TRABALHO DE HRI
Estado Islmico.
A dispora islmica ou a conquista muulmana da prsia, eclode sobre os escombros
da queda o novo-imprio persa, imprio Sassanian: Decline and fall (622651)
Main articles: Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602628, Fall of Sassanids and Muslim
conquest of Persia
While originally seeming successful at a first glance, the campaign of Khosrau II had
actually exhausted the Persian army and Persian treasuries. In an effort to rebuild the
national treasuries, Khosrau overtaxed the population. Thus, seeing the opportunity,
Heraclius (610641) drew on all his diminished and devastated empire's remaining
resources, reorganized his armies, and mounted a remarkable counter-offensive.
Between 622 and 627 he campaigned against the Persians in Anatolia and the
Caucasus, winning a string of victories against Persian forces under Khosrau,
Shahrbaraz, Shahin, and Shahraplakan, sacking the great Zoroastrian temple at
Ganzak, and securing assistance from the Khazars and Western Turkic Khaganate.
Queen Purandokht, daughter of Khosrau II, the last woman and one of the last rulers
on the throne of the Sassanid dynasty, she reigned from 17 June 629 to 16 June 630
In 626, Constantinople was besieged by Slavic and Avar forces which were supported
by a Persian army under Shahrbaraz on the far side of the Bosphorus, but attempts to
ferry the Persians across were blocked by the Byzantine fleet and the siege ended in
failure. In 627-628, Heraclius mounted a winter invasion of Mesopotamia and, despite
the departure of his Khazar allies, defeated a Persian army commanded by Rhahzadh
in the Battle of Nineveh. He then marched down the Tigris, devastating the country
and sacking Khosrau's palace at Dastagerd. He was prevented from attacking
Ctesiphon by the destruction of the bridges on the Nahrawan Canal and conducted
further raids before withdrawing up the Diyala into north-western Iran.[60]
The impact of Heraclius's victories, the devastation of the richest territories of the
Sassanid Empire, and the humiliating destruction of high-profile targets such as
Ganzak and Dastagerd fatally undermined Khosrau's prestige and his support among
the Persian aristocracy. In early 628, he was overthrown and murdered by his son
Kavadh II (628), who immediately brought an end to the war, agreeing to withdraw
from all occupied territories. In 629, Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem in
a majestic ceremony.[60] Kavadh died within months, and chaos and civil war
followed. Over a period of four years and five successive kings, including two
daughters of Khosrau II and spahbed Shahrbaraz, the Sassanid Empire weakened
considerably. The power of the central authority passed into the hands of the generals.
It would take several years for a strong king to emerge from a series of coups, and the
Sassanids never had time to recover fully.[59]
Genealogical tree of the Sassanid dynasty. Some kings are not shown, either for being
non-dynastic, or for an unknown ancestry.
In the spring of 632, a grandson of Khosrau I who had lived in hiding in Estakhr,
Yazdegerd III, ascended the throne. The same year, the first raiders from the Arab
tribes, newly united by Islam, arrived in Persian territory. According to HowardJohnston, years of warfare had exhausted both the Byzantines and the Persians. The
Sassanids were further weakened by economic decline, heavy taxation, religious
unrest, rigid social stratification, the increasing power of the provincial landholders,
and a rapid turnover of rulers, facilitating the Islamic conquest of Persia.[61]
The Sassanids never mounted a truly effective resistance to the pressure applied by
the initial Arab armies. Yazdegerd was a boy at the mercy of his advisers and
incapable of uniting a vast country crumbling into small feudal kingdoms, despite the
fact that the Byzantines, under similar pressure from the newly expansive Arabs, no
longer threatened. Caliph Abu Bakr's commander Khalid ibn Walid moved to capture
Iraq in a series of lightning battles. Redeployed to the Syrian front against the
Byzantines in June 634, Khalid's successor in Iraq failed him, and Muslims were
defeated in the Battle of the Bridge in 634, which resulted in a Sassanid victory.
However, the Arab threat did not stop there and reappeared shortly from the
disciplined armies of Khalid ibn Walid, once one of Muhammad's chosen
companions-in-arms and leader of the Arab army.
In 637, a Muslim army under the Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattb defeated a larger
Persian force led by general Rostam Farrokhzad at the plains of al-Qdisiyyah and
advanced on Ctesiphon, which fell after a prolonged siege. Yazdegerd fled eastward
from Ctesiphon, leaving behind him most of the Empire's vast treasury. The Arabs
captured Ctesiphon shortly afterward, acquiring a powerful financial resource and
leaving the Sassanid government strapped for funds. A number of Sassanid governors
attempted to combine their forces to throw back the invaders, but the effort was
crippled by the lack of a strong central authority, and the governors were defeated at
the Battle of Nihawnd. The empire, with its military command structure nonexistent, its non-noble troop levies decimated, its financial resources effectively
destroyed, and the Asawaran (Azatan) knightly caste destroyed piecemeal, was now
utterly helpless in the face of the invaders.
Upon hearing of the defeat in Nihawnd, Yazdegerd along with Farrukhzad and with
some of the Persian nobles fled further inland to the eastern province of Khorasan.
Yazdegerd was assassinated by a miller in Merv in late 651, while some of the nobles
settled in Central Asia, where they contributed greatly to spreading Persian culture
and language in those regions and to the establishment of the first native Iranian
Islamic dynasty, the Samanid dynasty, which sought to revive Sassanid traditions.
The abrupt fall of the Sassanid Empire was completed in a period of five years, and
most of its territory was absorbed into the Islamic caliphate; however, many Iranian
cities resisted and fought against the invaders several times. Islamic caliphates
repeatedly suppressed revolts in cities such as Rey, Isfahan, and Hamadan.[62] The
local population was initially under little pressure to convert to Islam, remaining as
dhimmi subjects of the Muslim state and paying a jizya.[63] Jizya practically replaced
poll taxes imposed by the Sassanids. In addition, the old Sassanid "land tax" (known
in Arabic as Kharaj) was also adopted. Caliph Umar is said to have occasionally set
up a commission to survey the taxes, to judge if they were more than the land could
bear.[64] Conversion of the Persian population to Islam would take place gradually,
particularly as Persian-speaking elites attempted to gain positions of prestige under
the Abbasid Caliphate.
Rise of the muslim empire:
Referir o paralelismo conceptual e cultural entre o Perodo das Gentes e do Rex no
imprio Romano com o perodo da dispora islmica sc. VII d.C.
Referncias:
Muhammad fundador da religio islmica.
Nome completo: Ab al-Qsim Muammad ibn Abd Allh ibn Abd al-Mualib ibn
Hshim
Abu = father
Qasim = Prophet Muhammad's first son
Muhammad = his real name
ibn = son of
Abd Allah = Prophet Muhammad's father
etc., etc.
LINKS: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396226/Muhammad/251796/Theadvent-of-the-revelation-and-the-Meccan-period
In Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina. After
eight years of fighting with the Meccan tribes, Muhammad gathered an army of
10,000 Muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca. The attack went largely
uncontested and Muhammad took over the city with little bloodshed. He destroyed the
pagan idols in the city[16] and sent his followers out to destroy all remaining pagan
temples in Eastern Arabia.[17][18] In 632, a few months after returning to Medina from
The Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and died. Before his death, most of the
Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam, and he had united Arabia into a single
Muslim religious polity.[19][20]
Estabelecido o primado Islmico na Arbia, este seguiu com a conquista da prsia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia
Rise of the Caliphate[edit]
Muhammad died in June 632, and Abu Bakr took the title of Caliph and political
successor at Medina. Soon after Abu Bakr's succession, several Arab tribes revolted,
in the Ridda Wars (Arabic for the Wars of Apostasy). The Ridda Wars preoccupied
the Caliphate until March 633, and ended with the entirety of the Arab Peninsula
under the authority of the Caliph at Medina.
Whether Abu Bakr intended a full-out imperial conquest or not is hard to say. He did,
however, set in motion a historical trajectory (continued later on by Umar and
Uthman) that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in
history,[19] beginning with a confrontation with the Sassanid Empire under the general
Khalid ibn al-Walid.
Califado / Kalipha: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliph
The word "caliph" is derived from the Arabic word khalifa ( alfah/khalfah)
meaning "successor", "substitute", or "lieutenant". In Matthew S. Gordon's The Rise
of Islam, caliph is said to translate to "deputy (or representative) of God." It is used in
the Quran to establish Adam's role as representative of God on earth. Khalifa is also
used to describe the belief that man's role, in his real nature, is as khalifa or viceroy to
Allah.[2] The word is also most commonly used for the Islamic leader of the Ummah;
starting with Abu Bakr and his line of successors.
Ciso: Sunitas http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni_Islam
Versus
Shiitas http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia_Islam
Sunni Islam (/suni/ or /sni/) is the largest branch of Islam; its adherents are
referred to in Arabic as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamah (Arabic:
) ,
"people of the tradition of Muhammad and the consensus of the Ummah" or ahl assunnah ( ) for short. In English, its theological study or doctrine is called
Sunnism, while adherents are known as Sunni Muslims, Sunnis, and Sunnites. Sunni
Islam is the world's second largest religious body (after Christianity)[2] and the largest
religious denomination for any religion in the world. Sunni Islam is sometimes
referred to as the orthodox version of the religion.[3][4] The word "Sunni" is believed
to come from the term Sunnah (Arabic: ) , which refers to the sayings and actions
of the Islamic prophet Muhammad as recorded in hadiths.[5]
Ummah: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ummah
Ummah (Arabic: ) is an Arabic word meaning "nation" or "community". It is
distinguished from Sha'b (Arabic:
) which means a nation with common ancestry
or geography. Thus, it can be said to be a supra-national community with a common
history.
It is a synonym for ummat al-Islamiyah (Arabic:
( )the Islamic Nation),
and it is commonly used to mean the collective community of Islamic peoples. In the
Quran the ummah typically refers to a single group that shares common religious
beliefs, specifically those that are the objects of a divine plan of salvation.[1][2] In the
context of Pan-Islamism and politics, the word Ummah can be used to mean the
concept of a Commonwealth of the Believers ( ummat al-mu'minn).
The Shia, or the Shiites, (Arabic: Shah) represent the second largest
denomination of Islam. Adherents of Shia Islam are called Shias or the Shi'a as a
collective or Shi'i individually.[1] Shi'a is the short form of the historic phrase Shatu
Al (
) meaning "followers", "faction" or "party" of Muhammad's son-inlaw and cousin Ali, whom the Shia believe to be Muhammad's successor in the
Caliphate. Twelver Shia (Ithn'ashariyyah) is the largest branch of Shia Islam, and
the term Shia Muslim is often taken to refer to Twelvers by default. Shia Muslims
constitute 10-15% of the world's Muslim population, while Sunnis constitute 85-90%.
[2]
Shi'i Islam is based on the Quran and the message of the Islamic prophet Muhammad
attested in hadith recorded by the Shia, and certain books deemed sacred to the Shia
(Nahj al-Balagha).[3][4] Shia consider Ali to have been divinely appointed as the
successor to Muhammad, and as the first Imam. In the centuries after the death of
Muhammad, the Shia extended this "Imami" doctrine to Muhammad's family, the Ahl
al-Bayt ("the People of the House"), and certain individuals among his descendants,
known as Imams, who they believe possess special spiritual and political authority
over the community, infallibility, and other quasi-divine traits.[5]
Although there are myriad Shi'i subsects, modern Shi'i Islam has been divided into
three main groupings: Twelvers, Ismailis and Zaidis.[6][7][8][9]
A ciso islmica comeou logo desde o momento da morte de Muhammad
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad
The succession to Muhammad concerns the varying aspects of successorship of
Muhammad after his death, comprising who might be considered as his successor to
lead the Muslims, how that person should be elected, the conditions of legitimacy,
and the role of successor. Different answers to these questions have led to several
divisions in the Muslim community since the first century of Muslim history; most
notable giving rise to Sunnis, Shias and Kharijites.
A histria no se repete, mas rima. Mark Twain
o fim da Guerra Fria e os termos poltico-estratgicos que estiveram na resoluo da
mesma produziram um perodo da Histria ainda mal resolvido.
Hoje, o Mdio-Oriente acentua a sua fragilidade, enquanto resultado de uma
repartio que no teve em conta as diferenas religiosas, tnicas e outras, o que se
tem mostrado mais do que suficiente para agravar conflitos seculares.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states
The declared State of Palestine has received diplomatic recognition
from 135 states.[38] The proclaimed state has no agreed territorial
borders, or effective control on much of the territory that it proclaimed.[39]
The Palestinian National Authority is an interim administrative body
formed as a result of the Oslo Accords that exercises limited
autonomous jurisdiction within the Palestinian territories. In foreign
relations, Palestine is represented by the Palestine Liberation
Organization.[40] The State of Palestine is a member state of UNESCO,[41]
and an observer state in the UN.
Membro observador da ONU.
Outro caso:
Kosovo unilaterally declared independence in 2008 and it has received
diplomatic recognition from 108 UN member states and Taiwan.
Pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244, Kosovo is
formally under the administration of the United Nations Interim
Administration Mission in Kosovo. Serbia continues to maintain its
sovereignty claim over Kosovo. Other UN member states and non UN
member states continue to recognise Serbian sovereignty or have taken
no position on the question. Kosovo is a member of the International
Monetary Fund and the World Bank Group. The Republic of Kosovo has
de facto control over most of the territory, with limited control in North
Kosovo.
Claimed by Serbia
The 206 states listed are divided into:
1 The membership within the United Nations system column
divides the states into three categories: 193 member states,[1]
two observer states, and 11 other states.
The sovereignty dispute column indicates states whose
sovereignty is undisputed (190 states) and states whose
sovereignty is disputed (16 states).
Interesses de ordem publica internacional
Ius cogens.