecast system (WAFS) satellite
broadcast" noted by the Council on 5 July 1995 (145/24) provide additional guidance relevant to the subject
matter.

1.

GENERAL

1.1 Aeronautical meteorological information consists of OPMET information including the WAFS upper
wind, humidity and temperature and significant weather forecasts and alphanumeric messages. The
alphanumeric messages consist of tropical cyclone advisories, volcanic ash advisories, aerodrome routine
meteorological reports (METAR), aerodrome special meteorological reports (SPECI), special air-reports
(AIREP), aerodrome forecasts (TAF), GAMET area forecasts, route forecasts (ROFOR), and SIGMET and
AIRMET information.
1.2 The telecommunication facilities used for the international exchange of OPMET information should
be AFS, in accordance with Annex 3 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation Meteorological
Service for International Air Navigation and the regional air navigation plan (ANP), Part IV
Communications, Navigation and Surveillance and Part VI Meteorology.
1.3 Through the use of the AFS to exchange OPMET information in accordance with the regional ANP,
Part VI Meteorology, Contracting States will meet their obligation under Article 28 of the Convention on
International Civil Aviation (Doc 7300) regarding the supply to users of aeronautical meteorological
information for the provision of meteorological service for international air navigation.
1.4 Recovery by Contracting States of associated costs through charges on international civil aviation
should be based on the principles contained in Article 15 of the Convention on International Civil Aviation
(Doc 7300) and ICAO's Policies on Charges for Airports and Air Navigation Services (Doc 9082).
Note. Detailed guidance for determining the costs of aeronautical meteorological service is provided
in the Manual on Air Navigation Services Economics (Doc 9161).

2.

ACCESS TO AERONAUTICAL METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION

2.1 It is the prerogative of each Contracting State to determine the distribution of the OPMET
information to users, in the State concerned, as well as means to be used for this purpose.

A9-1

A9-2

Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice

2.2 It is for each Contracting State to determine the users in the State concerned to be provided with the
access to aeronautical meteorological information. Meteorological information for international air
navigation is to be provided by, or through arrangements made by, the meteorological authority as specified
in Standard 2.1.4 of Annex 3 to ensure that the following users have the necessary access to aeronautical
meteorological information in order to discharge their responsibilities to international air navigation or to
perform their respective functions: WAFCs, and aerodrome and other meteorological offices; operators; ATS
units; SAR services units; aeronautical information services units; volcanic ash and TCACs; and other
aeronautical users.

___________________

Appendix 10
TEMPLATE FOR ROUTINE AIR REPORTS
BY AIR-GROUND DATA LINK
Key:

M
C

=
=

mandatory, part of every message

inclusion conditional; included whenever available

Element

Detailed content

Template(s)

Examples

Message type designator (M)

Type of the air-report (M)

AR

AR

Aircraft identification (M)

Aircraft radiotelephony call sign (M)

nnnnnn

VA812

Aircraft registration (M)

Aircraft registration (M)

nn[nnnnn]

4XBCD
N2567GA

Latitude (M)

Latitude in degrees and minutes (M)

Nnnnn or Snnnn

S4506

Longitude (M)

Longitude in degrees and minutes (M)

Wnnnnn or Ennnnn

E01056

Level (M)

Flight level (M)

FLnnn

FL330

Time (M)

Time of occurrence in hours and minutes (M)

OBS AT nnnnZ

OBS AT
1216Z

Wind direction (M)

Wind direction in degrees true (M)

nnn/

262/

Wind speed (M)

Wind speed in kilometres per hour (or knots)

(M)

nnnKMH (or
nnnKT)

158KMH
(079KT)

Wind quality flag (M)

Wind quality flag (M)

Temperature (M)

Air temperature in tenths of degrees C (M)

T[M]nnn

T127
TM455

Turbulence (C)

Turbulence in hundredths of m2/3s-1 and the time

of occurrence of the peak value (C)1

EDRnnn/nn

EDR064/08

Humidity (C)

Relative humidity in per cent (C)

RHnnn

RH054

DATA BLOCK 1

DATA BLOCK 2

END

1. The time of occurrence to be reported in accordance with Annex 3, Table A4-1.

A10-1