MARSHALL and ROSSMAN (1989) define observation as "the systematic description of events,

behaviors, and artifacts in the social setting chosen for study" (p.79). Observations enable the
researcher to describe existing situations using the five senses, providing a "written photograph"
of the situation under study (ERLANDSON, HARRIS, SKIPPER, & ALLEN, 1993). DeMUNCK
and SOBO (1998) describe participant observation as the primary method used by
anthropologists doing fieldwork. Fieldwork involves "active looking, improving memory, informal
interviewing, writing detailed field notes, and perhaps most importantly, patience" (DeWALT &
DeWALT, 2002, p.vii). Participant observation is the process enabling researchers to learn about
the activities of the people under study in the natural setting through observing and participating
in those activities. It provides the context for development of sampling guidelines and interview
guides (DeWALT & DeWALT, 2002). SCHENSUL, SCHENSUL, and LeCOMPTE (1999) define
participant observation as "the process of learning through exposure to or involvement in the
day-to-day or routine activities of participants in the researcher setting" (p.91). [2
This type of research draws a conclusion by comparing subjects against a control group, in cases
where the researcher has no control over the experiment.
A research study comparing the risk of developing lung cancer, between smokers and non-smokers,
would be a good example of an observational study.
The main problem with observational studies is that the experimenter has no control over the
composition of the control groups, and cannot randomize the allocation of subjects98 tt

In studies of children, observational techniques are

highly developed. Experiments that might alter
children's lives would raise ethical problems, but
observational techniques can be done without
disturbance. Following are examples of different
observational techniques, illustrated in each case
with an example from developmental psychology.
What is naturalistic observation? Must it take place "out in nature"?

Naturalistic
observation is
observational
research that takes place in a natural or everyday
setting such as a school. Usually there is an effort
to minimize the observer's impact by carrying out
observations secretly or from a hidden vantage
point.
With preschoolers a stationary video
camera with a wide-angle lens can be put
near the ceiling in one corner of the room,
without influencing behavior. Sherman
(1975) used this technique to study the
phenomenon of group glee in preschoolers.

Group glee was defined as "joyful

screaming, laughing and intense physical
acts" which quickly spread in the group.
Sherman made video recordings of 596
preschool classes taught by student
teachers. He was able to identify what
factors set off the group glee (for example,
it tended to happen when a teacher asked
for volunteers for an activity), and he
studied reactions of teachers. Notice that a
naturalistic study need not take place "out
in nature." It simply documents naturallyoccurring events
They are very good way to obtain a general overview and then follow up with a case
study or quantitative experiment,

Surveys and polling are forms of observational research in which data are collected from large
numbers of subjects. A survey can be about anything. A poll usually asks for opinions or value
judgments. The goal of both is to determine the characteristics of a larger population from a
relatively small sample. For example, you might survey a random sample of students from your
campus to determine their attitudes toward various parenting practices
Cross sectional study
For example, knowing that ascending cholangitis in children is very rare enables the clinician to look for other causes
of abdominal pain in this patient population.
Case control study

Internal validity
1. Credibility Related to the internal validity of a study, credibility requires that we
concern ourselves with the accuracy of description in a piece of qualitative
research. We need to state the precise parameters of the study - who was studied,
where and when, and by what methods. If we identify these aspects, and if we have
a reliable means of measurement (dependability and confirmability), our study will
be valid for the specific setting investigated. We can add to the credibility of
observations by using informants, who will ensure we are not misunderstanding
what we observe. Use audio or video recording where possible to avoid inaccurate
notes, and practice note-taking in field situations. Check out final reports with our
informants too, to make sure inaccuracy has not occurred in analysis

If findings are believable internal. It is applicable somewhere else is external

validiity
Observational research (or field research) is a type of correlational (i.e., nonexperimental) research in which a researcher observes ongoing behavior.
There are a variety of types of observational research, each of which has both

strengths and weaknesses. These types are organized below by the extent to
which an experimenter intrudes upon or controls the environment.
Observational research is particularly prevalent in the social sciences and in
marketing. It is a social research technique that involves the direct observation
of phenomena in their natural setting. This differentiates it from experimental
research in which a quasi-artificial environment is created to control for
spurious factors, and where at least one of the variables is manipulated as
part of the experiment. It is typically divided into naturalistic (or
nonparticipant) observation, and participant observation. Cases studies and
archival research are special types of observational research. Naturalistic (or
nonparticipant) observation has no intervention by a researcher. It is simply
studying behaviors that occur naturally in natural contexts, unlike the artificial
environment of a controlled laboratory setting

Experimental
It is a collection of research designs which use manipulation and controlled testing to understand
causal processes. Generally, one or more variables are manipulated to determine their effect on a
dependent variable.

Experimental research is commonly used in sciences such as sociology and

psychology, physics, chemistry, biology and medicine etc

Validity of Experimental Design

Internal Validity asks did the experimental treatment make the difference in this
specific instance rather than other extraneous variables?
External Validity asks to what populations, settings, treatment variables, and
measurement variables can this observed effect be generalized?
Factors Jeopardizing Internal Validity
History - The events occurring between the first and second measurements in
addition to the experimental variable which might affect the measurement.
Example: Researcher collects gross sales data before and after a 5 day 50% off sale.
During the sale a hurricane occurs and results of the study may be affected because
of the hurricane, not the sale.
Maturation - The process of maturing which takes place in the individual during the
duration of the experiment which is not a result of specific events but of simply
growing older, growing more tired, or similar changes.

Example: Subjects become tired after completing a training session, and their
responses on the Posttest are affected.
Pre-testing - The effect created on the second measurement by having a
measurement before the experiment.
Example: Subjects take a Pretest and think about some of the items. On the Posttest
they change to answers they feel are more acceptable. Experimental group learns
from the pretest.
Measuring Instruments - Changes in instruments, calibration of instruments,
observers, or scorers may cause changes in the measurements.
Example: Interviewers are very careful with their first two or three interviews but on
the 4th, 5th, 6th become fatigued and are less careful and make errors.
Statistical Regression - Groups are chosen because of extreme scores of
measurements; those scores or measurements tend to move toward the mean with
repeated measurements even without an experimental variable.
Example: Managers who are performing poorly are selected for training. Their average
Posttest scores will be higher than their Pretest scores because of statistical
regression, even if no training were given.
Differential Selection - Different individuals or groups would have different
previous knowledge or ability which would affect the final measurement if not
taken into account.
Example: A group of subjects who have viewed a TV program is compared with a group
which has not. There is no way of knowing that the groups would have been
equivalent since they were not randomly assigned to view the TV program.
Experimental Mortality - The loss of subjects from comparison groups could
greatly affect the comparisons because of unique characteristics of those subjects.
Groups to be compared need to be the same after as before the experiment.
Example: Over a 6 month experiment aimed to change accounting practices, 12
accountants drop out of the experimental group and none drop out of the control
group. Not only is there differential loss in the two groups, but the 12 dropouts may
be very different from those who remained in the experimental group.
Interaction of Factors, such as Selection Maturation, etc. - Combinations of these
factors may interact especially in multiple group comparisons to produce erroneous
measurements.
Factors Jeopardizing External Validity or Generalizability

Pre-Testing -Individuals who were pretested might be less or more sensitive to the
experimental variable or might have "learned" from the pre-test making them
unrepresentative of the population who had not been pre-tested.
Example: Prior to viewing a film on Environmental Effects of Chemical, a group of
subjects is given a 60 item antichemical test. Taking the Pretest may increase the
effect of the film. The film may not be effective for a nonpretested group.
Differential Selection - The selection of the subjects determines how the findings can
be generalized. Subjects selected from a small group or one with particular
characteristics would limit generalizability. Randomly chosen subjects from the entire
population could be generalized to the entire population.
Example: Researcher, requesting permission to conduct experiment, is turned down by
11 corporations, but the 12th corporation grant permission. The 12th corporation is
obviously different then the others because they accepted. Thus subjects in the 12th
corporation may be more accepting or sensitive to the treatment.
Experimental Procedures - The experimental procedures and arrangements have a
certain amount of effect on the subjects in the experimental settings. Generalization
to persons not in the experimental setting may be precluded.
Example: Department heads realize they are being studied, try to guess what the
experimenter wants and respond accordingly rather than respond to the treatment.
Multiple Treatment Interference - If the subjects are exposed to more than one
treatment then the findings could only be generalized to individuals exposed to the
same treatments in the same order of presentation.
Example: A group of CPAs is given training in working with managers followed by
training in working with comptrollers. Since training effects cannot be deleted, the
first training will affect the second.
Tools of Experimental Design Used to Control Factors Jeopardizing Validity
Pre-Test - The pre-test, or measurement before the experiment begins, can aid
control for differential selection by determining the presence or knowledge of the
experimental variable before the experiment begins. It can aid control of
experimental mortality because the subjects can be removed from the entire
comparison by removing their pre-tests.
However, pre-tests cause problems by their effect on the second measurement and by
causing generalizability problems to a population not pre-tested and those with no
experimental arrangements.
Control Group -The use of a matched or similar group which is not exposed to the

experimental variable can help reduce the effect of History, Maturation,

Instrumentation, and Interaction of Factors. The control group is exposed to all
conditions of the experiment except the experimental variable.
Randomization - Use of random selection procedures for subjects can aid in
control of Statistical Regression, Differential Selection, and the Interaction of
Factors. It greatly increases generalizability by helping make the groups
representative of the populations.
Additional Groups - The effects of Pre-tests and Experimental Procedures can be
partially controlled through the use of groups which were not pre-tested or
exposed to experimental arrangements. They would have to be used in conjunction
with other pre-tested groups or other factors jeopardizing validity would be
present.

The method by which treatments are applied to subjects using these tools to control
factors jeopardizing validity is the essence of experimental design.
Typically, an experiment is constructed to be able to explain some kind of causation.
Typically, an experiment is constructed to be able to explain some kind of causation.
One sample group often serves as a control group, whilst others are tested under the experimental
conditions.
An experiment is typically carried out by manipulating a variable, called theindependent variable,
affecting the experimental group. The effect that the researcher is interested in, the dependent
variable(s), is measured

Campbeel and Stanley in 1963 stated that internal validity is the basic requirement
if one is to draw corrct conclusions from an experiment. Internal validity refers to
the inferences about whether the changes observed in a dependent variable are,in
fact caused by the independent variable in a particular research study rather than
by extraneous factors. Internal validity is concerned with such questions as Did the
experimental treatment cause the observed change in the dependent variable or
was some spurious working factors working? or are the findings accurate? Can not
answer properly unless the desing provides adequate control of extraneous
variables. Internal validity is actually is a problem of control.
Man prefers to believe what he prefers to be true.
Francis bacon