Wellbore Stability Self Learning Package
Sugar Land Learning Center
SUGAR LAND
LEARNING CENTER
Wellbore Stability
SELF-LEARNING COURSE
USEFUL PRE-REQUISITES
Basic understanding of drilling terms and procedures
Stuck Pipe Self Learning Package
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Table of Contents
OBJECTIVES.. 3
THE STRESS IN THE EARTH BEFORE WE DRILL A BOREHOLE....4
THE STRESS IN THE EARTH AFTER WE DRILL A BOREHOLE.......8
ROCK FAILURE........10
REVIEW QUESTIONS I....14
WELLBORE STABILITY PLANNING AND PREVENTATION...15
REVIEW QUESTIONS II...29
ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS ...30
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Objectives
Upon completion of this training module you should be able to:
Describe the stresses in the earth before we drill a borehole
Describe the stresses in the earth after we drill a borehole
Describe the different types of rock failure
Describe the characteristics of a mini-frac
Describe the 2 main outputs of wellbore stability planning
Understand the differences between Tabular, Angular and Splintered Cavings
Describe the common wellbore monitoring techniques and the 4 most common wellbore
instability mechanisms
Describe remedial actions that are taken to fix a failed / failing wellbore
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The Stress in the Earth before we Drill a Borehole
Before we drill a borehole the rock in the earth is in a state of equilibrium. This state is called the
Initial State.
In the earth, there are 3 stresses that are perpendicular to each other:
v Principal Stress in vertical axis
h Principal Stress in horizontal axis
H Principal Stress in horizontal axis
V
h
H is the maximum of the 2 horizontal stresses and h is the minimum.
(ie H > h )
In Rock Mechanics we also describe earth stresses in order of magnitude:
1 Maximum Earth Stress
2 Intermediate Earth Stress
3 Minimum Earth Stress
These can be ordered in any way: for example 1 could be the vertical stress or one of the
horizontal stresses, depending on the sedimentary basin in which we are drilling.
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Normal Fault
Regime
v = 1
Steep sloping
h = 3
H = 2
Figure 1: Tectonic dependence on earth stresses
Thrust (Reverse) Fault
Regime
v = 3
Gentle sloping
H = 1
h = 2
Slip Fault Regime
v = 2
h = 3
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The earths stresses are related to a number of different variables including:
Tectonic Setting, Pore pressure, Depth, Lithology, Temperature, Structure
The tectonic setting can affect the relationship of the earths stresses. Consider figure 1.1
a) In a Normal Fault Regime, the vertical stress (v) is the maximum principal stress (1):
v > H > h
b) In a tectonically stressed regime, horizontal stress (H) is the maximum principal stress (1):
H > h > v
c) Slip fault regime, the horizontal stress (H) is the maximum principal stress (1):
H > v > h
Pore Pressure supports a portion of the total applied stress in a rock.
In general:
Total stress (in given direction) = Effective Stress of Rock Grains (given direction) + Pore Pressure
If a formation is normally pressured the pore pressure mechanism can be described as
following:
Sediment burial full pore fluid escape porosity decreases effective rock stress increases
pore pressures are hydrostatic (normal)
If a formation is over-pressured the pressure in the formation is greater than the pressure
exerted by a column of water at that same depth.
There are 2 main mechanisms causing overpressure:
a) Loading mechanisms:
Sediment burial pore fluid escape fully restricted porosity & effective stress are both
constant pore pressures increases at the same rate as the overburden (ie overpressure)
b) Unloading mechanisms7:
(i) Aquathermal expansion or hydrocarbon generation or mineral dehydration (smectiteillite)
or osmosis sealed formation fluid-volume increase can result in rapid pore pressure
increases that unload the rock grain matrix.
(ii) Uplift / Erosion unloading rock grain matrix sealed formation formation has
same pore pressure as before but due to closed system is abnormally pressured compared
with neighbor formations at same depth.
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Figure 2: The 3 Wellbore Stresses
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The Stress in the Earth after we Drill a Borehole
Before a wellbore is drilled the rock is in a state of equilibrium. This state is called the Initial
State.
The stresses in the earth under this condition are known as the Far Field Stresses (h , H , v )
or in-situ stresses.
When a well is drilled it introduces a perturbation in the initial stress field. The perturbation
causes a new set of stresses known as wellbore stresses that act on the formation at the
wellbore wall.
There are 3 wellbore stresses. These are:
Radial Stress
Tangential Stress
Axial Stress
Figure 2 shows these 3 wellbore stresses.
The wellbore stresses depend on 2 different things:
a) The mud weight used
b) The magnitude of the far field stresses (v , H and h)
If we know what these wellbore stresses are then we will have a better idea of whether a
borehole will fail when we drill it.
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Figure 3: The 2 different ways a rock can fail
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Rock Failure
Generally a rock can fail in 2 different ways:
a) Shear Failure:
This is caused by 2 perpendicular stresses that are different in magnitude.
b) Tensile Failure:
This is caused by one stress exceeding the tensile strength of the rock.
Figure 3 shows schematically a shear failure and a tensile failure.
Both of these failures can cause wellbore instability.
When a rock fails by either shear or tensile failure, 2 things can happen depending on the type of
shear/tensile failure:
a) Loss circulation can occur (due to mud losses in the cracks of the rock)
b) Stuck pipe can occur (pack off due to the borehole collapsing)
We need to prevent these failures from occurring (if we can) to minimize the amount of Non
Productive Time (NPT)
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Formation Breakdown Pressure pbd
Pumping stops
Tensile Strength To
Leak off Pressure
Fracture opening pressure
Fracture Closure Pressure =
Time
Figure 4: A Mini-Frac Test
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Figure 4 shows an example of a mini-frac. The y-axis shows the wellbore pressure (ie the mud
weight).
The formation is basically broken down and the pressure trace is examined from this we can
determine certain properties of the rock and this will give us geomechanical information that will
ultimately help us manage wellbore stability.
It can be seen that there is a linear trend (the elastic region) until The Leak Off Pressure.
At this point (the Leak off Pressure) the plot deviates from the straight line; the formation grains
start to move apart and take mud. The formation is on the threshold of moving from an elastic
state to a plastic state.
The Formation Breakdown Pressure pbd represents the maximum strength of the rock before it
breaks.
This will be equivalent to the pressure exerted by the mud in the borehole. The tensile strength
To of the rock is the corresponding Tangential Stress at this mud weight. (For simplicity of this
SLP we will neglect Axial and Radial Stress).
Therefore, the condition for tensile failure is when the tangential stress is equal to the tensile
strength of the rock.
Figure 5 shows some examples of borehole failure from RAB images.
swbo, ssko and shae are examples of shear failures
tver is an example of a tensile failure (a vertical fracture in this case)
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Figure 5: Borehole Failure in RAB images
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Review Questions I
1)What is the relationship between the earth stresses while drilling in a tectonically active
region?
2) What are the 2 main mechanisms that cause a formation to be overpressured ?
3) What are Wellbore Stresses and what do they depend on ?
4) Describe the 2 ways that a rock can fail
5) What is the difference between the Leak off Pressure and Formation Breakdown Pressure ?
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Wellbore Stability Planning and Preventation
Wellbore instability / Rock Failure is undesirable because it can lead to Non Productive Time
(NPT) such as:
Pack offs (formation failure leading to excess of cuttings)
Excessive trip and reaming time
Mud losses
Stuck Pipe and BHAs Loss of equipment / Fishing / Sidetracks
Inability to land casing, casing collapse
Poor logging and cementing conditions
These can be caused by the following:
breakouts,
sloughing,
natural fractures/weak planes,
drilling induced fractures,
faulting,
undergauge hole,
interbedded sequence,
overpressured formation,
unconsolidated formation,
mobile formation,
permeable formation,
chemical activity.
Even relatively minor wellbore stability problems in tectonically passive settings can be
extremely expensive ($100,000 to $250,000 per day offshore).
The key to effective reduction of NPT is planning for wellbore stability.
One process used to reduce the NPT is the Mechanical Earth Model.
This integrates all geomechanical data available from a field/basin into one database which is
then used to predict wellbore stability problems that are likely to occur in an upcoming well.
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Increasing Mud
Weight
slae
ssko
tcyl
snbo
sdko
Safe Mud Weight
Window
Pore
Pressure
tver
swbo
shae
Figure 6: Designing a Mud Weight Window
Figure 7: A typical Mud Weight Window (North Sea)
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Horizontal
well
Increase the mud
weight or increase
the risk of shear
failure
Mud
Weight
(g/cc)
Vertical well
Sh
Figure 8: Trajectory Analysis for Anisotropic Stress Field, Relaxed Basin (v is max)
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Two of the most important outputs that emerge from wellbore stability planning are the
determination of a safe mud weight window and the safest direction to drill, especially for highly
deviated wells.
Figure 6 shows that it is often desirable to drill with a mud weight between swbo (a shear failure
condition) and h (the minimum horizontal stress).
Figure 7 shows an example from the North Sea where the safe mud weight window should
between the black dashed line (Minimum Borehole Stability or shear failure) and the formation
propagation pressure (or the minimum horizontal stress).
Figure 8 shows that in a relaxed basin it is often safer to drill the well in the direction of the
minimum horizontal stress (h). Also it can be seen that the safe mud weight window narrows as
well deviation increases (ie you need to increase the mud weight to keep the wellbore stable but
be careful because the maximum mud weight before borehole instability occurs will now be
lower).
The open hole section of a wellbore must be maintained in a condition that is good enough to
allow drilling and casing to be run. This does not mean that it is necessary to eliminate all
formation failure.
Indeed the wellbore can remain stable even after a period of prolonged formation failure.
An example of this is the Cuisiana field, Colombia where the wellbore has remained stable
because the cavings from borehole failures can be cleaned out of the hole.
In this example the wellbore instability was managed (or contained) rather than prevented.
In these cases it becomes difficult to find a solution that will completely prevent the instability
from occurring in the first place and wellbore stability management is required: for example,
loss circulation might be avoided at all costs, and techniques to manage the shear failure are
implemented such as good hole cleaning practices.
Real time Wellbore stability management (control) is a twofold process involving:
a) Continuous monitoring ie downhole/surface signatures to diagnose onset of a problem.
b) Remedial actions ie drilling parameters to fix a failed or failing wellbore.
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a) Continuous monitoring
Real Time Wellbore Stability Control relies on an integration of all data available at the
Wellsite:
Surface signatures:
Cavings analysis Wellbore Failure,
Cuttings volume Hole Cleaning,
Pit volumes Gains (overpressured zone), losses,
Surface Drilling Parameters
MWD data:
Downhole Drilling Parameters
DWOB, DTORQ Friction / Drag
ECD behaviour Hole Cleaning, pack off
LWD data:
Gamma Ray, Resistivity Identify zones of potential instability from MEM
Sonic Pore pressure prediction while drilling
Caliper measurements if pattern is forming in some intervals, can identify unstable formations
A reliable diagnosis of the instability mechanism requires use of all available data.
If tabular cavings due to natural fracturing are observed then the resistivity log should be
checked for evidence of mud invasion into fractures and the mud records require examining for
losses.
Similarly, if splintered cavings due to over-pressured formations are seen then high gas levels,
kicks or mud gains may also be present.
The observation of angular cavings due to breakouts requires the debris levels in the hole to be
discerned. In all cases, the cavings volume should be compared to the ECD and the degrees of
tight hole and restricted circulation to discern the effectiveness of the hole cleaning and the
severity of instability.
(see cavings analysis on the following pages)
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Figure 9: Tabular Cavings
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Cavings Analysis:
An analysis of cavings can provide a signal that the borehole is failing and indicates both the
nature of the instability and the troublesome formations.
Cavings dimensions range from a few millimetres to 10 cm or more, with larger examples rising
to the surface while lodged in the BHA.
There are four main types of caving:
Tabular,
Angular,
Splintered
Those which cannot be characterized.
Tabular cavings are the result of natural fractures or weak planes.
In the case of natural fractures, the fluid pressure in the annulus exceeds the minimum horizontal
stress, resulting in mud invasion of fracture networks surrounding the wellbore.
This can result in severe destabilization of the near wellbore region, due to the movement of
blocks of rock, leading rapidly to high cavings rates, lost returns and stuck pipe.
The blocks of rock are bounded by natural fractures planes and, therefore, have flat, parallel,
faces.
Figure 9 shows examples of tabular cavings due to natural fractures.
The other characteristic is that bedding, if any, will not be parallel to the faces of the caving.
In the case of weak planes, the combination of low mud weight and a borehole axis that is within
approximately 15 degrees of the bedding direction can induce massive failure along the planes of
weakness, leading to the symptoms described above.
Cavings that are the result of weak planes are characterized by having flat, parallel, faces. The
bedding direction is also parallel to the faces.
Angular cavings are a consequence of breakouts. These cavings are characterized by curved
faces with a rough surface structure. The surfaces intersect at acute angles (much less than 90
degrees). Figure 10 shows Angular Cavings.
Splintered cavings have two nearly-parallel faces with plume structures. This type of caving is
due to tensile failure occurring parallel to the borehole wall and commonly occurs in
overpressured zones drilled with a small overbalance. Figure 11 shows Splintered Cavings.
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Figure 10:
Angular Cavings
Figure 11: Splintered
Cavings
The higher the cavings rate the more severe the failure for a given hole cleaning efficiency.
The dominant caving should be noted not the proportion of different cavings.
The cavings rate is measured by the time required to fill a bucket placed underneath the shakers.
The cavings volume is then proportional to the amount of cavings in the bucket.
CARE MUST BE TAKEN IF HOLE CLEANING IS POOR THERE WILL BE FEWER CUTTINGS
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Chemical Wellbore Instability:
Wellbore instability can be classified as either mechanical (for example, failure of the rock
around the hole because of high stresses, low rock strength, or inappropriate drilling practice) or
chemical.
Chemical Wellbore Instability arises from damaging interactions between the rock, generally
shale, and the drilling fluid.
The integration of understandings of chemical and mechanical damage remains problematical.
In wellbore stability monitoring, it is important to determine whether a particular drilling
problem is mechanical or chemical in origin.
Figure 12 describes how to diagnose the 4 most important wellbore stability mechanisms.
3 of these are mechanical and 1 of these is chemical in origin. The 3 tables that follow show
examples of wellbore stability from surface, downhole and miscellaneous signatures.
Figure 12: Diagnosing the 4 most common wellbore instability mechanisms
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Mechanism
Lost Time
Permeable
formation
Stuck pipe
Interbedded
soft/strong rocks
Fault slip/
activation
Sloughing
Stuck pipe
Stuck pipe,
excessive reaming
Overpressured
formation
Undergauge hole
Unconsolidated
formation
Mobile formation
Chemical activity
Wellbore
Trajectory
In-situ
stresses
Formation
Stength
Pore
Pressure
Geology
Low
compared to
mud pressure
Frequent
changes
Tortuous
Thick sections collapse more
High stress
deviation
Faults present
Weak
Proximity to salt dome or faults,
tectonically active
Hole fill after trips
Hole fill after trips
Excessive slack
off while tripping
Restricted pipe
movement
Hole fill after trips
Problems worsen
with time, slight
flow
Stuck Pipe
Breakouts
Drilling induced
fractures
Closely spaced
natural fracs /
weak planes
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High
High mean
stress
Recently crossed fault
Low yield
strength
Large sand or fractured section
High
overburden
Proximity to salt dome, evaporate
sequence
Low
High
stress/stength
ratio
Stuck Pipe, hole
fill after trips
Planes of
weakness
Mud
pressure>pore
pressure
Figure 13: Wellbore instability Miscellaneous signatures
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Figure 14: Wellbore instability MWD, LWD & Wireline
Mechanism
Permeable
formation
Interbedded
soft/strong rocks
ROP
DWOB
Decreases
Frequent & rapid
changes
Fault slip/
activation
-ray
Thick filter cake
GAPI
60
GAPI>60,
& GAPI
60 often
Decreases
Low
Overpressured
formation
Undergauge hole
High, given rock
strength
Low
Resistivity
UBI
Frequent &
rapid changes
Frequent well
diameter changes
Local borehole
elongation
Decrease
Low
Low
High
Caliper
Frequent & rapid
changes
Sloughing
Unconsolidated
formation
DTOR
Decreases
Borehole
enlargement
Borehole
enlargement
Diameter less
than gauge
Borehole
enlargement
GAPI >
60
Hole tightens
with time, or
dissolves
Borehole
enlargement
GAPI >
60
High dip (>
60)
GAPI <
60
Detected.
Rotation of
breakouts
Borehole
enlargement
Borehole
enlargement
Diameter less
than gauge
Borehole
enlargement
Decreases
Mobile formation
Chemical activity
Decreases
Decreases
Breakouts
Drilling induced
fractures
Close spaced
fracs/weak planes
Decreases
Low
Low
Low
Borehole
enlargement
Decreases
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GAPI >
60
GAPI >
60
Swelling detected
Diametrically
opposed &long
Fracture &
bedding plane
orientation
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Orientation &
span detected
Possible
detection
Borehole
geometry
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Figure 15: Wellbore instability surface signatures
Mechanism
Pump pressure
Circulation
Mud
Permeable
formation
Interbedded
soft/strong rocks
Gradual decrease
Flow
decreases
Water loss,
high solids
Spikes
Flow erratic
Spikes
Increase
Flow erratic
Flow
decreases
Pit level
increase
Fault slip/
activation
Sloughing
Overpressured
formation
Undergauge hole
Unconsolidated
formation
Increase
Volume rate
changes
frequently
Loss
Large & flat
Background
gas high
Flow erratic
Spikes
Increase
Increase
Mobile formation
Flow
decreases
Flow
decreases
Chemical activity
Increase
Flow
decreases
Breakouts
Drilling induced
fractures
Spikes
Flow erratic
Decrease
Flow
decreases
Flow
decreases
Close spaced
fracs/weak planes
Cuttings and
cavings
Decrease
Salt present,
rise in Cl
MW & solids
increase
Apparent loss
Large, brittle,
fissile, concave
Abrasive &
hard
Unconsolidated
& uncemented
Salt grains
Soft,water
soluble.Gumbo
High volume
Hookload
Surface
Torque
Increases
Higher
High
Erratic
Packed off
High
High when
pumps off
Large overpull
at connections
Increase
High
Diametrical wear
Packed off
High
Large overpull
at connections
Large overpull
at connections
Large overpull
at connections
High
Drillstring
Increase
High &
erratic
Erratic
Undergauge
BHA
Erratic
Packed off
Increases
High
Packed off
Loss
Loss at similar
weights across
field
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Squarish, high
volume
High
High
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Frequent
Wiper
Trips
Infrequent
Wiper
Trips
Decrease
ROP
Increase
Mud Gel
Strength
Increase
Mud
Circulation
Rate
Limit
OD size /
Drill
Collars
Increase
Mud
Weight
Decrease
Mud
Weight
Use
Minimum
Overbalance
(200 psi)
Ensure
Overbalance
exceeds 200
psi
Add
Fluid
Loss
Agents
Use
Inhibitive
Mud
Minimize
swab and
surge
affects
Breakouts
Sloughing
Natural
Fractures /
Weak Planes
Drilling
Induced
Fractures
Fault
Activation
Undergauge
Hole
Interbedded
Sequence
Overpressured
Formation
Unconsolidated
Formation
Mobile
Formation
Permeable
Formation
Chemical
Activity
Figure 16: Actions inhibiting the instability mechanisms. A "1" indicates that the action suppresses the instability.
A "0" indicates that the action has no influence on instability or
makes it worse.
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b) Remedial Actions
If wellbore instability becomes severe as detected from a) continuous monitoring, and hole
cleaning cannot remove cavings from the wellbore then the wellbore would be unstable.
The ability to deal effectively with the consequences of the unstable wellbore depend on the
instability mechanism and its severity.
Remedial action generally involves the control of surface parameters (e.g. ROP, RPM, flow rate,
mud weight/rheology).
For example, if mud losses are currently occurring, but a mud weight decrease is not possible
due to conditions that will be encountered while drilling through formations below the current
hole bottom (cavings generation), then decreasing the ROP will reduce cuttings loading and
therefore the ECD. This may be sufficient to eliminate mud losses and also reduce cuttings
loading in deeper intervals
The emphasis when considering remedial actions, which either suppress instabilities or minimize
their consequences, should be the entire open hole interval, rather than focusing on problem
fixing at the bit.
The ROP and hole cleaning efficiency form the key links between wellbore instability and
operations. Rock debris in the annulus, resulting from drilling and/or wall failure, will increase if
hole cleaning is inadequate, raising the risk of pack-offs and stuck pipe. The ability to clean the
hole is also related to the ROP.
Figure 16 outlines the various actions that are recommended for various given wellbore stability
mechanisms. It can be seen that minimizing swabbing and surging affects helps to suppress more
instability mechanisms than any other drilling practice.
Also it can be seen that drilling practices such as wiper trips that are often considered as routine
are sometimes detrimental to wellbore stability. Minimising wiper trips can help suppress
actions that are sensitive to mechanical agitation of the formation such as mobile formations /
sloughing shales, weak planes.
Increasing mud weight is not necessarily the answer to wellbore stability problems. Whilst this
practice can help suppress breakouts, it can cause drilling induced fractures or activate natural
fracture networks by drilling above the minimum horizontal stress. However, where
overpressure occurs, it is desirable to drill with an overbalance that exceeds 200 psi. In all cases,
calculations are required prior to drilling to determine optimal parameters.
This problem becomes amplified in deviated and especially horizontal wells where the mud
window between shear and tensile failure becomes so small that sometimes there is no stable
mud weight window.
Good drilling practices such as Circulation, Rotation, Reciprocation, of the drillstring to
remove excess cuttings in highly deviated wells, and close examination of shale shakers to
examine volume of cuttings and their geometry is desirable to manage (suppress) unstable
wellbores.
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Review Questions II
6) When planning a mud program, how is the mud weight often determined ?
7) In a relaxed basin, as well inclination changes from vertical to horizontal, what happens to the
Mud Weight Window ?
8) Describe the 3 main types of cavings found on the shale shakers ?
9) For the following wellbore instability problems, what drilling practices would you use to
surpress or control the problem ?
a) Borehole Breakouts
b) Natural Fractures / Weak Planes
c) Unconsolidated formations
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Answers to Review Questions
1)
H > h > v
2)
Loading mechanisms where the pore fluid cannot escape as quickly as the rock
compaction rate, and the pore fluid gets squeezed and pressured because it cant escape.
Unloading mechanisms where a formation rises to a shallower depth, and the pore fluids
cannot escape, then the formation is overpressured compared to surrounding (shallower)
formations (because the pore fluids still have the same pressure as before the formation
rose). Hydrocarbon generation where the pore fluids are trapped is another example.
3)
When we drill a hole in the rock, we replace the rock with a cylinder of mud and a set of
stresses are created in the region of the wellbore wall. These stresses are known as
Wellbore Stresses.
They depend on the mud weight used, and the far field stresses H , h and v
4)
Tensile failure occurs when the rock grains are held in tension and are pulled apart.
Shear failure occurs when the rock grains are under a state of compression by 2 stresses
that are acting perpendicular to each other and their magnitudes are very different.
5)
Leak off Pressure the wellbore pressure at which the rock begins to yield and the
formation grains begin to move apart and take mud.
Formation Breakdown Pressure the wellbore pressure at which the rock physically breaks
down.
6)
Often (but not always) between the condition for shear failure and the minimum horizontal
stress h
7)
It generally becomes more narrow (ie you have to less of a margin in which to drill safely )
8)
Tabular from natural fractures (where the cavings will have flat, parallel faces with
bedding not parallel to the parallel faces of the caving).
or from weak planes (the same as natural fractures but the bedding is parallel to the faces
of the cavings).
Angular from borehole breakouts (they have curved faces with rough surface structure)
Splintered from overpressured zones (concave flat, thin, planar structures)
9 a) Perform frequent wiper trips, ensure hole is kept clean by: increasing mud gel strength,
increasing mud circulation rate, increase mud weight. Also minimize swabbing / surging to
stop borehole breakouts from getting worse, circulate / rotate / reciprocate (in extended
reach or highly deviated wells).
b) Minimise wiper trips otherwise might make situation worse (especially if problem is due to
weak planes), increase mud gel strength to help decrease fluid mobility, add fluid loss
agents to help control loss circulation, ensure drilling with minimum overbalance,
minimize swab/surge.
c) Minimise wiper trips, increase mud weight, minimise swab/surge, ensure hole cleaning.
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