1

Introduction to Electric Vehicles

Environmental as well as economical issues provide a compelling impetus to

develop clean, efficient, and sustainable vehicles for urban transportation.
Automobiles constitute an integral part of our everyday life, yet the exhaust
emissions of conventional internal combustion (IC) engine vehicles are to blame
for the major source of urban pollution that causes the greenhouse effect leading
to global warming.1 The dependence on oil as the sole source of energy for
passenger vehicles has economical and political implications, and the crisis will
inevitably become acute as the oil reserve of the world diminishes. The number
of automobiles on our planet doubled to about a billion or so in the last 10 years.
The increasing number of automobiles being introduced on the road every year
is only adding to the pollution problem. There is also an economic factor
inherent in the poor energy conversion efficiency of combustion engines.
Although the number for alternative electric vehicles is not significantly higher
when efficiency is evaluated on the basis of conversion from crude oil to traction
effort at the wheels, it makes a difference. Emission due to power generation at
localized plants is much easier to regulate than that emanating from IC engine
vehicles (ICEV) that are individually maintained and scattered. People dwelling
in cities are not exposed to power plant related emissions, because these are
mostly located outside urban areas. Electric vehicles (EV) enabled by
highefficiency electric motors and controllers and powered by alternative energy
sources provide the means for a clean, efficient, and environmentally friendly
urban transportation system. Electric vehicles have no emission, having the
potential to curb the pollution problem in an efficient way. Consequently, EVs
are the only zero-emission vehicles possible.
Electric vehicles paved their way into public use as early as the middle of the
19th century, even before the introduction of gasoline-powered vehicles. 2 In the
year 1900, 4200 automobiles were sold, out of which 40% were steam powered,
38% were electric powered, and 22% were gasoline powered. However, the
invention of the starter motor, improvements in mass production technology of
gas-powered vehicles, and inconvenience in battery charging led to the
disappearance of the EV in the early 1900 s. However, environmental issues and
the unpleasant dependence on oil led to the resurgence of interest in EVs in the

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1960s. Growth in the enabling technologies added to environmental and

economic concerns over the next several decades, increasing the demand for
investing in research and development for EVs. Interest and research in EVs
soared in the 1990s, with the major automobile manufacturers embarking on
plans for introducing their own electric or hybrid electric vehicles. The trend
increases today, with EVs serving as zero-emission vehicles, and hybrid electric
vehicles already filling in for ultralow-emission vehicles.

FIGURE 1.1 Top-level perspective of an EV system.

1.1
EV SYSTEM
An EV has the following two features:
1. The energy source is portable and chemical or electromechanical in nature.
2. Traction effort is supplied only by an electric motor.
Figure 1.1 shows an EV system driven by a portable energy source. The
electromechanical energy conversion linkage system between the vehicle energy
source and the wheels is the drivetrain of the vehicle. The drivetrain has
electrical as well as mechanical components.
1.1.1
COMPONENTS OF AN EV
The primary components of an EV system are the motor, controller, power
source, and transmission. The detailed structure of an EV system and the
interaction among its various components are shown in Figure 1.2. Figure 1.2
also shows the choices available for each of the subsystem level components.
Electrochemical batteries have been the traditional source of energy in EVs.
Lead-acid batteries have been the primary choice, because of their
welldeveloped technology and lower cost, although promising new battery
technologies are being tested in many prototype vehicles. The batteries need a

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charger to restore the stored energy level once its available energy is near
depletion due to usage. Alternative energy sources are also being developed for

FIGURE 1.2 Major electrical components and choices for an EV system.

zero-emission vehicles. The limited range problem of battery-driven EVs

prompted the search for alternative energy sources, such as fuel cells and
flywheels. Prototypes have been developed with fuel cells, while production
vehicles will emerge in the near future.
The majority of electric vehicles developed so far are based on DC machines,
induction machines, or permanent magnet machines. The disadvantages of DC
machines pushed EV developers to look into various types of AC machines. The
maintenance-free, low-cost induction machines became an attractive alternative
to many developers. However, high-speed operation of induction machines is
only possible with a penalty in size and weight. Excellent performance together
with high-power density features of permanent magnet machines make them an
attractive solution for EV applications, although the cost of permanent magnets
can become prohibitive. High-power density and a potentially low production
cost of switched reluctance machines make them ideally suited for EV
applications. However, the acoustic noise problem has so far been a deterrent for
the use of switched reluctance machines in EVs. The electric motor design
includes not only electromagnetic aspects of the machine but also thermal and
mechanical considerations. The motor design tasks of today are supported by
finite element studies and various computer-aided design tools, making the
design process highly efficient.
The electric motor is driven by a power- electronics-based power-processing
unit that converts the fixed DC voltage available from the source into a variable
voltage, variable frequency source controlled to maintain the desired operating
point of the vehicle. The power electronics circuit comprised of power
semiconductor devices saw tremendous development over the past 3 decades.
The enabling technology of power electronics is a key driving force in
developing efficient and high-performance power-train units for EVs. High-

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power devices in compact packaging are available today, enabling the

development of lightweight and efficient power-processing units known as
power electronic motor drives. Advances in power solid state devices and very
large-scale integration (VLSI) technology are responsible for the development of
efficient and compact power electronics circuits. The developments in highspeed digital signal processors or microprocessors enable complex control
algorithm implementation with a high degree of accuracy. The controller
includes algorithms for the motor drive in the inner loop as well as system-level
control in the outer loop.
1.2
EV HISTORY
The history of EVs is interesting. It includes the insurgence of EVs following the
discovery of electricity and the means of electromechanical energy conversion
and later being overtaken by gasoline-powered vehicles. People digressed from
the environmentally friendly mode of transportation due to lack of technology in
the early years, but they are again focused on the correct track today.
1.2.1
THE EARLY YEARS
Prior to the 1830s, the means of transportation was only through steam power,
because the laws of electromagnetic induction, and consequently, electric motors
and generators, were yet to be discovered. Faraday demonstrated the principle of
the electric motor as early as in 1820 through a wire rod carrying electric current
and a magnet, but in 1831 he discovered the laws of electromagnetic induction
that enabled the development and demonstration of the electric motors and
generators essential for electric transportation. The history of EVs in those early
years up to its peak period in the early 1900s is summarized below:

Pre-830Steam-powered transportation
1831Faradays law, and shortly thereafter, invention of DC motor
1834Nonrechargeable battery-powered electric car used on a short track
1851Nonrechargeable 19 mph electric car
1859 Development of lead storage battery
1874Battery-powered carriage
Early 1870s-Electricity produced by dynamo-generators 1885
Gasoline-powered tricycle car
19004200 automobiles sold :

40 % steam powered
38 % electric powered

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22 % gasoline powered

The specifications of some of the early EVs are given below:

1897French Krieger Co. EV: weight, 2230 lb; top speed, 15 mph;
range, 50 mi/charge
1900 French B.G.S. Co. EV: top speed, 40 mph; range, 100 mi/charge
191234,000 EVs registered; EVs outnumber gas-powered vehicles 2- to
-1
1915 Woods EV: top speed, 40 mph; range, 100 mi/charge
1915 Lansden EV: weight, 2460 Ib, top speed, 93 mi/charge, capacity, 1
ton payload
1920 sEVs disappear, and ICEVs become predominant

The factors that led to the disappearance of EV after its short period of success
were as follows:
1. Invention of starter motor in 1911 made gas vehicles easier to start.
2. Improvements in mass production of Henry T (gas-powered car) vehicles sold
for $260 in 1925, compared to $850 in 1909. EVs were more expensive.
3. Rural areas had limited access to electricity to charge batteries, whereas gasoline
could be sold in those areas.
1.2.2
1960 s
Electric vehicles started to resurge in the 1960s, primarily due to environmental
hazards being caused by the emissions of ICEVs. The major ICEV
manufacturers, General Motors (GM) and Ford, became involved in EV research
and development. General Motors started a $15 million program that culminated
in the vehicles called Electrovair and Electrovan. The components and
specifications of two Electrovair vehicles (Electrovair I (1964) and Electrovair II
(1966) by GM) are given below.
Systems and characteristics:
Motorthree-phase induction motor, 115 hp, 13,000 rev/m
Batterysilver-zinc (Ag-Zn), 512 V, 680 lb
Motor driveDC-to-AC inverter using a silicon-controlled rectifier
( SCR )
Top speed80 mi/h
Range40 to 80 miles

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Acceleration060 mi/h in 15.6 s

Vehicle weight3400 lb
The Electrovair utilized the Chevy Corvair body and chassis. Among the
positive features was the acceleration performance that was comparable to the
ICEV Corvair. The major disadvantage of the vehicle was the silver-zinc (AgZn) battery pack that was too expensive and heavy, with a short cycle life and a
long recharge time.
An additional factor in the 1960s that provided the impetus for EV
development included The Great Electric Car Race cross-country competition
(3300 miles) between an EV from Caltech and an EV from MIT in August
1968. The race generated great public interest in EVs and provided an extensive
road test of the EV technology. However, technology of the 1960s was not
mature enough to produce a commercially viable EV.
1.2.3
1970 s
The scenario turned in favor of EVs in the early 1970s, as gasoline prices
increased dramatically due to an energy crisis. The Arab oil embargo of 1973
increased demands for alternate energy sources, which led to immense interest in
EVs. It became highly desirable to be less dependent on foreign oil as a nation.
In 1975, 352 electric vans were delivered to the U.S. Postal Service for testing.
In 1976, Congress enacted Public Law 94413, the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle
Research, Development and Demonstration Act of 1976. This act authorized a
federal program to promote electric and hybrid vehicle technologies and to
demonstrate the commercial feasibility of EVs. The Department of Energy
(DOE) standardized EV performance, which is summarized in Table 1.1. The
case study of a GM EV of the 1970s is as follows:
System and characteristics:
Motorseparately excited DC, 34 hp, 2400 rev/m
Battery packNi-Zn, 120 V, 735 lb
Auxiliary batteryNi-Zn, 14 V
Motor drivearmature DC chopper using SCRs; field DC chopper aaaaa
using bipolar junction transistors (BJTs)
Top speed60 mi/h
Range6080 miles
Acceleration055 mi/h in 27 s
TABLE 1.1
EV Performance Standardization of 1976

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The vehicle utilized a modified Chevy Chevette chassis and body. This EV
was used mainly as a test bed for Ni-Zn batteries. Over 35,500 miles of on-road
testing proved that this EV was sufficiently road worthy.
1.2.4
1980 s AND 1990s
In the 1980s and the 1990s, there were tremendous developments of high-power,
high-frequency semiconductor switches, along with the microprocessor
revolution, which led to improved power converter design to drive the electric
motors efficiently. Also in this period, factors contributed to the development of
magnetic bearings used in flywheel energy storage systems, although these are
not utilized in mainstream EV development projects.
In the last 2 decades, legislative mandates pushed the cause for zero-emission
vehicles. Legislation passed by the California Air Resources Board in 1990
stated that by 1998 2% of vehicles should be zero-emission vehicles (ZEV) for
each automotive company selling more than 35,000 vehicles. The percentages
were to increase to 5% by 2001 and to 10% by 2003. The legislation provided a
tremendous impetus to develop EVs by the major automotive manufacturers.
The legislation was relaxed somewhat later due to practical limitations and the
inability of the manufacturers to meet the 1998 and 2001 requirements. The
mandate now stands that 4% of all vehicles sold should be ZEV by 2003, and an
additional 6% of the sales must be made up of ZEVs and partial ZEVs, which
would require GM to sell about 14,000 EVs in California.
Motivated by the pollution concern and potential energy crisis, government
agencies, federal laboratories, and the major automotive manufacturers launched
a number of initiatives to push for ZEVs. The partnership for next-generation
vehicles (PNGV) is such an initiative (established in 1993), which is a
partnership of federal laboratories and automotive industries to promote and

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develop electric and hybrid electric vehicles. The most recent initiative by the
DOE and the automotive industries is the Freedom CAR initiative.
The trends in EV developments in recent years can be attributed to the
following:

High level of activity exists at the major automotive manufacturers.

New independent manufacturers bring vigor.
New prototypes are even better.
High levels of activity overseas exist.
There are high levels of hybrid vehicle activity.
A boom in individual ICEV to EV conversions is ongoing.
The fuel cell shows great promise in solving the battery range problem.
The case studies of two GM EVs of the 1990s are given below:

1. GM Impact 3 (1993 completed):

a. Based on 1990 Impact displayed at the Los Angeles auto show
b. Two-passenger, two-door coupe, street legal and safe
c. Initially, 12 built for testing; 50 built by 1995 to be evaluated by 1000 potential
customers
d. System and characteristics:
i.

iv.
v.
vi.
vii.

Motorone, three-phase induction motor; 137 hp; 12,000

rev/m
ii. Battery packlead-acid (26), 12 V batteries connected in
series
(312 V), 869 lb iii. Motor driveDC-to-AC inverter using
insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs)
Top speed75 mph
Range90 miles on highway
Acceleration0 to 60 miles in 8.5 s
Vehicle weight2900 lb

e. This vehicle was used as a test bed for mass production of EVs.
2. Saturn EVl
a. Commercially available electric vehicle made by GM in 1995.
b. Leased in California and Arizona for a total cost of about $30,000.
c. System and characteristics:

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i.

Motorone, three-phase induction motor ii. Battery pack

lead-acid batteries
iii. Motor driveDC-to-AC inverter using IGBTs
iv. Top speed75 mph
v. Range90 miles on highway, 70 miles in city
vi. Acceleration0 to 60 mi in 8.5 s
d. Power consumption:
i.

30 kW-h/100 mi in city, 25 kW-h/100 mi on highway

e. This vehicle was also used as a test bed for mass production of EVs.
1.2.5
RECENT EVs AND HEVs
All of the major automotive manufacturers have production EVs, many of which
are available for sale or lease to the general public. The status of these vehicle
programs changes rapidly, with manufacturers suspending production frequently
due to the small existing market demand of such vehicles. Examples of
production EVs which are or until recently have been available are GM EVl,
Ford Think City, Toyota RAV4, Nissan Hypermini, and Peugeot 106 Electric.
There are also many prototype and experimental EVs being developed by the
major automotive manufacturers. Most of these vehicles use AC induction
motors or PM synchronous motors. Also, interestingly, almost all of these
vehicles use battery technology other than the lead-acid battery pack. The list of
EVs in production and under development is extensive, and readers are referred
to the literature3,4 for the details of many of these vehicles.
The manufacturers of EVs in the 1990s realized that their significant research
and development efforts on ZEV technologies were hindered by unsuitable
battery technologies. A number of auto industries started developing hybrid
electric vehicles (HEVs) to overcome the battery and range problem of pure
electric vehicles. The Japanese auto industries lead this trend with Toyota,
Honda, and Nissan already marketing their Prius, Insight, and Tino model
hybrids. The hybrid vehicles use an electric motor and an internal combustion
engine and, thus, do not solve the pollution problem, although it does mitigate it.
It is perceived by many that the hybrids, with their multiple propulsion units and
control complexities, are not economically viable in the long run, although
currently a number of commercial, prototype, and experimental hybrid vehicle
models are available from almost all of the major automotive industries around
the world. Toyota, Honda, and Nissan are marketing the hybrid vehicles well
below the production cost, with significant subsidy and incentive from the

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10

government. However, the cost of HEVs and EVs are expected to be high until
production volume increases significantly.
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) can be a viable alternative to battery
electric vehicles, serving as zero-emission vehicles without the range problem.
Toyota is

FIGURE 1.3 EV process from crude oil to power at the wheels.

leading the way with FCEV, announcing the availability of its FCEV in 2003.
The Toyota FCEV is based on the Toyota RAV4 model.
1.3
EV ADVANTAGES
The relative advantages and disadvantages of an EV over an ICEV can be better
appreciated from a comparison of the two on the bases of efficiency, pollution,
cost, and dependence on oil. The comparison must be executed with care,
ensuring fairness to both systems.
1.3.1
EFFICIENCY COMPARISON
To evaluate the efficiencies of EV and ICEV on level ground, the complete
process in both systems starting from crude oil to power available at the wheels
must be considered. The EV process starts not at the vehicles, but at the source
of raw power whose conversion efficiency must be considered to calculate the
overall efficiency of electric vehicles. The power input PIN to the EV comes from
two sourcesthe stored power source and the applied power source. Stored
power is available during the process from an energy storage device. The power
delivered by a battery through electrochemical reaction on demand or the power
extracted from a piece of coal by burning it are examples of stored power.
Applied power is obtained indirectly from raw materials. Electricity generated
from crude oil and delivered to an electric car for battery charging is an example
of applied power. Applied power is labeled as PIN AW while stored power is
designated as PIN PROCESS in Figure 1.3. Therefore, we have the following:

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11

The complete EV process can be broken down into its constituent stages
involving a chain of events responsible for power generation, transmission, and
usage, as shown in Figure 1.4. Raw power from the applied source is fed to the
system only at the first stage, although stored power can be added in each stage.
Each stage has its efficiency based on total input to that stage and output
delivered to the following stage. For example, the efficiency of the first stage
based on the input and output shown in Figure 1.4 is

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12

FIGURE 1.4The complete EV process broken into stages.

The efficiency of each stage must be calculated from input-output power

considerations, although the efficiency may vary widely, depending on the
technology being used. Finally, overall efficiency can be calculated by
multiplying the efficiencies of the individual stages. The overall efficiency of the
EV system shown in Figure 1.4 is

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13

The overall ICEV process is shown in Figure 1.5, while the process details are
illustrated in Figure 1.6. Starting from the conversion of crude oil to fuel oil in
the refinery, the ICEV process includes the transmission of fuel oil from refinery
to gas stations, power conversion in the internal combustion engine of the
vehicle, and power transfer from the engine to the wheels through the
transmission before it is available at the wheels. The efficiency of the ICEV
process is the product of the efficiencies of the individual stages indicated in
Figure 1.6 and is given by

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14

A sample comparison of EV and ICEV process efficiencies based on the

diagrams of Figure 1.4 and 1.6 is given in Table 1.2. Representative numbers
have been used for the energy conversion stages in each process to convey a
general idea of the efficiencies of the two systems. From Table 1.2, it can be
claimed that the overall efficiency of an EV is comparable to the overall
efficiency of an ICEV.

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EV and ICEV Efciencies from

Crude Oil to Traction Efort

TABLE 1.2

15

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FIGURE 1.5 ICEV process from crude oil to power at the wheels.

FIGURE 1.6 The complete ICEV process broken into stages.

1.3.2
POLLUTION COMPARISON
Transportation accounts for one third of all energy usage, making it the leading
cause of environmental pollution through carbon emissions. 5 The DOE projected
that if 10% of automobiles nationwide were zero-emission vehicles, regulated air
pollutants would be cut by 1,000,000 tons per year, and 60,000,000 tons of
green-house carbon dioxide gas would be eliminated. With 100% electrification,
i.e., every ICEV replaced by an EV, the following was claimed:
Carbon dioxide in air, which is linked to global warming, would be cut in half.
Nitrogen oxides (a greenhouse gas causing global warming) would be cut
slightly, depending on government-regulated utility emission standards.
Sulfur dioxide, which is linked to acid rain, would increase slightly.
Waste oil dumping would decrease, because EVs do not require crankcase oil.
EVs reduce noise pollution, because they are quieter than ICEVs.
Thermal pollution by large power plants would increase with increased EV
usage.

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EVs will considerably reduce the major causes of smog, substantially

eliminate ozone depletion, and reduce greenhouse gases. With stricter SO 2 power
plant emission standards, EVs would have little impact on SO 2 levels. Pollution
reduction is the driving force behind EV usage.

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FIGURE 1.7 Electricity generation Piechart

1.3.3
CAPITAL AND OPERATING COST COMPARISON
The initial EV capital costs are higher than ICEV capital costs primarily due to
the lack of mass production opportunities. However, EV capital costs are
expected to decrease as volume increases. Capital costs of EVs easily exceed
capital costs of ICEVs due to the cost of the battery. The power electronics
stages are also expensive, although not at the same level as batteries. Total life
cycle cost of an EV is projected to be less than that of a comparable ICEV. EVs
are more reliable and will require less maintenance, giving a favorable bias over
ICEV as far as operating cost is concerned.

1.3.4
U.S. DEPENDENCE ON FOREIGN OIL
The importance of searching for alternative energy sources cannot be
overemphasized, and sooner or later, there will be another energy crisis if we,
the people of the earth, do not reduce our dependence on oil. Todays industries,
particularly the transportation industry, are heavily dependent on oil, the reserve
of which will eventually deplete in the not so distant future. Today, about 42% of
petroleum used for transportation in the United States is imported. An average
ICEV in its lifetime uses 94 barrels of oil, based on 28 mi/gallon fuel
consumption. On the other hand, an average EV uses two barrels of oil in its
lifetime, based on 4 mi/kWh. The oil is used in the EV process during electricity
generation, although only 4% of electricity generated is from oil. The energy
sources for electricity generation are shown in the pie chart of Figure 1.7.

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1.4
EV MARKET
We normally discuss the use of EVs for passenger and public transportation but
tend to forget about their use as off-road vehicles in specialty applications, where
range is not an issue. EVs have penetrated the market of off-road vehicles
successfully over the years for clean air as well as for cost advantages. Examples
of such applications are airport vehicles for passenger and ground support;
recreational vehicles as in golf carts and for theme parks, plant operation
vehicles like forklifts and loader trucks; vehicles for disabled persons; utility
vehicles for ground transportation in closed but large compounds; etc. There are
also EVs that run on tracks for material haulage in mines. There is potential for
EV use for construction vehicles. The locomotives that run on tracks with
electricity supplied from transmission lines are theoretically no different from
other EVs, the major difference being in the way energy is fed for the propulsion
motors.
Motivated by the growing concern about global pollution and the success of
electric motor driven transportation in various areas, the interest is ever
increasing for road EVs that can deliver the performance of ICEV counterparts.
The major impediments for mass acceptance of EVs by the general public are the
limited EV range and the lack of EV infrastructure. The solution of the range
problem may come from extensive research and development efforts in batteries,
fuel cells, and other alternative energy storage devices. An alternative approach
is to create awareness among people on the problems of global warming and the
advantages of EVs, while considering the fact that most people drive less than 50
miles a day, a requirement that can be easily met by todays technology.
The appropriate infrastructure must also be in place for EVs to become more
popular. The issues related to infrastructure are as follows:

Battery charging facilities: residential and public charging facilities and stations
Standardization of EV plugs, cords, and outlets, and safety issues
Sales and distribution
Service and technical support
Parts supply
The current initial cost of an EV is also a big disadvantage for the EV market.
The replacement of the batteries, even for HEVs, is quite expensive, added to
which is the limited life problem of these batteries. The cost of EVs will come
down as volume goes up, but in the meantime, subsidies and incentives from the
government can create momentum.
The increasing use of EVs will improve the job prospects of electrical
engineers. The new jobs related to EVs will be in the following areas:

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Power electronics and motor drives: Design and development of the electrical
systems of an EV
Power generation: Increased utility demand due to EV usage
EV infrastructure: Design and development of battery charging stations and of
hydrogen generation, storage and distribution systems
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

California Air Resources Board Office of Strategic Planning, Air-Pollution

Transportation Linkage, 1989.
Wakefield, E.H., History of Electric Automobile, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Warrendale, PA, 1994.
Westbrook, M.H., The Electric Car, The Institute of Electrical Engineers, London,
United Kingdom, and Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 2001.
Hodkinson, R. and Fenton, J., Lightweight Electric/Hybrid Vehicle Design, Society
of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 2001.
The Energy Foundation, 2001 annual report.

ASSIGNMENT
Search through reference materials and write a short report on the following
topics:
1. Commercial and research EV/HEV programs around the world over the last 5
years, describing the various programs, goals, power range, motor used, type of
IC engine, battery source, etc.
2. Case study of a recent EV/HEV
3. State and federal legislations and standardizations

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