doi10.7592/FEJF2002.22.

milkyway

NAMES IN ESTONIAN FOLK

ASTRONOMY FROM BIRDS WAY TO
MILKY WAY
Andres Kuperjanov
This article offers an overview of the different names for the Milky
Way and the accompanying beliefs and myths, based on the material in the Estonian Folklore Archives.
Astronomically speaking, the Milky Way is a big stellar system a
galaxy. All stellar systems of similar type are called galaxies. Our
sun is a fairly common star, lying at the outskirts of the Galaxy.
The core of the Galaxy is located in the Sagittarius Constellation
where the Milky Way is widest and brightest, but is unfortunately
not visible at our latitude. The Galaxy is about 1 kpc (kiloparsec)
thick, 3040 kpc wide, and the Sun is ~8.5 kpc from the core.
THE MILKY WAY IN ESTONIAN
The word galaxy comes from the Greek work gala milk. According to Greek mythology, the Milky Way had formed from the milk
of the goddess Hera. Researcher of Finnish folk belief Uno Harva
maintains that such heavenly milk rivers exist also among Siberian peoples (Harva 1948). The Buryats used to have an interesting
custom relating to the paths of birds and milk rivers when an
eagle flew over the yurta, a cup of milk or a drink of fermented
milk was thrown into the air. In Estonia the common name for the
Milky Way is the Bird Way (Linnutee), but the name Milkpath
(Piimatee) has also been recorded in both western Estonia (H III 18,
415 (3) < Vigala parish) and eastern Estonia (H IV 8, 646 (27)<
Palamuse parish), although the latter is most probably an influence
from literature and the German background. The German heritage
has probably also provided us with the name Great Wagon for Ursa
Major.
Today the only generally accepted name for the Milky Way is
Linnutee, though this used to vary by dialect and region. Bird Path
http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol22/milkyway.pdf
www.folklore.ee/vol22
49

Andres Kuperjanov

(Linnurada) (ERA II 189, 79 (28) < Emmaste parish) was a name

used in the islands, Stork Path (Kuretee) (ERA II 18, 587 (6) < HarjuJaani parish) was probably not very widespread, occurring mainly
in northwestern Estonia. But there are even more parallel names
Heavenly Way (Taevatee) (ERA II 62, 544/5 (12) < Kullamaa parish)
and also Heavenly Street (Taevatnav) (ERA II 69, 159 (51) <
Noarootsi parish) were common in western Estonia. There are also
records of Heavenly Row (Taevarida) (AES < Risti parish), Heavenly Plant-Bed (Taevapeenar) (ERA II 62, 159 (4344)< Lne-Nigula
parish) and Winter Plant-Bed (Talipeenar) (ERA II 60, 491 (105) <
Martna parish). The name Heavenly Harbour (Thesadam) has
been explained by the light it emits in a dark autumn night (AES <
Kose parish).
In South-Estonian dialect, the name Linnutee has become transformed into Sirgutee (KKI, WS < Hargla parish Aime Kuus (1947))
or Tsirgutii (AES < Setu county, Kllatuva village), but the meaning is the same.
FOLK ASTRONOMY MATERIAL IN ESTONIA
The different names for the Milky Way and other star names are a
result of long-term collection work. Folk astronomy material is generally very scattered; material concerning the Milky Way is a pleasant exception to the rule. There are not many of these records, but
the available material is relatively compact and offers a good general picture. The Milky Way must have been so generally well known
that there was no additional need to determine its position, as is
necessary with most other stars and constellations. The only other
celestial phenomena documented are Pleiades and Orion. The rest
of the records concerning folk astronomy are beyond any kind of
criticism, they are few and are all alike. There were very good
methodical instructions for collecting folk astronomy material (the
last, e.g., by Prller 1961), but the collectors clearly did not follow
these in practice. It is also possible that researchers and collectors
considered this a topic to be of little interest.
The text corpus of 9000 records was founded by German dictionary
compilers and chroniclers. The earliest heavenly phenomena are
found in 17th century dictionaries (Hirne 1680) and chronicles
www.folklore.ee/vol22

50

Names in Estonian Folk Astronomy

(Russow 19201921). In addition to the star named Ox (Hrg), the

name Wolf (Hunt) is mentioned in S. H. Westrings Dictionary
(Westring), and the Milky Way has been repeatedly referred to by
Wiedemann (1869, 1876).
The oldest wide-ranging manuscript source on folk astronomy comes
from Saaremaa Island and dates from 18171822. This is material
collected by members of the Kuressaare Estonian Society on the
initiative of J. W. Luce. However, the majority of folk astronomy
records come from the period after Jakob Hurt turned to Estonians
in 1888 with the proposition to start collecting our heritage and
offered a questionnaire for that purpose (Hurt 1989). Cosmological
principles had been explained in calendars since the beginning of
the 18th century. The systematic collection of folk astronomy material was, however, to begin a hundred years later, at the end of the
19th century. By that time, the clock and printed calendars had
rendered practical folk astronomy extinct. Material on astronomy
was actively collected again from 19271939. Since then, material
reaching the archives has been of a more random nature.
Despite the good methodological instructions available, the results
of the collection are far from glorious, even though J. Hurts relatively good instructions were improved by P.-E. Prllers specifications and extensive elaborations. It is obvious from the collected
data that it was collected in an inappropriate manner: the collector
knew little astronomy, the questioning took place during the daytime, and the narrator was probably not instructed to identify the
objects more closely, which inevitably resulted in making the recorded material ambiguous. The quality of the material would have
been immensely improved by the use of star maps as aid material
as well as asking for connections with other constellations. The
current material is characterised by lengthy answers from only a
few informants, answers that are not echoed by other sources and
an abundance of reports of low reliability. Since even commonly
known knowledge was asked about and recorded in a non-uniform
manner, the material cannot be analysed by statistical means. From
earliest to latest, the sources mention a total of almost two hundred different constellation and planet names.

51

www.folklore.ee/vol22

Andres Kuperjanov

BELIEFS CONCERNING THE MILKY WAY

Motifs, beliefs and treatments found in folkloristic records are significantly improved by the interpretations of science historian and
astronomer Heino Eelsalu. On the basis of runic songs and myths,
he has attempted to calculate when the constellations were aligned
in such a position that a myth of corresponding content could have
emerged. Eelsalu started out with the presumption that constellations have a long life-time (the current classic constellations have
undergone only minor changes in the past 4000 years) and that
myths are re-narrated in basically unchanged form during periods
of time that are quite considerable in the case of sacred texts. He
has also attempted to interpret the Milky Way on several occasions.
Concerning the Milky Way we find different myth relicts, everyday
beliefs, customs and omens related to practical astronomy, but also
explanations concerning the conception of the soul.
1. The Milky Way as a way of birds is a very widespread belief, and
in Estonian archived material is most commonly noted as the road
that migrant birds follow on their way to winter habitats and back.
Taeva tee Linnu tee, mida mda rndlinnud kevade ja sgisel
kivad. Lindude juht on ks valge lind, luige sarnane, ilusa neiu
peaga, mille ees keik kiskjad linnud vrisevad. Kullid ja kotkad
pugevad tema eest peitu pilverngastesse. Tema elab suvel
phjakalju otsas, vaatab sda pikest ja teda toidetakse suurte
lindude poolt phjamaa magusate marjadega. Minu vanaema
kolmas mees Jri Nmberg, kes oli vana meremees, ngi, kui le
suure mere juhtis see valge lind suurt karja linde maa poole. Ja
lendas nii madalalt, et vis nha tema noore neitsi ngu ja laeva
masti otsast pistis ks vsinud suur kull hirmuga tema eest lendu
(ERA II 273, 266/7 (6) < Keila parish).
Heavenly Way Bird Way that migrant birds travel in spring
and autumn. The birds are led by a white bird, similar to a swan,
with the head of a pretty maiden that all birds of prey fear. Hawks
and eagles hide in the clouds from it. In the summer it lives on
top of a boulder in the North, watches the midnight sun and is
fed sweet northern berries by big birds. My grandmothers third
husband, Jri Nmberg, was an old seaman and he saw how this
white bird led a big herd of birds over the great sea towards

www.folklore.ee/vol22

52

Names in Estonian Folk Astronomy

land. It flew so low that its young maidens face could be seen
and a big tired hawk flew away from the ships mast in fright.
In addition to Finno-Ugric peoples, the above belief is also well documented among Turkish-Altai peoples and some Slavic peoples. In
most cases, the Bird Way was connected with geese, whereas the
Germanic peoples even associated it with the traditional Martinmas
goose (Lebeuf 1996: 150).
According to contemporary astronomy, there are two constellations
in the Bird Way, two large birds the Swan (Cygnus) and the Eagle
(Aquila). The bird has been an important
symbol in the religions of many nations.
In our cosmogonic myth it is the creator
of the world. If the cosmogonic myth
were to be interpreted as astral folklore,
one could state that the bird (it may possibly be a swan) that is most often found
in Karelian rock art (Poikalainen &
Ernits 1998) has a nest in heaven and
peppers the heaven with its eggs. Heino
Eelsalus calculations maintain that considering the precession, the North Pole
used to be in the Swan Constellation 14
19 and 4045 thousand years ago. At
those times, the bird was fixed in the sky Figure 1. Swan from Karefor the whole night, just as if it were lian rock carving. By V. Poimaking its nest on the Bird Way (Eelsalu kalainen.
1985: 73).
2. The Milky Way as the road of the souls of the deceased is, once
again, a motif found in the religion of many nations. The Milky Way
has been mentioned as the road souls and the soul bird follow to the
afterworld, Toonela. For Finno-Ugric peoples, the soul bird is a duck,
diver or goose. Rock paintings from the White Sea imply that it
could also be a swan or even the mythical bluebird / songbird /
chirpbird (sinilind /midrilind, / sirjelind) referred to in runic songs
(Peegel 1984). Also, St. Catherines Day beggars come to heaven
along a long road; they have been connected with the souls of the
dead (Valk 1995).

53

www.folklore.ee/vol22

Andres Kuperjanov

The Milky Way has been described as the road of souls in the mythology of Antiquity, Old Germany (Lebeuf 1996: 150) as well as the
North American indigenous peoples (Leach 1984: 726). The Milky
Way is also reflected in different high religions for the Tartars, it
is the road to Mecca (Harva 1948), and in Christian interpretation
the road Holy Mary took to heaven. Marys trip along the Milky
Way has been treated by Wiedemann as a belief common to Estonians. O. Loorits has also found that in folk heritage the Milky Way
has been called the Way of Christ (Kristuse tee in Estonian, Weg
Christi in German), on which Kadri, a beautiful child, herded the
heavenly peoples herd.
Kadri oli kaunis lapsuke,
Kadri was a beautiful child,
istus Jeesukese tnaval,
Sat in Jesus street,
kaitses pha Risti karja,
Protected the herd of the Holy Cross,
taevaliste tallesida.
The eves of the heavenly people.
(Karja parish; Loorits 1949)
3. The Milky Way as traces, footprints is not a common explanation
in Estonian heritage.
Seda halli riba taeva laotuses, mida rahvas Linnuteeks kutsub,
olla vanapagan oma laia viiskudega kndides tallanud, see olnud
tema kige suurem tee, kust tema alati oli kinud (H II 74, 801
(11) < Torma parish).

2
1
2

4
N

NE

Figure 2. Milky Way as mythical hunt scene. Star map and rock carvings from
North Karelia (River Vyg site).

www.folklore.ee/vol22

54

Names in Estonian Folk Astronomy

That grey strip in the sky that people call the Bird Way is where
the old demon used to walk with his birch bark shoes, this was
the widest road where he always walked.
The northern Finno-Ugric peoples know a myth about a hunt for
the Sun Elk, with the Big Dipper or Ursa Major related to the elk
and the Northern Star with the hunter in various interpretations.
The Zalavruga rock art location in North Karelia features a group
of hunting scenes that bears a resemblance to the starry sky. Let us
attempt to follow this celestial hunt. The above picture holds the
whole story of the hunt. The hunter (Perseus 1) skis until he sees
the first elk (Auriga 2). His ski track is the Milky Way. The Milky
Way is the sparsest in the Perseus Auriga region the tracks end
at Perseus. Next the hunter (Vega 3) chases the elk (mainly
Hercules 4), in the end he (the North Star,
the skis are the back wheels of Ursa Minor 5) secures the elk (Ursa Major 6)
with a lasso. The photo also shows lighter
patches where the Pleiades and Taurus
would be on the star chart.
4. The Milky Way as the world tree is characteristic not only of Finno-Ugric cosmology but that of almost all peoples. Many
authors, including H. Eelsalu, maintain that
at the time when the North Pole was furthest from the Milky Way (in the Draco constellation), the Milky Way was fairly upright
during the whole night and was thus reminiscent of a tree. Such a picture could be
seen 59 and 3135 thousand years ago
(Eelsalu 1985: 68).

Figure 3. The World Tree

from a Karelian rock
carving.

The original World Tree was a fig tree, in biblical areas a cedar in
Lebanon, among the Germanic people an ash, in the Balto-Finnic
area an oak, and further beyond, a birch.
The World Tree is a model of the world. It is often depicted as a
giant tree with its branches covered with stars, on its top stands a
bird and a snake on the roots. Thus is the world tree Yggdrasill
depicted in ancient Scandinavian religion, for example. In contem55

www.folklore.ee/vol22

Andres Kuperjanov

porary astronomy there is indeed a snake in the Milky Way, in addition to the birds in the constellation Serpens Cauda Tail of the
Snake. The Snake is borne by the nearby Ophiuchus constellation.
As the North pole shifted, the Milky Way began to lean. This is a
possible source for the stories and songs of the cutting of the world
tree. Aado Lintrop points out that we find two different descriptions
of the world tree or Great Oak in Estonian runic songs (Lintrop
1999). The first is the classical world tree: an ancient oak, similar
to Yggdrasil, with a bird at the top and stars on the branches, etc.
This tree is a symbol of durability and consistency. The other Great
Oak resembles the Huluppu-tree of Gilgamesh. We find descriptions of this oak in the runic songs Drowned Brother (Uppunud
veli) and Ship tree (Laevapuu). This Huluppu-oak also has some
features in common with the world tree bird nests in the treetop,
a snake lives in its roots. But it was planted by man, it shades light
and confuses the movement of the clouds. To an extent, it is the
opposite of the world tree. Household gadgets are made out of the
wood from this oak. But the real world tree still stands.
5. The Milky Way and the winter peak. In the old timekeeping system, the Milky Way was primarily a sign of the end and beginning
of the year. In the Estonian folk calendar the Winter Peak Day
(Feb. 12) should fall on the date when winter has reached its peak
and is retreating the weather starts to become warmer and the
arrival of spring approaches. According to K. Vilkuna, the name
also referred to the fact that the Milky Way was at its highest point
at about the same time (Vilkuna 1960). H. Eelsalu has estimated
that about 3000 years ago this coincided with the winter solstice
(Eelsalu 1985: 62). Today the peak of winter has shifted, due to the
precession of the spring point to the end of January or beginning of
February (in the calendar, dated as January 14, while Hupel and
Wiedemann, for example, have erroneously dated it to March 12).
The winter peak used to be an important marker in the old calendar system, a sign by which the lunar calendar could be synchronised with the real year.
It is not unnecessary to reiterate that the motif of cutting down the
world tree has often been connected with the winter peak.

www.folklore.ee/vol22

56

Names in Estonian Folk Astronomy

6. There are a number of myth relics connected with the Milky Way
that are not found in Estonia. Many peoples have associated the
Milky Way with a river, bridge or boundary between worlds. Perhaps these are hidden in the oldest of the runic songs, but so far
they have not been found. It is also possible that such motifs can be
found in the songs of St. Catherines Day.
7. Indian and American peoples have connected the Milky Way with
The Gates of Heaven. The concept of a gate on the heavenly road is
known also among other nations. The Gates of Heaven are usually
connected with two bright red stars near the Milky Way Antares
and Aldebaran (Lebeuf 1996: 152). Both stars are visible here, though
Antares is fairly low. The constellations of Taurus and Scorpius
marked the equinox approximately 5500 and the solstice 15000 years
ago. According to Plato, the Gates of Heaven are Cancer (sc. Gate of
Humans that the soul passes to enter the human body) and the
Capricornus (or the Gate of Gods that the soul passes on its way
back to heaven) that are some distance from the Milky Way (Jaaniste
& Saar 1990: 114, 178). In Platos lifetime, the solstice-marking
constellations had instead become Gemini and Sagittarius. There
is reason to believe that the gates were rather connected with the
points on the ecliptic determining the changing of the seasons, and
the connection with the Milky Way is a relict.
In Estonia, too, there is a belief in a Christian background concerning the gates of heaven. According to this belief, the souls had to
pass the gates of heaven to reach paradise. Unfortunately, there is
no definite connection between the gates of heaven and a fixed star
or group of stars, even though the folklorist M. J. Eisen states:
One group of stars carry the name Gates of Paradise (Eisen 1919).
Some ambiguous folk astronomy records lead me to presume it
might have been the constellation of the Northern Crown (Corona
Borealis).
PRACTICAL USES OF THE MILKY WAY
The Milky Way also had a practical purpose. As mentioned before,
it leads birds on their way to warmer lands a belief held by many
peoples. But it also helps humans orient:

57

www.folklore.ee/vol22

Andres Kuperjanov

Kui sa ra eksid, siis jlle ks mrk, et vaata Linnuteed, et siis

sa ei eksi ra (ERA II 77, 84 (5) < Jri parish).
When you get lost, then another sign is to look at the Milky
Way, then you wont get lost.
The Milky Way used to be not only a calendar mark but also a
clock:
Kus Linnutee ja Rattad taevas selle jrele vaadati kella vanasti,
(vanasti ei olnud seinakellasid), et teada, millal metsa minna (ERA
II 302, 212 (124) < Valjala parish).
Where the Milky way and Wheels were in the sky that was the
time-teller in old times (in old times there were no wall clock) to
know when to go to the forest.
The Milky Way has been used for both short-term and long-term
weather prognosis:
Linnuteest tunneb seda ra, kas h ilm tuleb vi paha ilm: kui
ta segane ja pime on, siis tuleb paha ilm, kui jlle selge ja krgest
lbi kib, siis on ilmad hd (H III (4) < Karja parish).
The Milky Way shows whether there will be good weather or
bad weather: if it is blurred and dark, there will be bad weather,
but if it is clear and high in the sky, then the weather will be
good.
Sgisel ennustatakse Taevatnavast ehk Taevateest talve tulekut.
Kui taevatnav on kord le valge, siis tuleb talve sna suur ja
sgav, st lumerohke. On aga Taevatnav mustalaiguline, siis ennustatakse, et need mustad laigud on selle talve sulad seega
sularohke talv. Kui Taevatnav juhtub olema eest (kirde vi phja)
otsast tume, keskkohalt selge ja tagant (edela) otsast samuti tume,
siis tuleb talve julut ja kevade poole sularohke, kesktalve aga
lumerohke. Ehk kui Taevatnav on keskelt tume, otste pealt valge,
siis enne julu ja kevade poole lumerohke ja kesk talve sularohke.
Kui Taevatnav on ldse tume, tuleb kehv talv ehk madal talv
(ERA II 69, 159 (51) < Noarootsi parish).
In the autumn the Heavenly Street or Heavenly Way is used to
predict the arrival of winter. If the heavenly street is once white
all over, the winter will be quite long and deep, i.e. rich in snow.
But if the heavenly street is spotted with black, these black spots
www.folklore.ee/vol22

58

Names in Estonian Folk Astronomy

are said to be thaws in the winter there will be many thaws. If

the heavenly street happens to be dark in the front (northeastern or northern) part, clear in the middle and also dark in the
back (southwestern) part, there will be thaws before Christmas
and towards spring, but there will be a lot of snow in the midwinter. Or, if the heavenly street is dark in the middle and white
near its ends, there will be much snow before Christmas and
towards spring, and many thaws in the midwinter. If the heavenly street is dark all over, there will be a poor winter, i.e. with
a low level of snow.
As the above example demonstrates, people used to study the structure of the Milky Way with great interest. The branching of the
Milky Way, called Kadris Fork (Kadrihark), has been described in
a record from Lne-Nigula:
ks Hiiumaa mees ksis vabrikuhrra vahimehe kest: Kas saab
juluks saanisitu? Kas tuleb lund? Vanamees haigutas, vaatas
les Taevapeenart. See ple hsti valge, Kadrihark old must. See
on kaheharaline, sgiseaegu paistab. Kui see peab vga valge
olema, siis on pailu lund (ERA II 62, 159 (44) < Lne-Nigula
parish).
A man from Hiiumaa Island asked the factory owners guard:
Will there be sledge-riding by Christmas? Will there be a lot of
snow? The old man yawned, looked up the Heavenly Plant-Bed.
This shone very brightly, and the Kadris Fork was black. It has
two branches, seen around autumn. If it is very white, there will
be a lot of snow.
Observation of the Milky Way most likely does no allow for longterm forecasts, but it may provide reliable results about the weather
of the next day. If there are high cirrus clouds approaching from the
west, the stars shine, but the Milky Way is dark. This picture means
that there is a storm, rain, etc. coming.
SUMMARY
The belief system connected with the Milky Way may have been
much more abundant than is reflected by archived texts, since the
work of systematic collection only began once the material had prac59

www.folklore.ee/vol22

Andres Kuperjanov

tically perished. There are only traces of old myths, relics and barely
connectable fragments of runic songs. Nevertheless, there are signs
of the old world system to be found in them: the gathering of souls
on heavenly paths and the connections stars have with the birth
and death of people. Usually we obtain information on the level of
everyday beliefs mainly about the weather and omens concerning
success.

Abbreviations
AES folklore collection of the Academical Association of
Mothertongue in the Estonian Folklore Archives.
H the Hurt manuscript collection in the Estonian Folklore Archives,
18601906.
ERA Estonian Folklore Archives.

References
Eelsalu, Heino 1985. Ajastult ajastule [From Era to Era]. Tallinn:
Valgus.
Eisen, Matthias Johann 1919. Eesti mtoloogia [Estonian Mythology].
Tallinn: Eestimaa Koolipetajate Vastastiku Abiandmise Seltsi raamatukauplus.
Harva, Uno 1948. Suomalaisten muinaisusko [Finnish Ancient Religion].
Porvoo & Helsinki: Sderstrm
Hirn[e], Thomas 1932. Kuu teretus. Gustav Suits & Mart Lepik (ed.).
Eesti kirjandusajalugu tekstides [Estonian Literary History in Texts], 1.
Akadeemilise Kirjandushingu Toimetised, 4. Tartu: Akadeemiline
Kirjandushing, pp. 126. (Source: T. Hirn. Ehst-, Lyv- und Lettlndische
Geschichte 1. Miitav 1794.)
Hurt, Jakob 1989. Eesti astronomia. Kne Eesti Jaani koguduse Noortemeeste Seltsis 10. Jaanuaril 1899. Jakob Hurt. Mida rahvamlestustest
pidada: Artiklite kogumik [How to Regard Folklore: A Collection of Articles].
Tallinn: Eesti Raamat, pp. 91130.
Jaaniste, Jaak & Saar, Enn 1990. Theatlas: Ksiraamat [Star Atlas:
A Handbook]. Tallinn: Valgus.
Leach, Maria 1972. Funk & Wagnalls Standard Dictionary of Folklore,
Mythology and Legend. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
Lebeuf, Arnold 1996. Milky Way a Path of the Souls. Vesselina Koleva
& Dimiter Kolev (eds.). Astronomical Traditions in Past Cultures: Proceedings

www.folklore.ee/vol22

60

Names in Estonian Folk Astronomy

of the SEAC 1993 Meeting in Bulgaria. Sofia: Institute of Astronomy &

Academy of Sciences, pp. 148161.
Lintrop, Aado 2000. Suur tamm ja de-venda. Metagused: Hperajakiri, 13, Tartu: Eesti Kirjandusmuuseum, pp. 2442 (http://
haldjas.folklore.ee/tagused/nr13/).
Loorits, Oskar 1949. Grundzge des estnischen Volksglaubens, 1. Skrifter
Utgivna av Kungl. Gustav Adolfs Akademien fr Folklivsforskning, 18: 1.
Lund: Carl Blom.
Peegel, Juhan 1984. Nimisna poeetilised snonmid eesti regivrssides
[Poetical Synonyms for Nouns in Estonian Runic Songs], 2. Eesti NSV
Teaduste Akadeemia Emakeele Seltsi toimetised, 15. Tallinn: Eesti
Raamat.
Poikalainen, Vino & Ernits, Enn 1998. Rock Carvings of Lake Onega:
Vodla Region. Tartu: Estonian Society of Prehistoric Art.
Prller, Paul-Egon 1961. Juhend tiendavate andmete kogumiseks
eesti rahvaastronoomia alalt. Rahvaprimuste koguja: kirjandusmuuseumi
kogumist juhendaja [Collector of Folklore], 2. Tartu: Fr.R.Kreutzwaldi
nim. Kirjandusmuuseum, pp. 5171.
Russow, Balthasar 19201921. Liivimaa kroonika [The Livonian
Chronicle], III. Eesti Kirjanduse Seltsi Ajalootoimkonna toimetused 1a
1b. Tartu: Eesti Kirjanduse Selts.
Valk, lo 1995. Eesti mardilaulude usundilisest taustast. Hiieme,
Mall & Kiva, Mare (eds.). Rahvausund tnapeval [Folk Belief Today].
Tartu: Eesti TA Eesti Keele Instituut & Eesti Kirjandusmuuseum, pp.
471478.
Westring, Salomo Heinrich. Lexicon Esthonico Germanicum (http://
haldjas.folklore.ee/~kriku/VESTRING/index.htm).
Wiedemann, Friedrich Johann 1869 (1893). Ehstnisch-Deutsches
Wrterbuch. SanktPeterburg: Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Wiedemann, Friedrich Johann 1876. Aus dem inneren und usseren Leben
der Ehsten: Der Akademie vorgelegt am 30. Sept. 1875. Sankt-Peterburg:
Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Vilkuna Kustaa 1960. Vuoden neljnnekset ja viikkolasku. Kalevalaseuran Vuosikirja, 40. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura.

61

www.folklore.ee/vol22