Flightlab Ground School
8. Maneuvering Loads, High-G Maneuvers
Copyright Flight Emergency & Advanced Maneuvers Training, Inc. dba Flightlab, 2007. All rights reserved.
For Training Purposes Only
Maneuvering Loads and the V-n Diagram
The V-n, velocity-versus-load diagram, Figure 1,
describes the relationship between an aircrafts
speed, its longitudinal (pitch axis) maneuvering
capability, and its structural strength. The
positive-g, maximum lift line indicates how
aggressively, at any airspeed, we can apply aft
pressure to pitch an aircraft to change its flight
path without stalling the wings or doing damage
through excessive loads. The maximum lift line
shows how our excess margin of nose-up pitch
control (in other words, the load factor, or g,
available in reserve) diminishes as we slow
down, disappearing finally at the 1-g stall. At
that point, in a normal aircraft, we can only pitch
down.
The limits represented by the parabolic
maximum lift line are also physiological, and
Maximum
positive lift line at
maximum takeoff
weight
dramatically so. If you pull too hard, climb the
lift line too high, and stay there too long, the
blood starts leaving your brain. Your face
becomes strikingly woeful in the video; your
vision collapses from gray to black. Then
consciousness shuts down. When the blood
returns and the lights come on, your short-term
memory is an empty hole. Amnesia is common
enough in centrifuge trials that the USAF
believes that many fighter pilots who experience
g-induced loss of consciousness (G-LOC) never
realize it.
Each V-n diagram is for a specific aircraft
weight and wing configuration (lift devices in or
out): see Figure 2. Indicated airspeed is generally
used. Calibrated airspeed is sometimes used
since it corrects IAS for position errors caused
by the placement of the pitot and static sources,
and by gauge errors within the airspeed indicator
Pos. Ultimate Load
(Structural failure)
(Structural damage
possible)
Pos. Limit Load
Maximum positive
lift line and 1-g stall
speed at reduced
weight
Maneuvering speed or
Corner speed (at max
takeoff weight)
VA, VC
Airspeed
1
2-g stall
speeds
0
-1
VA, VC, reduced
weight
VDive
G, or Load factor (n)
Figure 1
V-n Diagram
1-g stall speed, max
takeoff weight
Neg. Limit Load
-2
-3
Stall speeds above 1-g go up
as the square root of the
load factor.
Neg. Ultimate Load
Bill Crawford: WWW.FLIGHTLAB.NET
8.1
Maneuvering Loads, High-G Maneuvers
belaboring the tail. In aircraft with personality
issues, the buffet boundary might be severe, or
the aircraft might have a pitch-up tendency or a
wing rock before reaching maximum coefficient
of lift, CLmax, in which case the operational
boundary is defined by those characteristics
rather than by an actual stall break.
itself. An aircraft will stall at the same calibrated
airspeed regardless of altitude. If the gauge error
depends only on airspeed, the aircraft will stall at
the same indicated airspeed, regardless of
altitude.
The maximum lift line, or CLmax boundary, takes
its parabolic shape from the fact that lift is a
function of velocity squared (because lift is
proportional to dynamic pressure, q, which is
itself proportional to V2). You can draw the lift
line based purely on an aircrafts 1-g stall speed
at a given weight. At least you can for speeds to
about Mach 0.3. Above that, compressibility
effects take over, CLmax declines, and the slope of
the curve decreases.
The lift line represents the maximum load factor
obtainable at the corresponding velocity. In a
conventional aircraft you cant fly to the left of
the line because the wing will stall first. The
aircraft unloads itself. You might exceed the lift
line briefly by a quick charge, since dynamic
effects can allow airfoils to sustain lift
momentarily at greater than normal stalling angle
of attack, if angle of attack is increased at a high
rate per second. But then youd just fall back into
the envelope as the momentary, extra lift
disappears.
Load factor, n, (n = Lift/Weight) is whats read
on the g meter. In normal, 1-g equilibrium flight,
lift equals weight. In 2-g turning or looping
flight, the aircraft produces lift equal to double
its weight. Some of that extra lift goes to
generate a centripetal force that accelerates the
aircraft toward the center of an arc. Flight at
more than 1 g is always associated with a pitch
rate.
Stall speed goes up by the square root of the
load factor. So at 2 g, for example, stall speed
goes up by a factor of 1.4 (since 2 = 1.4).
As you increase your pitch rate at a given
airspeed, your g-load increases until you reach
the maximum lift line and stalling angle of
attack. Actually, before you hit the lift line you
usually hit a buffet boundary, as airflow
separated from the wing and fuselage starts
Figure 2
V-n Envelopes
Flaps Down, Over
Gross
Pos. Limit Load at
max takeoff weight
G, or Load factor (n)
4
3
2
Flaps down at
max takeoff
weight
VA, VC
Airspeed
1
0
Flaps extended
speed
Over gross
-1
-2
8.2
Over gross
reduces
envelope.
Neg. Limit Load
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Maneuvering Loads, High-G Maneuvers
Maneuvering Speed, VA
As defined by the V-n diagram, maneuvering
speed, VA, is the maximum speed at which an
aircraft in symmetrical flight at the specified
flight weight and configuration will stall
(unload) before exceeding limit load and
sustaining possible structural damage. Aircraft
are therefore aerodynamically g-limited by the
lift line up to maneuvering speed, and
structurally g-limited by the load line above it.
Maneuvering speed is also the maximum speed
for turbulent air penetration, although a speed
somewhat lessfast enough to avoid stall yet
slow enough to diminish the loads
experiencedis usually recommended. (In an
aircraft subjected to a sharp vertical gust of given
intensity, the increase in structural loadand
thus the acceleration the pilot feelsvaries
directly with airspeed.)
At speeds above roughly Mach 0.3, CLmax begins
to decrease. Mach number depends on altitude,
so indicated VA increases with altitude because
you have to go faster to generate equivalent lift
at the lower CLmax.
Symmetrical flight means the aircraft isnt
rolling and isnt yawed. The load is symmetrical
across the span. Thats not the case in a rolling
pull-up, however, where the rising wing
experiences a higher load than the wing going
down (the rising wing is lifting more because of
the camber change; the descending wing lifting
less). The g meter in the fuselage reads only the
average load, as in Figure 3.
Rolling pull-ups became a problem with the F4U
Corsair gull-wing fighter in World War II.
Reportedly, pilots would roll with aileron as they
pulled out after a ground attack run, hoping to
place the aircrafts protective armor plating
between them and the answering ground fire.
They sometimes went past limit load in the roll
and came home with bent wings along with the
usual shell holes.
VA and limit load (as measured at the fuselage)
therefore decrease if the aircraft is rolling. The
rolling motion could come from aileron
deflection, or from aggressive rudder input
causing a roll couple (as in a snap roll). Aircraft
flight manuals that specify a maximum limit load
for rolling pull-ups typically place it at twothirds to three-quarters of the symmetrical limit
load. If you settle on a conservative two-thirds, a
Figure 3
Asymmetrical
Loads
3 gs
5 gs
7 gs
Asymmetrical Load during Rolling
Pull-up
6-g aerobatic aircraft has a rolling pull-up (and
snap roll) limit of 4 g. To keep things in round
numbers, the rolling VA, as calculated for the
aircraft weight, would be about twenty percent
less than the symmetrical VA.
By the same logic a large aircraft certified under
FAR 25.337(b) with the minimum allowed limit
load of 2.5 would be restricted to a 1.65-g rolling
pull-up, assuming that Mach buffet, caused by
the transonic acceleration of the airflow over the
wing as angle of attack is increased, doesnt
occur first.
Unload before rolling if youre in a high-g
situation and need to level the wings.
The above not withstanding, maneuvering speed
is usually definedwithout regard to
asymmetrical loadsas the maximum speed at
which full or abrupt combined control
movements can be made without damaging the
aircraft. The FAAs AC 61-23C, Pilots
Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, says
that any combination of flight control usage,
including full deflection of the controls, or gust
loads created by turbulence should not create an
excessive air load if the airplane is operated
below maneuvering speed. According to the
Navy, Any combination of maneuver and gust
cannot create damage due to excess airload when
the airplane is below the maneuver speed.1
Hurt, H. H. Jr., Aerodynamics for Naval
Aviators, Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.
1965. p. 339. I understand that the FAA copied
Hurt.
Bill Crawford: WWW.FLIGHTLAB.NET
8.3
Maneuvering Loads, High-G Maneuvers
The NTSB has pointed out that this broader
definition, although widespread among pilots, is
incorrect. Engineers consider each axis
separately in designing for the air loads
accompanying an abrupt, full control input at
maneuvering speed. Full inputs in more than
one axis at the same time and multiple inputs in
one axis are not considered in designing for these
[VA] flight conditions.2
The particular multiple inputs that prompted
NTSB comment were the rudder reversals
leading to a yaw over swing followed by a final
reversal that destroyed the vertical tail of
American Airlines Flight 587 on November 12,
2001. (Under FAR 25.351, rudders are tested for
sudden displacement in a single direction at a
time, and then returned to neutral, at speeds up
to design dive speed.)
So heres a conservative, inclusive, legalistic
mouthful: Maneuvering speed, VA, is the
maximum speed, at a given weight and
configuration, at which any one (and only one)
flight control surface can be abruptly and fully
deflectednot to include rapid control surface
reversalswithout causing aircraft damage.
Simple Formulas
These formulas help define the relationships
between aircraft weight, speed, and load.
(1) 1-g Stall Speed vs. Aircraft Weight:
Knowing the 1-g stall speed, VS, at any weight
gives you the 1-g stall speed for any other
weight:
New Weight
(Known VS ) = New VS
Known Weight
(2) Stall Speed and Load Factor: Stall speed
goes up as the square root of the load factor, n.
To find the accelerated stall speed, VSacc, for a
given load factor:
speed at maximum takeoff weight for upright
flight in its category, use the formula above and
substitute VA for VSacc. Insert a load factor of:
3.8 for Normal & Commuter but see
FAR Part 23.337(1).
4.4 for Utility
6 for Aerobatic
FAR Part 25.337(b), 2.5 minimum
(4) Maximum Aerodynamic Load Factor for a
Given Airspeed: The highest load factor you
can pull at a given airspeed is based on the 1-g
stall speed, VS, at the aircrafts actual weight.
You can use this to plot the lift line in the V-n
diagram:
2
Airspeed
= Load factor, n
V
S
(5) Maneuvering Speed vs. Aircraft Weight:
Like other V speeds calculated on the basis of
aircraft weight, maneuvering speed, VA, goes
down as aircraft weight goes down. If the aircraft
is under max gross takeoff weight, the allowable
limit and ultimate limit loads dont change (so
interpret the g meter as usual). Only the
corresponding V speeds change as the maximum
lift line shifts toward the left. Although the total
lift force that the wing has to develop at limit
load is less at lower weights, and the stress on
the wing is less, individual aircraft components
still weigh the same. Things like engine mounts,
battery trays, luggage racks, chandeliers (it
happens), and landing gear up-lock systems may
not be designed to withstand more than their
component weight times limit load. At lower
gross weights that load can be reached at lower
speeds because the wing doesnt have to produce
as much lift. Since it doesnt have to work as
hard, it wont stall until after the limit load is
exceeded.
To calculate VA at reduced aircraft weight:
New Weight
(Max Takeoff VA )= New VA
Max Takeoff Weight
VSacc = VS Load factor, n
(3) Maneuvering Speed, VA. Given the 1-g stall
speed, to determine an aircrafts maneuvering
2
NTSB Safety Recommendation, November 10,
2004.
8.4
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Maneuvering Loads, High-G Maneuvers
Corner Speed
Vertical Turn Radius
VA is also known as corner speed, VC, especially
by fighter pilots, for whom it has tremendous
tactical significance. VC is the speed for
maximum instantaneous turn performance
without exceeding structural limits.
Instantaneous is used because an aircraft might
not have the thrust necessary to sustain VC under
the elevated induced drag of maneuvering at high
angle of attack. Sustained corner speed has a
lower value.
Figure 4
Pull-up Turn Radius
versus Corner Speed
Turn rate goes to maximum at corner speed.
Limit Load
Load Factor
Thats because turn rate is proportional to n/VT
(n is load factor; VT is true airspeed).
Combinations of high g and low airspeed favor
turn rate. Corner speed is the lowest airspeed at
which maximum structural g is possible. Flying
at maximum structural g at any speed in excess
of VC causes turn rate to decrease.
Corner Speed, VC
Airspeed
A high turn rate is obviously important to fighter
pilots because it allows them to achieve firing
solutions in a turning fight.
Turn radius goes to minimum at corner speed.
Turn radius is proportional to VT 2/n. Therefore
radius is minimized by high g and low airspeed.
Again, corner speed is the lowest speed for the
highest allowable structural g.
The top of Figure 4 suggests how the radius
decreases as load factor rises. It decreases
quickly at first, but then the rate of change per g
slows down. Note that flying at maximum
structural g at any speed in excess of VC causes
the turn radius to increase.
Low wing loading (aircraft weight/wing area)
favors maneuverability. At a given CL, minimum
turn radius and maximum rate come when the
aircraft is light. Higher air density (thus lower
altitude) also favors maneuverability.
Pull-ups
Corner speed is spoken of in discussions of
turning flight, but remember that turning isnt
limited to the horizontal plane. The pull-up you
may find yourself in during a nose-low unusualattitude recovery is a vertical turn. Here,
achieving minimum radius may be crucial.
Figure 4 shows the relationship between corner
speed and turn radius in a pull-up.
The strategy for a low-altitude, maximumperformance, minimum-radius, limit-load pullup is to pull to and maintain CLmax (indicated by
initial buffet, angle of attack indicator, stick
shaker, fly-by-wire g limiter, unacceptable wing
rock) until reaching corner speed, then remain
at limit load until recovery.
The problem is blasting through VC, (or starting
the recovery past VC) so youll want to have the
drag devices out, pending approval from the
POH/AFM. In propeller aircraft, that includes
power back and flat pitch for more drag.
Lowering the landing gear might blow off the
doors or lead to a partial extension, but that
could be a good trade. In a jet, what you do with
power could depend on the pitching moment
associated with power change. With fuselagemounted engines, throttles would normally come
back. But retarding power on an aircraft with
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8.5
Maneuvering Loads, High-G Maneuvers
wing-pylon-mounted engines creates a nosedown pitching moment. Some speed brakes do
the same. The POH/AFM is the guide. At low
altitude, Mach buffets and Mach-related trim
effects presumably would not be a factor.
A wings-level pull-up is also more efficient,
since the entire load is applied to lifting the nose
to the horizon, and not partly to turning.
Pull-ups and Phugoids
Critics of the use of corner speed as part of
recovery procedure point out that the speed
varies with aircraft weight, and theres the
potential that pilots could fixate on obtaining
and maintaining corner speed, while delaying or
overlooking implementation of other recovery
techniques, and result in [sic] unnecessary loss of
altitude during a nose low recovery. Exposing
pilots to the concept of corner speed and radius
of turn as a basis for understanding why it may
be necessary to increase speed in order to
recover from a nose low, low altitude upset is
beneficial. However, incorporating a corner
speed into recovery procedure, we feel is
inappropriate.3 Sounds like a sensible objection.
Student behavior suggests that the most common
error is to be too gentle on the aircraft in the
initial part of a dive recovery. For fear of
overstressing the aircraft, pilots are reluctant to
add normal acceleration (gs) to longitudinal
acceleration (the aircrafts increasing speed), so
they bring in the g slowly. But the induced drag
created by the increased lift necessary for normal
acceleration also acts as a brake on longitudinal
acceleration. Pull smoothlyno yanking into
an accelerated stall that actually lowers pitch
ratebut if ground avoidance is at stake dont
hesitate in getting to the maximum g (i.e.,
maximum pitch performance and minimum
radius) the flight condition allows.
Rolling is a limiting flight condition. If
necessary, level the wings before a pull up. The
asymmetrical load caused by aileron deflection,
added to a pull-up load, can overstress the
wing. Again, an aircrafts VA and g-meter limit
load decrease when rolling. And as pilots
generally dont recognize, high adverse yaw
generated by large aileron deflection while
pulling could lead to high sideslip angles and
bending stresses on the vertical tail.
3
Attachment H, Correspondence from Airplane
Manufacturers to American Airlines and
Response. Exhibit Items from the Public Docket,
NTSB Public Hearing American Airlines Flight
587 Belle Harbor, New York, October 29November 1, 2002. (Link at
www.ntsb.gov/events/2001/AA587/exhibits)
8.6
The hands-off phugoids we fly at the beginning
of our flight program demonstrate that a
longitudinally stable aircraft will try to pull out
of a dive by itself. The altitude consumed will
depend on the true airspeeds and load factors
attained.
At a given g at any instant, the radius of either a
pilot-induced or a pure phugoid-induced pull-up
varies with the square of the airspeed. As a
result, for example, if you enter twice as fast, but
your load factors remain identical, youll
consume four times the altitude.
(The g that actually matters in maneuvering
performance is radial g, explained farther on.
Radial g depends both on the load factor seen on
the g meter and on aircraft attitude.)
The phugoid-generated load factor depends on
the design and balance characteristics of the
control system, but more essentially on the
difference between the airspeed attained and the
trim speed. Remember that during the phugoid
the aircraft maintains a constant angle of attack.
At a constant angle of attack, lift goes up as the
square of the increase in airspeed. For example,
if we trim for 100 knots in normal flight (1 g)
and reach 200 knots in a phugoid dive recovery,
airspeed will be double the trim speed and the
load factor will hit a theoretical 4 g. If we
accelerate to 140 knots, its a 1.4 increase in
airspeed over trim. 1.42 = 2; thus a load factor of
2 g.
A pilot can overstress an aircraft in a dive by a
pull on the stick in addition to the aircrafts
natural phugoid. Again, the load generated by the
phugoid depends on trim speed versus airspeed.
The required pull, or g-limiting push, depends on
how this load compares to limit load.
The classic disaster pattern consists of the
horizontal stabilizers failing downward first if
the pilot pulls too hard. When they fail, the
aircraft suddenly pitches nose down, and the
wings fail downward because of the sudden
negative load.
Bill Crawford: WWW.FLIGHTLAB.NET
Maneuvering Loads, High-G Maneuvers
Lift Vector, Radial G, and the Split-s
In a level turn, as shown at the top of Figure 5,
the tilted lift vector has two vectoral
components, a vertical one equal to and opposite
aircraft weight, and a horizontal one pointing
toward the center of the turn. While the pilot
feels (and the g meter reads) loads in the
direction of the tilted lift vector, the horizontal,
centripetal force thats actually turning the
aircraftits radial ghas a lower value.
Resultant Lift = Weight
Lift Vector and load factor
(n) indicated on g meter.
As bank angle increases in coordinated, constantaltitude flight, radial g grows. Past 90 degrees of
bank, the lift vector starts pointing toward the
earth, and radial g gets a boost from gravity. The
result can be up to a 1-g gain in radial g in
inverted flight at the top of a loop.
For a given load factor (g on the meter),
pointing the lift vector above the horizon
decreases radial g and pitch rate; pointing it
below the horizon increases radial g and pitch
rate. The increased radial g available in inverted
attitudes can help win dogfights, but its a trap
for untrained pilots. Its why, at a given airspeed
and applied g, positive (nose toward your head)
pitch rates when flying inverted are higher than
positive pitch rates when flying upright, and why
pulling back on the stick as a reaction to the
confusion of inverted flight so quickly brings the
nose down and the airspeed up. The resulting
split-s entry (half loop from inverted), especially
if provoked by an inexperienced pilot who
releases his aft control pressure out of contrition
once the nose starts down, then changes heart
and pulls some more, can quickly take the
aircraft outside the envelope of the V-n diagram.
Thats when it rains aluminum.
In a nose-down, inverted unusual-attitude
recovery, the most important thing is to get the
lift vector pointed back above the horizon.
Except at extreme nose-down attitudes, that
means rolling upright rather than pulling through
in a split-s. In brief: When inverted, push to
keep the nose from falling further. Roll the lift
vector skyward with full aileron while removing
the push force as you pass through knife-edge.
Then raise the nose.
Figure 5
Radial G
Radial g or
centripetal
force.
Weight
Lift Vector and
load factor (n)
indicated on
g meter.
Radial g or
centripetal force.
Weight
Radial g = load factor + 1. Pitch
rate increases; radius decreases.
Theoretical
constant-speed
loop with a
constant g on the
meter.
Radial g = load
factor
Radial g = load
factor
But actual speed
variation in
constant-g loop
makes it look
more like this.
Radial g
Just so you know, maximum instantaneous turn
performance happens while pulling maximum g,
at corner speed, inverted.
Load factor
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Radial g = load factor - 1.
Pitch rate decreases;
radius increases.
8.7
