EE301/UNIT2/1

ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

UNIT 2
OSCILLATORS

OBJECTIVES

General Objective

: To understand sinusoidal oscillator circuits.

Specific Objectives : At the end of the unit you will be able to :

Draw block diagram of an oscillator

Construct the oscillator circuits

Determine the oscillation frequency by using the formula

Compare the performance of the oscillators

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2.0 Oscillators

An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a repetitive electronic signal, often a
sine wave or a square wave. They are widely used in innumerable electronic devices. Common
examples of signals generated by oscillators include signals broadcast by radio and television
transmitters, clock signals that regulate computers and quartz clocks, and the sounds produced by
electronic beepers and video games. Because of the large number of different types of oscillator
circuits and design technology, it is very difficult to classify them in any simple manner. The
classification schemes that will be used here are somewhat oversimplified, but they should be
sufficient to categorize many of the modern op-amp oscillator circuits and the linear integrated
circuit oscillator modules.
Oscillators may be classified as either sinusoidal or nonsinusoidal. By the terms, it follows that
sinusoidal oscillators produce sinusoidal waveform, and all other oscillators can be classified as
nonsinusoidal.

2.1

Sinusoidal oscillator circuits

Here we consider the principles of oscillators that produce approximately sinusoidal waveforms.
(Other oscillators, such as multivibrators, operate somewhat differently). Because the waveforms
are sinusoidal, we use phasor analysis.
A sinusoidal oscillator ordinarily consists of an amplifier and a feedback network. Let's consider
the following idealized configuration to begin understanding the operation of such oscillators.

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2.1.1 Block diagram of an oscillator

Oscillator is a device that can change DC voltage to AC voltage without any external resource at
certain level of frequency.

DC input

OSCILLATOR

AC output

Fig. 2.1.1a: Basic oscillator block diagram

Oscillator divided into 2 classes depending on the type of wave its produce:
i.
Harmonic Oscillator sinus wave.
ii.
Inharmonic Oscillator square wave, rectangle wave, etc.

HARMONIC
OSCILLATOR

Fig. 2.1.1b: Harmonic Oscillator

INHARMONIC
OSCILLATOR

Fig. 2.1.1c: Inharmonic Oscillator

Mostly right now, digital circuit is commonly used in consumer appliances and since this circuit
need a timer, an inharmonic oscillator is an essential device.
In this unit we will discuss more about the oscillator that produces sinus wave only.

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2.1.2 Requirement of oscillator circuits

An oscillator consists of an amplifier and a feedback network. Now, let us see which basic
components are required to obtain oscillations.

'Active device' either Transistor or Op Amp is used as an amplifier.

'Feedback circuit' with passive components such as R-C or L-C combinations .

To start the oscillation with the constant amplitude, positive feedback is not the only sufficient
condition. Oscillator circuit must satisfy the following two conditions known as Barkhausen
conditions:
1. The first condition is that the magnitude of the loop gain (A) must be unity. This means the
product of gain of amplifier 'A' and the gain of feedback network '' has to be unity.
2. The second condition is that the phase shift around the loop must be 360 or 0. This means,
the phase shift through the amplifier and feedback network has to be 360 or 0.

Oscillator
Output

Frequency
Generator
Circuit

Feedback

Fig. 2.1.2: Basic oscillator circuit diagram

2.1.2.1 Amplifier
Amplifier circuit needs DC power supply to bias the transistor. Previously it has been explained
that oscillator needs DC power supply to produce output. Actually the meant DC power supply is
the one that been given to the amplifier.

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2.1.2.2 Feedback
Feedback is a condition where some portion of the output signal is being re-supply to the input
part.
Since the oscillator do not have an input signal, hence the feedback signal has become the input
signal for the amplifier in the oscillator circuit.
There are 2 feedback principles available; negative feedback and positive feedback. Oscillator
used a positive feedback principle. Figure 8.5 below shows the basic block diagram for a
commonly used feedback system:

Ve

Vi

Amplifier
AV

Output

Vf

Fig. 2.1.2.2a: Basic feedback block diagram

= feedback factor
Vf = Vo or AVe
Af =

Vo
A
formula to get the amplifier gain with

Vi 1 - A
positive feedback

In the oscillator concept, it does not need input voltage, hence the formula for input portion is Vi =
0. This mean the value of the formula | 1 A | must be nil or | A | = 1.
Take a look at below circumstances:
i.

If | A | = 1 ..

value of Vf = AVe will be Vf = ( 1 )Ve

or Vf = Ve. This mean feedback voltage will be as same as input
voltage to amplifier.

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In this condition, the oscillator will perform at its best or the input
signal will keep oscillating.

Fig. 2.1.2.2b: Condition | A | = 1

ii.

If | A | < 1 e.g: if the value of | A | = 0.5 .

1
(lesser than 1). Hence Vf = Ve . This
2
mean the feedback voltage will getting lesser than input voltage to
amplifier.
In this conditon, the output voltage will decrease and disperse in few
cycles because the feedback voltage is not large enough to sustain
the output voltage.

Fig. 2.1.2.2c: Condition | A | < 1

iii.

If | A | > 1 . e.g: if | A | = 2 hence

Vf = 2Ve. This mean, the feedback voltage will be greater than
input voltage to amplifier.
In this condition, the output voltage will be increased until it
reached saturated level and will be cut-off.

Fig. 2.1.2.2d: Condition | A | > 1

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Practically: When the power supply is turned on, some small value of noise signals will be
produced in multi-range of frequency. This signal is amplified and drives feedback channel that
consist of frequency generator circuit (resonance circuit). But only the signal that has the same
frequency as the resonance frequency that will be feedbacked into the input portion.
This condition will be explained in the input of Frequency Generator Circuit below.

2.1.2.3 Frequency Generator Circuit.

The feedback and amplifier signals could not confirm the oscillation. It needs a control division /
frequency generator. It is normally placed at the feedback portion.
Generally, the frequency generator circuit for oscillator in the consumers products are divided into
two:
i.

Oscillator that generates Audio frequency : RC Channel Oscillator (Resistor-Capacitor). It

is for producing a low and medium frequency signal.
Examples of RC type oscillator are Phase-Shift Oscillator and Wein-Bridge Oscillator.

ii.

Oscillator that generates Radio frequnecy : LC Channel Oscillator (Inductor-capacitor). It is

also known as Tank Circuit. It is for producing a high frequency signal (>1MHz) and it
usually produces a more stable frequency.
Examples of LC type oscillator are Armstrong, Colpitts, Hartley and Crystal
Oscillator.

2.2

Types of sinusoidal oscillator

The name sinusoidal oscillator itself indicates that, this oscillator produces sine wave output. In
the previous section, we had mentioned that the frequency of oscillation is determined by the
feedback circuit components. Hence, according to the frequency determined components, there are
three basic types of oscillators such as RC oscillator, LC oscillator and crystal oscillator.

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RC oscillators
They use a resistance-Capacitance network to determine the oscillator frequency. They are
suitable for low (audio range) and moderate frequency applications (5Hz to 1MHz). They are
further divided as,
o
o
o

RC phase shift oscillator

Wien bridge oscillator and
Twin-T oscillator

LC oscillators
Here, inductors and capacitors are used either in series or parallel to determine the frequency.
They are more suitable for radio frequency (1 to 500 MHz) and further classified as,
o
o
o
o

Hartley
Colpitts
Clapp and
Armstrong oscillators

Crystal oscillator
Like LC oscillators it is suitable for radio frequency applications. But it has very high degree of
stability and accuracy as compared to other oscillators.

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2.2.1 Hartley
2.2.1.1 Circuit Connection:
Its circuit is similar to Colpitts Oscillator but it used Tapped Inductance. Refer figure
2.2.1.1 below:

Fig. 2.2.1.1: Hartley Oscillator

2.2.1.2 Circuit Operations:

Its circuit operations is also similar to Colpitts Oscillator circuit operations. (Ref. Colpitts
Oscillator circuit operations)

2.2.1.3 Oscillation Frequency:

Formula to get the resonance frequency for the circuit is:
1
fr
Eq. 1
2 CLT
Since the connection of capacitor in the tank circuit is serial, hence:
Eq. 2
LT L1 L2
Oscillation occurred when the feedback factor () is given;
V
L
f 1
Eq. 3
Vout L2

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And the condition for the oscillation to occur is | A | = 1

L
Eq. 4
AV 2
L1
Therefore, to ensure the oscillation triggered by itself:
C
Eq.5
AV 1
C2

Advantages of the Hartley oscillator include:

The frequency may be adjusted using a single variable capacitor

The output amplitude remains constant over the frequency range
Either a tapped coil or two fixed inductors are needed

Disadvantages include:

Harmonic-rich content if taken from the amplifier and not directly from the LC circuit.

2.2.2 Colpitts
2.2.2.1 Circuit Connection:
Colpitts oscillator used 2 capacitors and 1 inductor at its frequency generator circuit. Refer
figure 2.2.2.1.1 below:

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Fig. 2.2.2.1.1: Colpitts Oscillator

2.2.2.2 Circuit Operations:

Please observe circuit 8.4a above. Transistor and resistor R1, R2, R3 and R4 is a
combination of Amplifier circuit (Common Emitter Amplifier with Voltage Divider
Technique). Capacitor C3 and C4 is used to intercept alternate signal to the earth.
Amplifier will give an 180o phase different to the output signal. LC circuit in the feedback
coil will produce phase shifting as big as 1800. So the feedback voltage will have the same
phase as the input voltage at transistor.

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2.2.2.3 Oscillation Frequency:

Oscillation frequency for tank circuit L1, C1 and C2 as per below:

1
2 LCT

Eq. 7

Since the connection of C1 and C2 at the tank circuit is serial, hence:

CT

C1.C2
C1 C2

Eq. 8

Oscillation will occurred when the feedback factor () is given:

Vf
Vout

X C1 C2

X C 2 C1

Eq. 9

Do you still remember that, in order to ensure the oscillation occurred, |A| must be equal
to 1. Hence, the amplifier Voltage gain must be:
AV

C1
C2

Eq. 10

To ensure the oscillation is triggered by itself:

AV

C1
C2

Eq. 11

2.2.2.4 Example:
What is the frequency of oscillation in Figure 2.2.2.4.1? What is the feedback fraction?
How much voltage gain does the circuit need to start oscillating?

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Solution:
This is a Colpitts oscillator using the CE connection of a transistor. With Eq. 8, the
equivalent capacitance is:
C = (0.001F)(0.01 F)
0.01 F + 0.01 F
= 909 pF
The inductance is 15H. With Eq. 7, the frequency of oscillation is:
fr =

1
2 (15H)(909pF)

= 1.36 MHz

2.2.3 Phase Shift (RC)

Phase-Shift Oscillator consists of amplifier and feedback channel with three RC circuits.
2.2.3.1 Circuit Connection:

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Fig. 2.2.3.1.1: Phase-Shift Oscillator

2.2.3.2 Circuit Operations:

Output signal from the amplifier has a phase different as much as 180 compared to input
signal. In order to produce a positive feedback signal, the output signal must be phase
shifted as much as 180 to have a same phase as the input. RC channel could produced a
180 phase shifting where each of the RC channel will phase shifting as much as 90.

2.2.3.3 Oscillation Frequency:

1
2RC 6

2.2.4 Crystal
The most stable and accurate oscillator is the one that used piezoelectric crystal in the
feedback circuit. When the alternate voltage is applied to this crystal, mechanical vibration
is occurred and this vibration has a natural resonance frequency that depends on the crystal
thickness. In order to get a higher frequency, the crystal must be thinner.

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The crystal electrical characteristics can be determined with resonance circuit in figure
2.2.4.1. Inductance, Lh, represents the electrical equality for the crystal mass. Capacitance,
Ch, represents the crystal elasticity. Resistor, Rh, represents the friction in the crystal
structure. Capacitor, Cm, represents the capacitance of loaded crystal case.

Fig. 2.2.4.2: Electrical Equivalent circuit

Fig. 2.2.4.1: Crystal Symbol

It has 2 resonance frequencies. The 1st frequency is produced by serial circuit Rh-Lh-Ch.
The 2nd frequency occurred when serial component is the same as the reactance, Cm.
z

Parallel Saloon

Serial
Saloon

f
f1

f2

2.2.4.1 Circuit Connection:

Fig. 2.2.4.1.1: Crystal Oscillator

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2.2.4.2 Oscillation Frequency:

Serial resonance:

f1

1
2 LhCh

f2

1
2 LmC

Cm .Ch
Cm Ch

Parallel resonance:

2.2.5 Armstrong
2.2.5.1 Circuit Connection:

Fig. 2.2.5.1.1: Armstrong Oscillator circuit

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2.2.5.2 Circuit Operations:

Resistor R1, R2 and R3 are purposely to provide distort voltage to transistor. Capacitor C1
and C2 are used to intercept alternate signal. Do you still remember about the connection of
Common-Emitter Configurations in amplifier? This configuration will give 180o phase
different to the output signal.

Therefore Tr transformer is chosen in order to produce phase shifting as big as 180o to get a
feedback voltage that has a same phase as the input transistor. Usually the winding ratio
between the L1 coil and L2 coil is fixed so that the multiply outcome between the A
square and feedback factor, , is one ( |A| = 1 ).
Example given, if amplifier gain is 10, winding ratio must be 1 : 10 .
A = 10 x 0.1 = 1

2.2.5.3 Oscillation Frequency:

Oscillation frequency is determined by L2.C2 circuit, which is given by:

1
2 L 2C2

Calculation example:
By referring to the circuit in figure 8.3a: If the winding ratio between the transformer is
1:20 and the capacitor used in this resonance circuit is 50H, determine the resonance
frequency of this circuit.

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f
f

1
2 L2 C 2
1

1050F

7.14Hz

2.3 SUMMARY:
OSCILLATOR

Changed DC into AC voltage

It has amplifier, timing circuit and
positive feedback
Condition to ensure its self-ocillation
i. |A|=1 ii. Phase.Diff = 0

Categorized into 2
categories
Inharmonic Oscillator
Produced non-Sinus waves such as
square, rectangle etc.

Harmonic Oscillator
Produced Sinus waves

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Categorized into 2 types according to component at timing circuit

LC Type Oscillator

RC Type Oscillator

Its timing circuit used inductor and

capacitor combination
Operates in high frequency

Its timing circuit used resistor and

capacitor combination
Operates in low frequency

Phase Shifting Oscillator

Wein-Bridge Oscillator

Crystal Oscillator
Armstrong Oscillator
Colpitts Oscillator
Hartley Oscillator

Oscillators
Type
Wien-bridge

Twin-T

Characteristics
RC oscillators
Uses lead-lag feedback circuits
Needs ganged RS for tuning
Low distortion output from 5Hz to 1MHz (limited
bandwidth)
fr = 1
2RC
Uses a notch filter circuit
Works well at one frequency
Difficult to adjust over a wide output frequency
fr = 1

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2RC
Phase-shift

Colpitts

Uses 3-4 lead or lag circuits

Cannot be adjusted over wide frequency range
LC oscillators
Uses a pair of tapped capacitors
C = C1C2
fr = 1
C1 + C2
2LC
Widely used

Armstrong

Uses a transformer for feedback

Not used frequently
fr = 1
2LC

Hartley

Uses a pair of tapped inductors

L = L1 + L2
fr =

Crystal

Uses a quartz crystal

Very accurate and stable
fp = 1
2LCp

fs =

1
2LC

1
2LCs