MTRL 358 Hydrometallurgy Introduction to Mineral Processing (Ore particles may contain a number of different mineral phases. These may be dispersed ina variety of ways, A classification scheme is shown in the table on the next page. The way that phases of interest are distributed in ore particles is eitcalto the processes used to liberste them, Hence the need to do careful mineralogical studies. This may be quite a complex problem since ore bodies may be very large and also may be quite inhomogeneous. Important characteristics of an ore are listed below: 1) Phases present and their chemical composition (related tothe value ofthe ore and how ‘twill be treated) 2) Volume or mass fraction of each mineral (related tothe value ofthe ore and issues such as dealing with impurities) 3) The sizes and size distributions of the grains - the individual mineral particles inthe ore (e.g. very fine grains may be hard to get at; <10 ym grains can be very difficult to liberate from an ore. Size is not easy to define for an irregularly shaped grain, or one that i plate-shaped or has a needle-like shape.) 4) Shapes of the grains (may impact on physical separation processes, e.g. long narrow ‘grains may be harder to screen than cubie grains) 5) Microstructure of the mineral grains 6) Distributions of grains within the oe (microstructure defines distribution of the phase within the grain. (cg. i the phase of interest continuous ore distributed as isolated Particles? This will influence the physical and chemical properties of the ore and in ‘tum affects the separation processes) Mineral processing is concerned with separation of valuable mineral phases from gangue by means of physical processes only. No bulk chemical tansformations are employed at this stage, although chemicals may be used that exploit or even change surface chemical properties ‘and even surface chemical composition. Any physical property may be employed. Some {important ones include Size Shape Density Magnetism Conductivity Haniness Surface chemical propertiesTABLE 31.7 Geometric clasiicaion of mines! microstructures (based on work by Amstutz) (Copyrigh Colorado Schoo of Mine Press) ‘Seaver Data Lert Bump CO orm spies Ey May amp ° (eames compe peal eny Mary xp, OQ SLA eet ne BO mre me ernst BO vrsynan ieee eee prorcerecer con eee Ss pn te Cae i nye eye anttere tn itm Pott sin etme ties erate cose eee eee Fein Analysis of polished sections of ore particles with microscopy is a very important ‘technique for determining possible processing schemes for ores. Identification of gangue ‘materials is important as well, as these may affect processing, eg. extent of silica in bauxite, arsenic sulphides such as FeAsS (arsenopyrite) in smelter concentrates, etc All of these considerations point tothe need for carefil are sampling and ‘mineralogical evaluation of an ore body during the life of the depos, a this aexts not ‘only economies but the metallurgical process flowsheet as well. For instance, some ‘deposits run out of one kind of material, and wihat's left is hard to proces, like oxidic gold, ‘ores giving way to sulphidic gold ores‘A more realistic picture of phase liberation is shown in the following figure: “hese mtn ptclestacton fo ps mt Although physical separation may require complete liberation, chemical separation (te. leaching) may only require phase exposure. (N.B. The degree of size reduction required to ‘expose mineral B is far less than that required to completely liberate B. Grain sizes are typically much smaller than the ore particle sizes (a). The number of grains per particle is typically so large that the proportions of each phase are about the same in each. particle. With size reduction some particles are produced that ae composed mainly of one phase they are liberated. Others contain a mixture of phases (b and c). Relative amounts of phases now differ greatly between particles. Physical separations can be carried out (@). Size reduction is a required first step.‘Some of the important principles involved in size reduction are ilustrated by the simple model of Wiegel and Li. See the figures on the following page. The model assumes cubic particles with cubic grains of phases A and B. The original particle is brcken apart into uniform ‘cubic particles (assumes a cubie facture lative for each grain) Individual grains of size a are ‘broken up into cubic particles of size B. The term m is the ratio of volumes of A over B in the ore; ‘n= 0.1 means the volume occupied by A is 0.01 ofthe volume occupied by B, and so on. The term k refers to the ratio ofthe original grain size tothe final particle size, i. a/B. In the graph at the bottom of the next page the extent of liberation of B is plotted versus k for a varity of values of n, as per the model. Here Ls is the fraction of grains of B which are liberated. It can be seen that La varies greatly with k. A value of k < 1 presumably means that the fracture process has produced a particle that is smaller than the original, out still larger than the train s2e a: it is comprised of mare than one grain, The key points are: 100) liberation is almost independent of n, For large values of n, no liberation of B is obtained at k Vimodal particle size distribution. Stow compreeson Suns lve increased gradually until -O0 OQ propagation of existing cracks occurs ‘Compressive sess waves propaga though emul Compe does . cseproion rte Arcelor cons > Shermer eed eon C0000, SE ‘ad forming new ons. Resultant parle ‘sees are mich salle, uantty Ee NN Factors afeting rock fate Form of ppd sess Congest ota ‘Method of pplication FATE Stain re, consbaned or ncaa mall [Farle geomery Sie ‘Micosotce Proporion of Gch Tinea] dahon of wineal gaia ial pope of individ minerals, pre-xiting dees (e rch) ‘The frst wo are illted above, Parle geometry affects how suesses ae concenrteldismbued Microstructure influences how realy the mineral gains themelves face.‘Size Reduction Processes: Two major kinds: 2) Crushing Large rodes >» small rocks/pebbbes 2 oe Soca setiek (Crusher Types: 2) Jaw Crushers b) — Gyratory Crushers ©) Cone Crashers 4) Roll Crushers ©) Impact Crushers (Hammer Mills) THBLE 422 Characteristics of common size reduction processes (Tarjan) (Copyright Academai Kate) cigs Fie Son wy Mace re Tene Red aoe Re a ed ne =” a a oe Tateinth «Sr 1500 Om suas tere saa 0550 2am ta Rimrna per astm ont OI ec” sas aman ass we wen somos atom bam ingest” 01515 oomtaas O10 tao1000 ‘ete =e ade i eye see Jaw Crushers ’ Compression is applied to the particles, which descend under gravity into a taxered cavity bound by one fixed and one hinged crusher plate. The hinged plate moves back and forth like a big jawbone, "biting" the particles (hence the name). Useful for very large arises ee (p10 ~10 eet). Ching orcs eape. only on compressive soe. High nergy eonsmption Factre by parelepurtele coma or partie Fachise contac. Maman particle ‘Ste set by opening dimensions gape’ with Miximam ouput sae setby mnximam opeiag a botom ‘ofeniser= the ‘st. Paver oneumptio can be lestened by Screening out undersie materi in ‘be fed. Also maximises throughput. Power daw vanes durng the ec Can be minimized witha fhe.‘Guratory Crushers Similar to the jaw crusher, inthe gyratory crusher, particles are fractured under slow ‘compression, along with some shear. The crusher plate is in the form of a spindle which gyrates in an coventric path, within a conical shell. Higher throughputs are possible in a gpratory crusher than in a jaw crusher, since crushing is always taking place, regardless of the spindle positon, whercas in a jaw crusher, crushing takes place only during the “down- bite” stroke. pov 1000 hep A jaw Cusherss word cahenevey rossi ble Cone Crushers ‘These are modified gyratory crushers. Here the spindle is supported from below, rather than hanging from a central bearing. This allows for a reconfiguration of the top of the crusher, allowing higher capacity. Tost of cone crushers doesnot thve to accommodate large cea Beanng of eyatny. ‘The erasing shell hea is mde tollare outward Volame expansion broken oe more readily accommodated by ineeased cross-sectional area towards discharge end. Wide fare allows inereased crushing sce are, Good wrougput ‘ape, Thee havea grate sen were crshing pits ae Slmos parallel Tas gives ‘mote uniform part size ‘Wide fare increases length of crushing stroke nar he end ofthe bow High stoke velociy fesuls in impact facture aber {han slow compression,(0) Soumya (eh he aay won Ia mys wall al | “spe pd sts lad Gace Diagrams of a jaw crusher, cone crusher and a ball mill‘Throughput of a crusher is influenced by the opening size of the machine and the juired maximum allowable particle size inthe product, The smaller the product, the more time ‘must be allowed for crushing a given mass. Hence throughput decreases with decreasing particle size ofthe product. This is illustrated in the figures below for three types of crushers. Tey ausherRoll Crushers Material is fed between two spring-loaded rotating rolls, which may be smooth or toothed. They impart a high degree of shear to the particles, and are suitable for weak, ductile materials, 196.429 Schema dip of il her wi spe ‘Impact Crushers (Hemmer Mills) Material is impacted by fast moving hammers which swing freely from a central rotor. These are suitable for weak, ductile materials, such as coal, »‘Tumbling Mills (Grinders) Rod Mills: High carbon steel rods tumble over each other in parallel alignment. Ore particles trapped between the rods are crushed. Large particles are broken more easily than small ones ‘Schematic diagram ofa rod mill, {2 Schematic diagram of bal mill Note the seeen a the ou-Oow is for retaining the balls rather than for sizing produce Autogenous (Self-Grinding) Mills. Here, large ore particles serve as the grinding medium, ‘Breakage is achieved by using mills of high diameter to length ratio, causing particles to fall a longer distance than in rod or ball mills.‘Tumbling or grinding mills employ a grinding medium, usually very hard and mills sre rotaicd, The grinding medst ae allowed to move freely. The tumbling action of the grinding. ‘medium acts to crush ore particles. Rod mills are especially good for grinding coarse material. The long parallel rods make the most contact with the coarsest particles. Larger particles are broken preferentially. They produce a narrow size range of particles. They produce a minimum of extremely fine particles, due to less contact between the smaller particles and the rods. Because of the narrow size range, recirculation of oversize material is usually not necessary. Hence these are usually operated in ‘open cireuit fashion (ic. no recirculation). Balls in ball mills need to be small enough to maximize surface area-to-volume, but large enough to provide sufficient mass and thence foree to break the largest particles in the fee. Grinding may be done in the presence of water. Ball mills produce a broader range of particle sizes. Oversize material may be segregated from the product and retuned tothe ball mill feed. Autogenous mills uiilize large particles ofthe ore itself to act as the grinding medium, ‘High density grinding media as in ball and rod mills is not involved, A large diameterto-length 400 are not used.‘There are many types of sereening devices available. General types inchue static and ‘éynamie (moving). Dynamic sereens include revolving drums, vibrating screens with a wide variety of types of movement and conveying devices. The largest sereens are called grizzlies, ‘These have heavy duty rails with wide slot openings for sereening feds to primary crushers. The smallest are around 200,m diameter. Smaller size screens make it very dificult to achieve high throughputs. Small aperture sereens have larger proportions ofthe surface area occupied by the screen mesh material, lowering the probebilty of particles passing through, The increasingly fine ‘mesh also becomes mechanically Weaker and prone to damage. There aro numerous designs for screen meshes Another type of screen is the probability screen. Here the aperture is substantially larger than the desired product particle size. This type of screen relies on the fact that as the particle size increases the probability of passage is lowered. IF the feyucucy of encounters between Particle and the screen is kept low, only the much smaller particles make it through. For 10 attempts the probability of passage approaches 1 when dy ~0.1 Da, Screening is a complex process. Estimation of the size of screen required for an application should be determined by testing with actual samples of the ore to be processed. assificl ‘This depends on the setting of solid particles under gravity in a fluid; water or ar. Centrifugal forces may also be involved if particles are moved radially. The specific forces involved are gravity, centrifugal forces, buoyancy and drag. Depending on conditions such a5 viscosity, particle size and shape and particle velocity laminar flow or turbulent flow of the fluid around the paticle may occur. Terminal velocity is a key parameter for the setling rate. For laminar flow the terminal velocity is proportional to the square of the particle diameter. For turbulent flow it is related to the square root of diameter. Hence the possiblity of separation of particles on the basis of setling rates depends critically on the flow regmes about the particles. Variations in density affect seting rates as well. This is minor for minerals with similar densities, but may be significant for minerals with much different densities (e.g quartz: 2.65 g/em? and galena, PbS: 7.5 g/om'). It tums out that over the range 0.1 mm - 10 mrt. laminar flow, turbulent flow and combined regimes exist. This reduces selectivity. For <100 jum particle sizes, the settling velocities become very low. This becomes impractical for industrial processes. As particle size increases turbulent flow eventually dominates. Here since terminal velocity ad, the setting rate is relatively less sensitive to particle size. Larger particles are generally best handled by screening, For particles ofthe same density the larger ones will fall fastest. For particles of the same size, the densest ones will fall fastest. Where differences in density are substantial a desired separation by classification is best suited to a somewhat coarser, more evenly sized ground ore, ‘The product ofa rod mill may be preferable here. A ball mill will tend t» overgrind fine, denser particles.Free settling involves a rather dilute slury, with a low concentration of particles. As particles fallin a more dense pulp they bump into each other. This slows settling and leads to ‘what is called hindered setting. The system then behaves lke @ heavy liquid whose density is that of the pulp (water plus solids). Now resistance to fall is mainly due to turbulence. For spherical particles the terminal velocity is expressed a, = K{A(D, - Dp"? ‘k= proportionality constant (several physical terms) d=partcle diameter D,= particle density D, = density ofthe pulp (weighted average density of water + solids) D. - Dy is the effective particle density. As pulp density increases, the effective density of the solid particles (a D, - D,) decreases. Now large density differences between mineral particles becomes more important in hindered settling. Take the example of quartz and galena again. For 8 slurry with a density of 1.5 gimL. (water has a density of 1 g/mL) what size ratio of the two material is required for both to have the same setting rate? This yields dour! dgs =(7.5-1.5)/(2.65-1.5) So a quartz particle 5.2 times the size of a galena particle will fll atthe same rate, For free settling the density ofthe fuidis that of water. In this case, Aayceldrys = 3.94 Hence the effect of density differences between minerals is amplified by hindering setting conditions, Free settling classifiers may be used when the separation is to be based predominantly on size; density differences are relatively small. Hindered settling classifiers are employed when the density differences between particles ate to be exploited. Free settling requires a lot more water, Effisiency of settling is lower in hindered setling due to the increased viscosity of the fluid (slurry). Sorting is separation based on density differences. This employs slurries with 40-70% solids by weight. Sizing is separation on the basis of particle size. Slurries range from 3% solids for very fine particles to 35% solids for coarse particles. ‘Another type of classifier utilizes a slurry with maximum density of particles. Each particle now is surrounded by a thin film of water. The particles in this slurry are about as close ‘as they can get. This forms in effect a viscous fluid where particles don’t move much. Particles ‘with a density greater than tha of the slurry can penetrate it and fall through. An illustration of a classifier is shown atop the next page. These have a conical bottom. ‘They may be very large (on tke order of 10* m) and have a large capital cost, Slurry feed enters near the centre and spreads over the surface. The overflow contains the undersize particles. The larger particles fall and are dirscted toward a centre outlet (underflow) by a slowly rotting rake 22‘These utilize a horizontal current or flow. A numberof these are may be used in series to achieve the desired separation. There are also other types of mechanical classifiers, for instance using a large screw in an inclined trough. Rotation of the screw lifts lighter particles up toward the overflow while gravity draws heavier particles down. ‘Sedimentation Classifiers. The best example is a rake classifier, where fluid flow is directed radially outward ffom the center to the efge, and percle sete to the bottom due t gravity Rotating rake P Liquor tevet | | FIG. 43.13 Sctematic diagram o «rake clastifier Undertiow | Hydroclones or Cyclones. : ‘These use centrifugal force to increase the rate of segregation of the particles. The centrifugal forces may range from 10-4000 g, depending on size ofthe cyclone. An illistraion of a cyclone is shown below: Vortex ‘inde ba Str ow pau wit ehyoerene 23Slurry enters the conical vessel tangentially at high rate, Oversize particles stay against ‘the wall and drop toward the bottom underflow. The orbiting particles tend to be pushed toward ‘the wall, but their movement is also impeded by drag forees. The smaller particles stay nearer the ‘middle. The figure above shows velocity lines, which tend downward near the wall and upwards near the middle, The heavy particles follow a descending spiral path. The undersize particles exit ‘through a cental pipe atthe top. This is termed the vortex finde. It dips below the liquid level and prevents the feed from simply exiting out the top. An air core develops inthe centre and the pressure in this region is quite low. Most of the liquid volume exits from the top. This drags the ‘smaller particles with it, The flow patter is complex. There is an outer downward spiral and an inner upward spiral. These machines are very efficient for separation of fine particle sizes and they are very important in the mineral processing industry. They find use in closed circuit iginding for separation of oversize and undersize particles, de-sliming (cemovel vf vety fi solids, called slimes), de-gritting (removal of coarse material) and thickening (which is partial removal of wate from a slurry). Hydroclones have replaced mechanical classifiers in modern grinding plants. They are ‘more efficient. especially in the fine particle range, they require less floor space, and the residence time is shorter. This may also have the added benefit of lessening the extent of oxidation of ore particles by air. Oxidation can be deleterious to downstream separation processes. Hydroclones are used for separations involving particles of between S and 150 um. The efliciency of a hydroclone is represented by the partition curve. This is a plot of ‘weight % of material reporting to the underflow versus the size. A schematic example is shown below: Parton cure fora hydectone Sieur) 24For a perfectly efficient machine all the particles below a specified size would repost to ‘the overflew and all those above that size to the underflow. In reality, a curve is obtained. The size corresponding to the point where 50% of the mass goes to underflow and 50% to overflow is, ‘called the eutpoint, or dsp (does not necessarily correspond to the ideal). Particles of this size have a 50-50 chance of reporting to either the overflow or the underflow. The steeper the slope in the vicinity of do, the higher the efficiency. Designers specify eyelones according to flow rates, with provision for adjustments to ‘eed, overflow and underflow openings. The first parameter that needs to be known isthe size at which the feed is to be split into oversize and undersize. This is the dso. The major factor in determining this i the cyclone diameter. A normal feed may contain up to 30% solids by weight In closed circuit grinding operations up to 60% solids may be employed since the degree of separation required is not very fine. Capacities of 2000 -2 x 10 mm are possible. Selection on the Basis of Density ‘The simplest density separation uses a medium of high density to effect separaton. This js the float and sink method. Particles with higher density sink, while those with lower density float, Very fine material must first be removed, since it would settle too slowly. Typical feed sizes are 1.5 mm to 20 cm. Fluids used often consist of fine particle sluries. Examples are: Galena/vater (slurry densities of 3.3-4.3 gfem’; not common now - galena, ie. PbS, abrades and. ‘oxidizes easily); magnetite (slury density ~2.5), and; ferrosilicon (slurry density of 2.5-40). Fluid particles are typically around 100 mesh (150 pm). The fluids ae agitated to keep the media particles suspended and to lower the apparent viscosity (due to increased shear). Separation of ‘mineral particles from those of the medium needs to be readily achieved, usually by washing, in corder to allow recycling of the particles for the medium. Magnetic separation of magnetite and. ferrosilicon is also an option. The separation may be enhanced by applying short, frequent pulsations. This accelerates sinking particles downwards briefly, then stops them and reaeats the ‘process. In principle separation is on the basis of density, not size. But hindered setling conditions apply in concentrated slurries, so larger particles may be impeded. A prior size selection may be required. A similar approach utilizes a device called a jig. This is illustrated atop the next page Again a dense slurry medium is used. The mineral slury is fed onto a screen. The medium is ‘oscillated up anid down through the sereen. All particles are lied fom the sereen in the upstroke In the downstroke the denser particles fall back to the screen. Fine dense particles -descend through the screen to the bottom of the jig. The lighter particles atthe op of the bed are ‘removed. The heavier particles remaining on the sereen may be tapped offigs, Slury is fed onto a screen, with ‘water pulsing up and down, causing the light particles to rise, and the hheavies to settle, each collected over Shaking Tables Sema gr of ‘These consisted of a table ata low incline (upto 6°). The angle deereases as the distance from the feed source increases. The table is also riffed with parallel channels, the depth of which decrease with distance. Feed slurry is introduced at the top comer. As the slurry moves over the table the denser particles setl> and the lighter ones stay near the top. The table is vibrated laterally. The vibration may be asymmetric; slow forward and rapid backward, to move the particles down the table, Water near the surface is retarded by contact with the grooves. Water ‘ear the top of the film moves more quickly and carries the lighter material with it.The effet is to cause separation of the coarse, light particles from the denser, smaller patices. A schematic illustration of a shaker table and the product distribution is shown below. An advantage of these is that they can handle finer feeds than jigs and the like. Slurry compositions of up to 25% by ‘weight may be used. This sort of gravity concentration is especially good for concentrating fine gold particles ’ on, ema Gem sey miner oe ° @ midalings = com posite Parobcles Mactoery, ‘Sec gr hig eine ton of rots aeFilm Concentrators If thin film of slury flows down an incline the heavier and denser particles settle to the ‘bottom ofthe bed while the less dense and lighter ones stay on top. If after this stratification has ‘occurred the flow is intercepted by a narrow slot, the heavier particles drep through, while the lighter ones continue on. This is the basis of how film concentrators work. An illustration of the principle is shown below: ‘A schematic illustration of how a cone concentrator is set up to use this principle is shown below: Feed suey S = Combined Concentrate ils € Tails Fi The slots are annular. These can handle up to 90 Uhr of feed. Feeds may have up to 60-70% solids by weight. They ale not very efficient, but they are simple and inexpensive. Large ‘numbers ofthese can be combined to effect separations.ira ‘These use a descending helical tough. A shury of mineral particles travels down the spiral. Wash water may be introduced at various points to push light particles up the side. A schematic illustration ofthe operating principle is shown below. Heavier, denser particles form a band that stays closer to the centre. The lighter materials tend to spread toward the edge. A. ‘middlings band forms in between. In older versions a small exit port is opened ata suitable angle to draw off the denser concentrate band. ‘The troughs are about 13 om wide. Exit hole are around S em wide and are nearer tothe inside. Adjustable splitters are installed near the exit ports to select a flow cut, Shallow angles of| escent are used for separation of materials with smaller density differences. Steeper sloped helices have greater capacity but less selectivity. Lower grade concentrates result. Capacities range over 1 - 3 Uhr. Banks of these classifiers in parallel can be used to process large tonnages, ‘of material. A fairly evenly sized feed is required. Particles sizes from 8 mesh (2.36 mm) to 200 mesh (0.075 mm) can be accommodated. Minerals should have densities that differ by at least 1 gem ‘The mechanisms involved are very complex. The effects of gravity, ffiction with the trough, dense medium-type separation and centrifugal force are all involved. The heavier and denser particles quickly form a concentrate band that is collected inthe upper half of the spiral Middlings are collected in the lower half of the spiral. These can be recycled. These are used with gold ores to recover five gold particles. For instance a gold ore containing 1.4 g/t of gold ‘can be treated with spiral classifiers to obtain a concentrate that contains 17 g/t of gold. This is an upgrading of a factor of ~12. (The “tilings” may sill contain enough gold to be treated by ‘other extraction processes.) Advances in trough design have allowed development of classifiers ‘that are highly suited to specific applications. In some cases the need for wash water can be eliminated, asMagnetic Separators Background ‘These work on the principle that some materials are atracted to & magnetic fel, while others are not (rare very, very Weakly repelled). Magnetic separators have been in use for 200 years Most materials are either diamagnetic or paramagnetic. The diamagnetic materiale are ‘ery weakly repelled by # magnetic field. The paramagnetic ones are weakly atreted. The nature of the effect his to do with interactions between an applied magnetic field and the electtons in the materials. Electrons possess a property called spn. In quantum mechanical tems itis a vector quantity with one of two states that ae equal and opposite. Elen spin may be ‘up’ or ‘down’. Spin his no genuine analog in our macroscopic experience of the world, There axe crude analogies such as an electron spinning about an axis in one of two directions. Spin fives rise to a magnete moment In aloms and molecules electron spins tend to par oft. In ‘diamagnetic materials all the electron spin are pared, i. for every spn ‘up’ there i a matching spin ‘down’. Hence tke material does not readily magnetize. The only interaction with a ‘magnetic field isa very weakly repulsive one. In paramagnetic materials some ofthe electons bout some of the atoms (one oF more eletron) do ot pair up. This may be due te the compound possessing an uneven mamber of electrons, or due to the way atoms are bonded, In a magnetic field now the unpaied electrons interact more strongly with the field and a net magnetization ean be induced in the material. This results in a weak attraction, albeit much stonger than the dliamageeti repulsion, Furthermore, in some materials the unpaired electrons interact strongly with each other (which is usually not th case in ordinary paramagnetic materials). In ferromagnet materials the electron spins tend to align with each other. These then can interact much more strongly with @ ‘magnetic field than parmagnetic material. In antiferomagnetic materials the spins of electrons ‘on neighbouring atoms interact so as to pair off. They are still unpaired electrons on the individual atoms, but the net effect is forthe material to be very weakly magnetizable because of this pairing In ferrimagnetic materials the unpaired electrons again pair up with those of neighbouring atoms, bu! now the atoms which have the unpaired electrons are of different types; they are in chemically different environments. The magnitudes of the spin vectors differ, so despite aligning, one set of spins is larger than the other and only a partial cancellation occurs, A net magnetic moment persists and the material may be moderately attracted to a magnetic field, although potentially more strongly than an ordinary paramagnetic material, An example is FesOx ‘magnetite. Unpsired clectrons reside on the iron atoms. Due tothe way that the atams are bonded inthe crystal structure the iron atoms occur in two distinct chemical environments, This changes the magnitudes of the spin vectors. ‘The situation is further complicated in ferromagnetic materials by the phenomenon of domains. A small region of the material may have all its spins aligned in one direction in @ domain. In a neighbouring domain the spins might be aligned in a different direction. Over the whole particle the net effect might be for there to be no net alignment of spins; the randomized orientations of the sets ot spins in the domains cancel out. On the other hand the spins in the ‘domains might all be lined up, and intermediate situations may occur. A strong magnetic field ‘will overtime tend to align the domains. Applicaton of another field in the opposite direction 29‘will start to randomize the domains again. So the interaction ofa ferromagnetic material with a ‘magnetic filed depends critically onthe previous magnetic history of the material ‘A magnetized particle may be thought of as a small magnet of length L (the particle diameter) with N and S poles. Inside a uniform magnetic field this litle magnet experiences equal and opposite forces, The net force is zero. There is no attraction. If the particle is in a region of the field where there is a gradient, ie. field strength varies significantly with distance, then the forces on tne two ends differ and there isa net pull on the particle. Since most materials interact rather weakly with magnetic fields, a strong field is required. But a steep gradient is also necessary. These sre somewhat conflicting requirements, since a strong field implies litle change in field strength with distance. Hence both particle size, the field source and the distance between the sourceand the particles are key parameters in designing separators. In addition, the strength of interaction depends critically on the amount of material. Hence composite particle comprised of say a paramagnetic compound plus a diamagnetic one will be les. stongly attracted than one which is composed purely of the paramagnsic compound, Likewie the purely diamagnetic particles willbe more thoroughly rejected than tie composite particles Magnetic separations may be performed on dry and wet feeds. Feeds necessarily move past the separator. Hence centrifugal forces will oppose the magnetic attraction. Gravity and drag forces also oppose magnetic attraction. For larger particles the effect of gravity is more important than drag; they are more massive. For small particles drag forces are more important than ‘savity, particulary in wet feeds. Ordinary compounds (e.g. oxides, halides, main group elements) of common rmetalssemimetals including Si(IV), I(T, Mg(I), Ca(I), Na(), K() and Ti(V) ae diamagnetic. Examples are SiOz, TiO;, AlOs, MgCOs, Na;COs etc. Many transition metal cations or formally cationic atoms in compounds are paramagnetic (not all), In natural rocks Fo(I), Fe(II) and Mn(Il) are common and these states are paramagnetic, or in some cases more strongly magnetic, such as ferrimagnetic FeyO., Other transition metal species which may exhitit ‘paramagnetism include Cr(II), Crl), Mn(IV), Co(t), Co(I1), Ni) and Cu(I). ‘An illustration of rlatve attraction of compounds to magnetic fields is shows in the table below: ‘Compound or mineral | Relative alraction toa magneto Feld iron 100 ‘magneiite, Fe;0. 0 ythotite, Fe 7 hematite, FeyOs 1 [prite, Fes: 02 forite, Ca; 1 ‘eaicite, CaCOp 0.03 Impurities in natural samples may also give rise to small magnetic moments, as was noted above 20‘Design Factors [Achieving field gradient can be done using various geomeries of magnetic poles, ¢. Field strength may be varied by use of electromagnets and by adjusting the gap between the ‘poles Fed should be presented to the separator ideally 26a thin, spread out, uniform sized bed. ‘Dey feds are easier to process. Damp feeds may chimp. High water content shai may be ‘sed. Altemating N and'S poles cause magnetic particles to tumble and this helps to fee them ‘rom non nagnetc panicles ~ fe@beio-n Diy feed nay be coarser. Wet feeds shouldbe finely ground. of Separators ‘There are many types of separators. Two general classes are low intensity and high intensity. The former are suited to separation of strongly magnetizable materials, like magnetite from diamagnetic materials like silica. These employ field strengths of <10 Am. High intensity separators are required for more weakly interacting paramagnetic materials. Field strengths of >100 Alm are required, 24Low Separators Some types involve belts moving over fixed magnets. The belts may move at up to 150 ‘m/min. A schematic ilustration is provided below. These utilize dry feeds. Magnets Non-magnetics Magnetics ‘Drum separators are another common type. Ths is illustrated below: Tailings (Non-magnetic)| Middlings vr Concentrate tn his ee the ed ents ecu tthe dram taton. Tie factions may be obaind wines Ss guages pares) ands idling aston, The te compe a eee se neetidans sonaguete muteals i deste te ming on be Sere Sc winding fr fate Hic hese Opes of sepenos prove a nh Pa seta ba aif loses of gee aise lings esos, Wi oe BLrotating separators ‘he feed enters in a direction counter top the drum rotation. These provide ‘excellent recovery, but a less pure concentrate; significant amounts of non-magentic particles ‘enter the concentrate fraction, Series of countercurrent separators can also be designed. THis involves wet feeds. Tailings are moved in one direction and concentrate particles in the other. ‘Wet separators may also use drums. An illustration of a concurrent type is shown below: Feed Scraper or | swash water J Magnetic particles Tailings ‘The feed enters with the drum rotation. These are useful for large particles (<1/4 ine). Counter- rotating separators have the feed enter from the opposite direction to drum rotation. These are ‘more suited to smaller particles (<0.065 inch). Finally a series of separators operating in counter- Current fash ave sulted to recovery of very fine particles. Capacities for the three types range from 340-560 Lim for the con-curent separators to 180-270 L/min for the counter-current separators. Separators ‘An illustration of such a device is shown below. These use very high intensity fields. In this example the colls have an induced magnetic field. Magnetic particles are drawn around with the roller and drop off as they leave the high intensity region of the field. In this case two magnetic products may be obtained. The non-magnetic particles are slightly repelled by the strong field The gap between the pole and the rollers is adjustable, so the machine ean be tuned to be selective to different magnetic materials. Other more complex separators also exist. A ‘graph illustrating separation of various minerals is shown on the next page. The vertical axis represents recovery of the mineral by magnetic separation. The x-axis is indicative ofthe applied field as measured by the required current. Hematite (Fe;0s) and ilmenite (FeTiO3) interact similarly and are readily picked up at relatively low filed strength. Sphalerite (ZnS) and chalcopyrite (CuFeS:) are separable at higher field strengths. Sphalerite per se should not be paramagnetic, but it probably contains appreciable amounts of iron impurities. Note that the ‘curves can be quite steep, indicating selectivity. 33Induced roll feed Bridge bar ) 4st magnetic*} i «Coil product Ac I~ Poe piece 2nd magnetic* =~ + product Non-magnetic product Hematite fn menite Kd ‘Sphaterite z Sak zot- Cheteopyrite I 1 02 04 06 08 10 12 1 (amo) ‘Sepantility carves for paramagnetic minerals weed ina high itesity magnetic separator (Dobby an Finch (Copyright Ele Souci) a4Electrostatic Separators ‘Separation can be made on the basis of forces acting on charged or polarized particles in ‘an electric field. There are three main mechanisms by which a material may acquire a static charge: (1) Contact electrification When dissimilar materials are brought in contact, e.g. rubbed together, charge separation occurs, and both materials become charged. Repeated contact builds up a static charge. This is hard to control in practice due to variation in properties of materials @) Conductive induction. Ifa particle is placed on the surface of a grounded rotor in an electric field the surface of the particle will become charged by induction. An application of this, is illustrated in the figure below. Conductive particles rapidly acquire the ground potential of the rotor. These will be atracted to the opposite electrode. Non-conducting particles do not pick up charge from the rotor. These stay close to the rotor and then fall away as indicated in the figure 'No electric current flows between the two electrodes in this type of separator. (@) Ion bombardment. These are also called electrodynamic or high tension separators. A very strong electric field will discharge and ionize the air between the two electrodes. These charged ions encounter mineral particles they flow past and the ions attach tothe particles. ‘The particles acquire a charge. Good conductors will Ise their charge more rapidly then poor conductors. Hence now the poorly conducting particles are atracted tothe rotor. The conducting particles tend to fall off the rotor while the non-conducting particles stick with the rotor longer. This is illustrated in the figure below. In this case the discharging electrode provides the ion source and a non-dscharging electrode further accentuates the seperation by attracting the conductor t itself, as outlined sbove. A brush or scraper may be used to draw away the non- conducting particles from the drum. Arcing between the discharging and rotor electrodes short- circuits the system and defeats separation. A corona discharge is needed. Ths i high enough to provide a faint glow atthe discharging electrode, but not high enough fo cause arcing,Spiltter * Sapo mata by on tet Dyno) (Cop SME: AINE) It is critical that the feeds be dry. High humidity can cause problems with these separators, Pre-drying by heating may be necessary. The feed layer should also be thin, which limits capacity. Partiele sizes of 50 - $00 pm can be separated. The charge acquired by the particles resides on the surface. Hence higher surface area-to-volume particles (Gner) are more strongly attracted by the field. Larger particles are more readily thrown from the roto. For the same reasons higher throughputs can be obtained with coarser particles. Less charge per unit ‘mass is required, since again the surface area per unit volume is lower. In addition, larger particles trap a lesser degree of unwanted particles amongst them. Cleaner separations can be ‘achieved, Commercial machines use long drums of up to 3m by 15 ~ 35 em diameter. Capacities fare up to 1.3 ur per m of drum length. Conductivties of materials vary greatly. Many pure metals have qute high electrical conductivities, Ionic solids have a fairly wide range of conductivities. Covalent solids (c.g. SiO:) have very low conductivities. Differences in conductivity are crucial to the success of clectrostatic separators Crystal structure defects and the presence of impurities can have a marked effect on the conductivity of a mineral. Conductivity can change by several orders of tmagnitude. Hence testing with actual samples is required before implementing this type of separation process. Resitivity is the inverse of conductivity. Low resistivity means high conductivity, Normal pyrite has a resistivity of $ x 10° to 0.5 ohm m. In the extreme as low as 10° okm m to as high as 0.5 ohm m can be observed. A good metal conductor has @ resitivty in the range 10° - 10° ohm m. Galena (PbS) has similar conductivity to pyrite. Pentlandite (FeNijSs has low resistivity: 10° - 10° ohm m. Many common oxides have quite high resistivities (70.01 ohm m). But some oxides have somewhat lower resistivities, e.g. magnetite, 0.001 = 0.01 ohm m and hematite, 0.007 - 0.02 ohm m. Some examples of electrostatic ‘separations include: a6(4) separation of rutile (Ti0:), ilmenite (FeTiOs) and zircon ZrSi0,) from beach sands i) separation of tin ores from stream placers (alluvial or glacial deposits) (ii) separation of scheelite(CaWO,) from pyrite (jv) concentration of specular (mirror-lke) hematite AA schematic diagram of atypical lowsheet for teatment cf beach sand is shown below Both magnetic and electrostatic separation processes are employed. Gravity concentration removes much of the lighter minerals. This relatively simple procedure lowers the required throughput that subsequent more coslly separation processes must teat. A low intensity ‘magnetic separator is used to remove the strongly magnetized Fe, mineral, Now high intensity magnetic separation is used to separate paramagnetic from diamagnetic minerals. The 10 fractions must then be dred prior to elecwosttc separation. This finally separates out the four desired minerals: rutile (for Ti02), zircon (for zirconium), ilmenite (for titanium) and monazite (Gor laadanides) Thuowu au pied refer to whieh minerals are retained by the separaior and which are not Wet feed 4 Gravity presconeentation|—» Quartz, gamets { Tow intensify wet_|———* Magnetite magnetic separaton Non- Zircon, CUS setae * Zitag A thin surface layer of Cu fers, This works because CuS is muck les soluble than ZnS. The respective Ke values are 8 x 10°” and 3 x 10, Copper xanthates are insoluble and now the surface of the ZnS particle can attach collector molecules. The amount of copper needed is small since only the surface needs to be modified. This adds only a small degree of contamination to aethe ZnS, In reality the mechanisms at work may be more complicated than the simple picture providec above. An application of CuSO, addition is to aid in separation of a mixture of galena land sphalerite. Galena (PbS) is first floated selectively from the mixture. Then CuSO«5H;0 is ‘added to facilitate Zn flotation in a second stage. Copper sulfate also has a moderate activating effect or PbS, pyrite and calcite. Sulfide (as NaSH or Na;S) may act as an activator in some cases. This works for oxidized ‘minerals of Pb, Cu and Zn, which form quite stable sulfides (low Kip values). The sulfides are ‘generally less’ soluble than the oxides/hydroxides. (Oxidized minerals may consist of oxides/tydroxides and may arise from oxidation of what may have originally been sulfide ‘minerals An illustrative example is activation of cerussite, PDCOs- Addition of NayS mses the pH by hydrolysis reactions. This in turn converts some of the surface PbCOs into a plumbate ‘This reacts with sulfide to form PbS. The reactions are summarized below. NaxS + H,0 <> NaSH + NaOH NaSH + H,O <2 HyS + NOH PbCOs + 3NaOH —> NaHPbO; + H:0+NaxCOs [NaHPbO: + NaSH > PbS + 2NaOH High concentrations of sulfide may be needed due to the relatively high solubility ofthe oxidized minerals (2) Depressants. These make some minerals hydrophilic. There are many types of depressants and the mechanisms of their effects are not always well understood. The effects may also be Fard to control Sulfide can act as a depressant, particularly toward sulfide minerals, (Hence to much sulfide in the previous example would be deleterious.) On sulfide minerals, §* or HS" ions may ‘adsorb, causing an excess of negative surface charge on the surface. This may preven! anionic collectors from adsorbing, Sulfide is also readily oxidized by oxygen. This is present in water solutions at low concentration (~0.26 mM at 25°C from air). It turns out that some oxygen is required for collector to work effectively. Too much depletion of oxygen inhibits collector function Slimes (very fine ore particles produced during grinding) can coat larger mineral particles and preient a hydrophilic surface that inhibits collector function. Desliming is scmetimes necessary prior to flotation. This ean be achieved by vigorous slurry agitation, or by additions of ‘a desliming agent. Sodium silicate (NaySiO3) disperses slimes by adsorbing to the surface. The negatively charged surfaces now repel each other and don’t stick together. In this respect the silicate is acting as an activator. The depressant function of slimes i not desirable. Sodium silicate can also acts as a depressant toward non-sulfide minerals. This can be beneficial for selective flotation of sulfide minerals “eCyanide as NaCN is a depressant. It suppresses flotation of ZnS, FeS and some copper sulfides, In a mixture of sphalerte and some copper minerals, a litle of the copper can dissolve and activate ZnS. Addition of NaCN complexes copper as [Cu(CN),]"; x = I-4. This prevents ZoS flotation. Cyanide use requires a fairly alkaline pH (9-10). In additions some metal xxanthates dissolve in cyanide solution, which prevents flotation. Zinc, nickel, gold and iron xanthates (formed on surfaces) ae soluble in cyanide solution. But the xanthate formed on PbS isnot soluble. Therefore PbS car be selectively floated away from the others ater addition of cyanide. Cyanide does not tend to affect the mineral surfaces all that much, s0 subsequent activation is straightforward. Cyanide may chemically react with some activators, which can cause interference. An illustration ofthe effects of cyanide on flotation of sulfide minerals is shown inthe critical pH curves on the next page. Here the cyanide concentration is plotted on the vertical axis, The collector was potassium ethylxanthate at 25 mg/L. 100) a MeCN concentration, mg I"? & 8 ‘The effect of eyanide on critical pH curves for some sulfide minerals using 25 mg/L KS,COCHs collector. ‘This clearly causes significant differences in the separation curves compare to the critical curves without eyanide, Note that galena is unaffected by cyanide. The curve for pyrite has been shifted to markedly lower pH compared to the curve depicted in the critical pH curve graph a few pages previous. Without cyanide galena and pyrite were not separable using 25 mg/L. cthylxanthate. With the addition of as litle as $-10 mg/L NaCN, galena may be readily floated away from pyrite at pl ~8-10.2 igZine sulfate, ZnSO¢7H,0 is a depressant. It is good for sphalerite depression. In basic solution Zn(OH): may form, which can coat onto Zn$ and render the particles hydrophilic. Likewise zinc can precipitate with cyanide, Dn + 2N ag + ZICNs ‘and the Zn(CN): can coat on the sphalerite particles. Zine may also partially offset activation by Cu" by shifting the equilibrium, Cutty + ZnS, CUS, + Zn"%y to the left, Zine sulfate is omy effective at alkaline pH. Sulfur dioxide, SO, depresses PbS in copper-lead sulfides separation. It also suppresses ZnS flotation by xanthates. Chaleopyrite is activated by SOx. It doesn’t depress flotation of many ‘copper sulfide minerals, but some copper minerals (chaleacite and covellite) are dissolved by the acidic SO> solutions. Sulfur dioxide does not dissolve precious metals (cyanide does), but it may interfere with some collectors K,Cr,0; is used to depress galena in copper-lead sulfide mineral systems. Lead chromate, PbCrOg (Ky = 1.3 x 10%), forms and is hydrophilic. Polar organic materials such as tannin, starch, quebracho and dextrin form colloidal particles that can coat onto mineral surfaces, These may be used to depress gangue minerals, tale, ‘graphite and calcite. They are notas effective as ionized inorganic depressants. (2) pH modifiers. These were mentioned earlier in the context of the effect of pH on flotation. pH control utilizes larger amounts of chemicals than collectors. The later are ‘expensive, but used at low concentration. If acid pH adjustment is needed, sulfuric acid is the cheapest choice, Sulfur dioxide may also be used, Engineering Flotation Cirouts for Mixtures of Minerals ‘There are two common types of circuits employed. Take an example of a mixed copper/zine sutide ore, The ore is ground and then subjected to otaton. (1) Differential cireits. Cotector Collector | Nao CuS0,5H,0 ore Tail r ais tL te | | Concentrate A Concentrate 8 () ay SoCollector (e.g. axanthate) is added withthe ore, along with a depressant (NaCN in this ease) to suppress Zn$ flotation, A copper concentrate is collected. The tailings from this operation proceed to the next section. More collector is added along with an activator (CuSO, here) to float ‘out ZnS. A differentiation is made between the minerals from the ore directly. (@) BulkSeletve Crests Colector oo Bulk __}-———* Gangue Buk Cuzn Soncept Saeaive —}—+ Concentrate en) Depressant og raise pH Concentrate A (ey) “In this case a mixed (bulk) concentrate is recovered in a preliminary stage. Then th concentrate 4s separated into the various minerals of interest. All the collector is added atthe start. To treat ‘the bulk concentrate a depressant is added (simply a mater of raising the pHT to suficient levels [prevents ZnS flotation) and the copper sulfide mineral is floated out selectively. The “tilings” ‘(minerals not floated) are the zine sulfide mineral. Tis isthe other product. Differential circuits give better separations. Bulk/selective circuits are less expensive to ‘build ard to operate. Less material is handled in the second step, requiring smaller equipment and lesser amounts of reagents. This kind of tradeoff is commonplace in extractive metallurgy. A diagram depieting an older type of floatation cell is shown atthe top of the next page. ‘There area variety of types of flotation devices. In practice flotation takes place in a number of ‘cells operated in series, and with different sets of conditions in order to both maximize recovery ‘and maximize grade. A single cell isnot efficient enough to be effective. Tailings from one cell are fed to the next cell in series. Both goals cannot nonmally be achieved with one set of ‘conditions. This i illustrated forthe recovery of copper sulfide minerals (covellite, chalcopyrite and borate in this instance) from an ore also containing iron sulfides (pyrite and pyrthotte). The feed copper grade is just 0.75%. This is alow grade ore. The feed slurry from the grinding circuit ‘contains 50% solids and 50% water by weight. Base ime), collector and frother are added in theFig 29. Cutaway view ofa subaeration typeof tation cell The method of producing bubbles and the technique for gathering the froth are shown (Boldt nd Queneau, 1967) ‘grinding circuit. The circuit is illustrated in a figure below. There aze three banks of cells. The feed proceeds first to the “roughers”. These provide a good degree of recovery and a moderately. high grade concentrate. The grade is indicated on the figure, The tailings ffom the rougher proceeds to the “scavengers”. Further additions of collector are made along with an activator (CuSO.). The latter is added to activate partially oxidized copper minerals (oxidation of sulfide eee Freee 50,0008 0.75% cu Goncentate 150004 24% Gu Talings 48,5004 0.05% Cu eae POAARSAASS wet oe i : sh. a Fig 212. Representatve fowsheet for the flotation of copper sulphides from iron sulphides showing the rougher, cleaner, scavenger and regrind stages v2‘minerals by oxygen from air occurs; increased surface area due to grinding exposes fresh surface). The further addition of collector ensures a high degree of recovery of copper minerals. Selectivity is not the point her; recovery is. The product from scavenger flotation (midalings) is typically reground in order to effect better liberation. In this case it contains about 3% copper. ‘These middlings are returned to the roughers for further upgrading. The concentrate product from the roughers (15-20% copper) proceeds to tke “cleaners”. Base and NaCN are added, (Cyanide at low concentration acts to depress the iron minerals, Too much eyanide, however, will also depress the copper minerals. (The generalizations on the use of modifiers are not ard and fast rules. Effects may vary depending on pH, concentration, the chemical make-up of the ore, and interaction with solution species.) In this part of the circuit selectivity is the key, not recovery. The final concentrate product typically contains 20-30% copper. The tailings from cleaner flotation are called middiings. These contair about 12% copper and are routed back to the roughers after further grinding. The middlings may be comprised of composite particles or ‘may be somewhat too massive. The final tilings fiom the scavengers contain typically about 0.05% copper. The extent of upgrading is then 0.75/0.05 = 15:1, Recovery of copper isthe ratio of copper mass input (with the feed) divided by the mass of copper in the concentrate. For 1000, Uh feed with 0.75% Cu, if a concentrated is produced at 25 Uh and a grade of 25% Cu, then recovery is (25 x 0.25)/ (1000 x 0.0075) = 0.8333 =83.3%. The rest goes to tulings and is lost. If the copper mineral in the ore was largely chalcopyrite (CuFeS,) a 24% copper concentrate ‘would contain about 70% CuFeS; by weight Molybdenite (MoS:) is often present in such ores at low concentration. It is more readily floated than the copper minerals and so appears in the cleaner concentrate, It may be recovered by flotation of the cleaner concentrate aftr addition of sufficient NaCN to suppress the copper ‘minerals and more collector. The grinding mills required forthe recycle feeds to the roughers are uite small since the volumes of material being treatd are low. I is apparent that this circuit is fairly complex. The ideas of using roughers, cleaners and scavengers are quite common. It is necessary in order to achieve both good recovery and high grade product. Those two objectives are counter to one another. This is a straightforward example. More complex ores, which are becoming the more commonly available resources, require more complicated flowsheets. ‘The effects of grind size on both copper recovery and on the copper concentration in the final tailings is shown in the figure below. The data indicate that an optimum particle size exists. [Note too that the optimum size is rather small, about 20-30 pm. The extent of grinding required is substantial ‘There ate other types of flotation techniques in addition to froth flotation. These are iMustrated in the second figure below. Froth flotation requires particle sizes in the range 10-100 lum. Other techniques employ additonal effects. In cartier flotation other particles scavenge very fine particles. Air is still used. The addition of oil éroplets may allow for attachment of some particles to the droplets. These in tu, being hydrophobic, attach to the air bubbles. Flocculants ‘may be added to agglomerate very fine particles into somewhat larger aggregates, which can be floated. Finally ol droplets may be used in place of airExamples of the effet of grind size -on (a) cepper recovery and {€) concentration of copper in flotation tailings (from Extractive Metallurgy of Copper, 2 edition)Solid-Liquid Separation ‘This is an important procedure in both mineral processing and hydrometallurgy. It will be ‘rested ina separate section ofthe course Economic Aspects of Mineral Processing ‘Size Reduction Capital cost and operating costs (mainly electric power) rise rapidly with deceasing. particle size. The chart below indicates the typical energy requirements for reduction of feed. (lumps) to the indicated size. Very fine material may be lost, which constitutes a financial loss. ‘Mean partie wie of product | Energy KWionne of feed 5-10. mm 42. 05-1 mm a 0-100 jm 0 60.80 um 2. 40.50 um 20 20.30 um rg “<0 um 7030 ‘Mineral Selection On balance, mineral separation processes are relatively inexpensive to run. Conditions are generally mild and equipment tends to require litle maintenance. The techniques require dispersing the ground ore in a medium (water, or posibly air). The volume of mineral-medium mixture is usualy several times greater than that of the ore alone. Therefore large equipment is required to handle these large volumes. This involves a high capital cost. Equipment employing higher forces than gravity (>1 g), such as cyclones and shaking tables are more complex, but may be much smaller. This can lower capital costs. The principal energy type is electricity. In general the greater the separation time required, the greater the operating costs. Flotation requires the use of expensive reagents and some less costly ones (such as lime), ‘but in higher amounts. Reagent consumption is a significant operating expense. Some reagents ‘are derived from petrochemical sources. These are now much more expensive than they were ‘when frst introduced. The operating cost of collector is related to particle size. For a given mass of ore, finer particles have greater surface area and require greater amounts of reagents. Cost then is proportional to the inverse of (particle size). Separation processes are not 100% efficient. A tradeoff must be made between ‘competing demands: product grade, recovery and costs, Losses of valuable mineral to tailings is ‘an operating loss. Gangue minerals that remain in the concentrate must also be handled and processed, Which increases downstream processing costs. Up to 20-30% of the valuable minerals. ina complex ore, requiring separation of many products, may be lost during mineral processing,