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A New Physics Theory of Life
A physicist has proposed the provocative idea that life exists because the law of increasing entropy drives matter to acquire life-like physical properties
January28,2014 | ByNatalieWolchoverandQuantaMagazine |
FromQuantaMagazine(findoriginalstoryhere).
Whydoeslifeexist?
Popularhypothesescreditaprimordialsoup,aboltoflightningandacolossalstroke
ofluck.Butifaprovocativenewtheoryiscorrect,luckmayhavelittletodowithit.
Instead,accordingtothephysicistproposingtheidea,theoriginandsubsequent
evolutionoflifefollowfromthefundamentallawsofnatureandshouldbeas
unsurprisingasrocksrollingdownhill.
Fromthestandpointofphysics,thereisoneessentialdifferencebetweenliving
thingsandinanimateclumpsofcarbonatoms:Theformertendtobemuchbetterat
capturingenergyfromtheirenvironmentanddissipatingthatenergyasheat.Jeremy
England,a31yearoldassistantprofessorattheMassachusettsInstituteof
Technology,hasderivedamathematicalformulathathebelievesexplainsthis
capacity.Theformula,basedonestablishedphysics,indicatesthatwhenagroupof
atomsisdrivenbyanexternalsourceofenergy(likethesunorchemicalfuel)and
surroundedbyaheatbath(liketheoceanoratmosphere),itwilloftengradually
restructureitselfinordertodissipateincreasinglymoreenergy.Thiscouldmean
thatundercertainconditions,matterinexorablyacquiresthekeyphysicalattribute
associatedwithlife.
Youstartwitharandomclumpofatoms,andifyoushinelightonitforlong
enough,itshouldnotbesosurprisingthatyougetaplant,Englandsaid.
Englandstheoryismeanttounderlie,ratherthanreplace,Darwinstheoryof
AcomputersimulationbyJeremyEnglandand
colleaguesshowsasystemofparticlesconfined
evolutionbynaturalselection,whichprovidesapowerfuldescriptionoflifeatthe
insideaviscousfluidinwhichtheturquoise
Next
Article
levelofgenesandpopulations.IamcertainlynotsayingthatDarwinianideasare
particlesaredrivenbyanoscillatingforce.Over
time,theforcetriggerstheformationofmorebonds
wrong,heexplained.Onthecontrary,Iamjustsayingthatfromtheperspectiveof
amongtheparticles.
PolarBearsHuntonLandasIce
thephysics,youmightcallDarwinianevolutionaspecialcaseofamoregeneral
CourtesyofJeremyEngland
Shrinks
phenomenon.
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Hisidea,detailedinarecentpaperandfurtherelaboratedinatalkheisdeliveringat
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universitiesaroundtheworld,hassparkedcontroversyamonghiscolleagues,who
X
seeitaseithertenuousorapotentialbreakthrough,orboth.
Scientific American Mind
Digital
Englandhastakenaverybraveandveryimportantstep,saidAlexanderGrosberg,aprofessorofphysicsatNewYorkUniversitywho
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hasfollowedEnglandsworksinceitsearlystages.Thebighopeisthathehasidentifiedtheunderlyingphysicalprincipledrivingthe
+ 1yr of archive access for just $9.99
originandevolutionoflife,Grosbergsaid.
Hurry this offer ends soon! >
JeremyisjustaboutthebrightestyoungscientistIevercameacross,saidAttilaSzabo,abiophysicistintheLaboratoryofChemical
PhysicsattheNationalInstitutesofHealthwhocorrespondedwithEnglandabouthistheoryaftermeetinghimataconference.Iwas
struckbytheoriginalityoftheideas.
Others,suchasEugeneShakhnovich,aprofessorofchemistry,chemicalbiologyandbiophysicsatHarvardUniversity,arenot
convinced.Jeremysideasareinterestingandpotentiallypromising,butatthispointareextremelyspeculative,especiallyasappliedto
lifephenomena,Shakhnovichsaid.
Englandstheoreticalresultsaregenerallyconsideredvalid.Itishisinterpretationthathisformularepresentsthedrivingforce
behindaclassofphenomenainnaturethatincludeslifethatremainsunproven.Butalready,thereareideasabouthowtotestthat
interpretationinthelab.
Hestryingsomethingradicallydifferent,saidMaraPrentiss,aprofessorofphysicsatHarvardwhoiscontemplatingsuchan
experimentafterlearningaboutEnglandswork.Asanorganizinglens,Ithinkhehasafabulousidea.Rightorwrong,itsgoingtobe
verymuchworththeinvestigation.
AttheheartofEnglandsideaisthesecondlawofthermodynamics,alsoknownasthelawofincreasingentropyorthearrowoftime.
Hotthingscooldown,gasdiffusesthroughair,eggsscramblebutneverspontaneouslyunscrambleinshort,energytendstodisperseor
spreadoutastimeprogresses.Entropyisameasureofthistendency,quantifyinghowdispersedtheenergyisamongtheparticlesina
system,andhowdiffusethoseparticlesarethroughoutspace.Itincreasesasasimplematterofprobability:Therearemorewaysfor
energytobespreadoutthanforittobeconcentrated.Thus,asparticlesinasystemmovearoundandinteract,theywill,throughsheer
chance,tendtoadoptconfigurationsinwhichtheenergyisspreadout.Eventually,thesystemarrivesatastateofmaximumentropy
calledthermodynamicequilibrium,inwhichenergyisuniformlydistributed.Acupofcoffeeandtheroomitsitsinbecomethesame
temperature,forexample.Aslongasthecupandtheroomareleftalone,thisprocessisirreversible.Thecoffeeneverspontaneously
heatsupagainbecausetheoddsareoverwhelminglystackedagainstsomuchoftheroomsenergyrandomlyconcentratinginitsatoms.
Althoughentropymustincreaseovertimeinanisolatedorclosedsystem,anopensystemcankeepitsentropylowthatis,divide
energyunevenlyamongitsatomsbygreatlyincreasingtheentropyofitssurroundings.Inhisinfluential1944monographWhatIs
Life?theeminentquantumphysicistErwinSchrdingerarguedthatthisiswhatlivingthingsmustdo.Aplant,forexample,absorbs
extremelyenergeticsunlight,usesittobuildsugars,andejectsinfraredlight,amuchlessconcentratedformofenergy.Theoverall
entropyoftheuniverseincreasesduringphotosynthesisasthesunlightdissipates,evenastheplantpreventsitselffromdecayingby
maintaininganorderlyinternalstructure.
Lifedoesnotviolatethesecondlawofthermodynamics,butuntilrecently,physicistswereunabletousethermodynamicstoexplain
whyitshouldariseinthefirstplace.InSchrdingersday,theycouldsolvetheequationsofthermodynamicsonlyforclosedsystemsin
equilibrium.Inthe1960s,theBelgianphysicistIlyaPrigoginemadeprogressonpredictingthebehaviorofopensystemsweaklydriven
byexternalenergysources(forwhichhewonthe1977NobelPrizeinchemistry).Butthebehaviorofsystemsthatarefarfrom
equilibrium,whichareconnectedtotheoutsideenvironmentandstronglydrivenbyexternalsourcesofenergy,couldnotbepredicted.
Thissituationchangedinthelate1990s,dueprimarilytotheworkofChrisJarzynski,nowattheUniversityofMaryland,andGavin
Crooks,nowatLawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory.JarzynskiandCrooksshowedthattheentropyproducedbyathermodynamic
process,suchasthecoolingofacupofcoffee,correspondstoasimpleratio:theprobabilitythattheatomswillundergothatprocess
dividedbytheirprobabilityofundergoingthereverseprocess(thatis,spontaneouslyinteractinginsuchawaythatthecoffeewarms
up).Asentropyproductionincreases,sodoesthisratio:Asystemsbehaviorbecomesmoreandmoreirreversible.Thesimpleyet
rigorousformulacouldinprinciplebeappliedtoanythermodynamicprocess,nomatterhowfastorfarfromequilibrium.Our
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understandingoffarfromequilibriumstatisticalmechanicsgreatlyimproved,Grosbergsaid.England,whoistrainedinboth
biochemistryandphysics,startedhisownlabatMITtwoyearsagoanddecidedtoapplythenewknowledgeofstatisticalphysicsto
biology.
UsingJarzynskiandCrooksformulation,hederivedageneralizationofthesecondlawofthermodynamicsthatholdsforsystemsof
particleswithcertaincharacteristics:Thesystemsarestronglydrivenbyanexternalenergysourcesuchasanelectromagneticwave,
andtheycandumpheatintoasurroundingbath.Thisclassofsystemsincludesalllivingthings.Englandthendeterminedhowsuch
systemstendtoevolveovertimeastheyincreasetheirirreversibility.Wecanshowverysimplyfromtheformulathatthemorelikely
evolutionaryoutcomesaregoingtobetheonesthatabsorbedanddissipatedmoreenergyfromtheenvironmentsexternaldrivesonthe
waytogettingthere,hesaid.Thefindingmakesintuitivesense:Particlestendtodissipatemoreenergywhentheyresonatewitha
drivingforce,ormoveinthedirectionitispushingthem,andtheyaremorelikelytomoveinthatdirectionthananyotheratanygiven
moment.
Thismeansclumpsofatomssurroundedbyabathatsometemperature,liketheatmosphereortheocean,shouldtendovertimeto
arrangethemselvestoresonatebetterandbetterwiththesourcesofmechanical,electromagneticorchemicalworkintheir
environments,Englandexplained.
Selfreplication(orreproduction,inbiologicalterms),theprocessthatdrivestheevolutionoflifeonEarth,isonesuchmechanismby
whichasystemmightdissipateanincreasingamountofenergyovertime.AsEnglandputit,Agreatwayofdissipatingmoreistomake
morecopiesofyourself.InaSeptemberpaperintheJournalofChemicalPhysics,hereportedthetheoreticalminimumamountof
dissipationthatcanoccurduringtheselfreplicationofRNAmoleculesandbacterialcells,andshowedthatitisveryclosetotheactual
amountsthesesystemsdissipatewhenreplicating.HealsoshowedthatRNA,thenucleicacidthatmanyscientistsbelieveservedasthe
precursortoDNAbasedlife,isaparticularlycheapbuildingmaterial.OnceRNAarose,heargues,itsDarwiniantakeoverwas
perhapsnotsurprising.
Thechemistryoftheprimordialsoup,randommutations,geography,catastrophiceventsandcountlessotherfactorshavecontributed
tothefinedetailsofEarthsdiversefloraandfauna.ButaccordingtoEnglandstheory,theunderlyingprincipledrivingthewhole
processisdissipationdrivenadaptationofmatter.
Thisprinciplewouldapplytoinanimatematteraswell.Itisverytemptingtospeculateaboutwhatphenomenainnaturewecannowfit
underthisbigtentofdissipationdrivenadaptiveorganization,Englandsaid.Manyexamplescouldjustberightunderournose,but
becausewehaventbeenlookingforthemwehaventnoticedthem.
Scientistshavealreadyobservedselfreplicationinnonlivingsystems.AccordingtonewresearchledbyPhilipMarcusoftheUniversity
ofCalifornia,Berkeley,andreportedinPhysicalReviewLettersinAugust,vorticesinturbulentfluidsspontaneouslyreplicate
themselvesbydrawingenergyfromshearinthesurroundingfluid.AndinapaperappearingonlinethisweekinProceedingsofthe
NationalAcademyofSciences,MichaelBrenner,aprofessorofappliedmathematicsandphysicsatHarvard,andhiscollaborators
presenttheoreticalmodelsandsimulationsofmicrostructuresthatselfreplicate.Theseclustersofspeciallycoatedmicrospheres
dissipateenergybyropingnearbyspheresintoformingidenticalclusters.ThisconnectsverymuchtowhatJeremyissaying,Brenner
said.
Besidesselfreplication,greaterstructuralorganizationisanothermeansbywhichstronglydrivensystemsrampuptheirabilityto
dissipateenergy.Aplant,forexample,ismuchbetteratcapturingandroutingsolarenergythroughitselfthananunstructuredheapof
carbonatoms.Thus,Englandarguesthatundercertainconditions,matterwillspontaneouslyselforganize.Thistendencycould
accountfortheinternalorderoflivingthingsandofmanyinanimatestructuresaswell.Snowflakes,sanddunesandturbulentvortices
allhaveincommonthattheyarestrikinglypatternedstructuresthatemergeinmanyparticlesystemsdrivenbysomedissipative
process,hesaid.Condensation,windandviscousdragaretherelevantprocessesintheseparticularcases.
Heismakingmethinkthatthedistinctionbetweenlivingandnonlivingmatterisnotsharp,saidCarlFranck,abiologicalphysicistat
CornellUniversity,inanemail.Imparticularlyimpressedbythisnotionwhenoneconsiderssystemsassmallaschemicalcircuits
involvingafewbiomolecules.
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Englandsboldideawilllikelyfaceclosescrutinyinthecomingyears.Heiscurrentlyrunningcomputersimulationstotesthistheory
thatsystemsofparticlesadapttheirstructurestobecomebetteratdissipatingenergy.Thenextstepwillbetorunexperimentsonliving
systems.
Prentiss,whorunsanexperimentalbiophysicslabatHarvard,saysEnglandstheorycouldbetestedbycomparingcellswithdifferent
mutationsandlookingforacorrelationbetweentheamountofenergythecellsdissipateandtheirreplicationrates.Onehastobe
carefulbecauseanymutationmightdomanythings,shesaid.Butifonekeptdoingmanyoftheseexperimentsondifferentsystems
andif[dissipationandreplicationsuccess]areindeedcorrelated,thatwouldsuggestthisisthecorrectorganizingprinciple.
BrennersaidhehopestoconnectEnglandstheorytohisownmicrosphereconstructionsanddeterminewhetherthetheorycorrectly
predictswhichselfreplicationandselfassemblyprocessescanoccurafundamentalquestioninscience,hesaid.
Havinganoverarchingprincipleoflifeandevolutionwouldgiveresearchersabroaderperspectiveontheemergenceofstructureand
functioninlivingthings,manyoftheresearcherssaid.Naturalselectiondoesntexplaincertaincharacteristics,saidArdLouis,a
biophysicistatOxfordUniversity,inanemail.Thesecharacteristicsincludeaheritablechangetogeneexpressioncalledmethylation,
increasesincomplexityintheabsenceofnaturalselection,andcertainmolecularchangesLouishasrecentlystudied.
IfEnglandsapproachstandsuptomoretesting,itcouldfurtherliberatebiologistsfromseekingaDarwinianexplanationforevery
adaptationandallowthemtothinkmoregenerallyintermsofdissipationdrivenorganization.Theymightfind,forexample,thatthe
reasonthatanorganismshowscharacteristicXratherthanYmaynotbebecauseXismorefitthanY,butbecausephysicalconstraints
makeiteasierforXtoevolvethanforYtoevolve,Louissaid.
Peopleoftengetstuckinthinkingaboutindividualproblems,Prentisssaid.WhetherornotEnglandsideasturnouttobeexactly
right,shesaid,thinkingmorebroadlyiswheremanyscientificbreakthroughsaremade.
EmilySingercontributedreporting.
ReprintedwithpermissionfromQuantaMagazine,aneditoriallyindependentdivisionofSimonsFoundation.orgwhosemissionisto
enhancepublicunderstandingofsciencebycoveringresearchdevelopmentsandtrendsinmathematicsandthephysicalandlife
sciences.
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