ASICs...

the course
Michael John Sebastian Smith

This course is based on ASICs... the book

Application-Specific Integrated Circuits
Michael J. S. Smith
VLSI Design Series
1,040 pages
ISBN 0-201-50022-1
LOC TK7874.6.S63
Addison Wesley Longman, http://www.awl.com
Additional material (figures, resources, source code) is located at
ASICs... the website
http://spectra.eng.hawaii.edu/~msmith/ASICs/HTML/ASICs.htm

Some material in this work is reprinted from IEEE Std 1149.1-1990, IEEE Standard Test Access Port and Boundary-Scan Architecture, Copyright 1990; IEEE Std 1076/INT-1991 IEEE Standards Interpretations: IEEE Std 1076-1987, IEEE Standard
VHDL Language Reference Manual, Copyright 1991; IEEE Std 1076-1993 IEEE Standard VHDL Language Reference
Manual, Copyright 1993; IEEE Std 1164-1993 IEEE Standard Multivalue Logic System for VHDL Model Interoperability
(Std_logic_1164), Copyright 1993; IEEE Std 1149.1b-1994 Supplement to IEEE Std 1149.1-1990, IEEE Standard Test
Access Port and Boundary-Scan Architecture, Copyright 1994; IEEE Std 1076.4-1995 IEEE Standard for VITAL Application-Specific Integerated Circuit (ASIC) Modeling Specification, Copyright 1995; IEEE 1364-1995 IEEE Standard Description Language Based on the Verilog Hardware Description Language, Copyright 1995; and IEEE Std 1076.3-1997 IEEE
Standard for VHDL Synthesis Packages, Copyright 1997; by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. The
IEEE disclaims any responsibility or liability resulting from the placement and use in the described manner. Information is
reprinted with the permission of the IEEE. Figures describing Xilinx FPGAs are courtesy of Xilinx, Inc. Xilinx, Inc. 1996,
1997, 1998. All rights reserved. Figures describing Altera CPLDs are courtesy of Altera Corporation. Altera is a trademark and
service mark of Altera Corporation in the United States and other countries. Altera products are the intellectual property of Altera
Corporation and are protected by copyright laws and one or more U.S. and foreign patents and patent applications. Figures
describing Actel FPGAs iare courtesy of Actel Corporation.
The programs and applications presented in this work have been included for their instructional value. They have been tested with
care but are not guaranteed for any particular purpose. The author does not offer any warranties, representations, or accept any liabilities with respect to the programs or applications.
Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those
designations appear in this work, and the author was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or
all caps.
Figures copyright 1997 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. Text copyright 1997, 1998 by Michael John Sebastian Smith.

ASICs...THE COURSE (1 WEEK)

INTRODUCTION
TO ASICs

Key concepts: The difference between full-custom and semicustom ASICs The difference
between standard-cell, gate-array, and programmable ASICs ASIC design flow Design
economics ASIC cell library
An ASIC (a-sick) is an application-specific integrated circuit
A gate equivalent is a NAND gate F = A B (IBM uses a NOR gate), or four transistors
History of integration: small-scale integration (SSI, ~10 gates per chip, 60s), mediumscale integration (MSI, ~1001000 gates per chip, 70s), large-scale integration (LSI,
~100010,000 gates per chip, 80s), very large-scale integration (VLSI, ~10,000100,000
gates per chip, 90s), ultralarge scale integration (ULSI, ~1M10M gates per chip)
History of technology: bipolar technology and transistortransistor logic (TTL) preceded
metal-oxide-silicon (MOS) technology because it was difficult to make metal-gate n-channel MOS (nMOS or NMOS); the introduction of complementary MOS (CMOS, never cMOS)
greatly reduced power
The feature size is the smallest shape you can make on a chip and is measured in or
lambda
Origin of ASICs: the standard parts, initially used to design microelectronic systems,
were gradually replaced with a combination of glue logic, custom ICs, dynamic randomaccess memory (DRAM) and static RAM (SRAM)
History of ASICs: The IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conference (CICC) and IEEE International ASIC Conference document the development of ASICs
Application-specific standard products (ASSPs) are a cross between standard parts and
ASICs

1.1 Types of ASICs

ICs are made on a wafer. Circuits are built up with successive mask layers. The number of
masks used to define the interconnect and other layers is different between full-custom
ICs and programmable ASICs

SECTION 1

INTRODUCTION TO ASICs

ASICS... THE COURSE

silicon
die

A silicon chip or integrated cicuit

(IC) is more properly called a die

0.1 inch

(a)

(b)

1.1.1 Full-Custom ASICs

All mask layers are customized in a full-custom ASIC.
It only makes sense to design a full-custom IC if there are no libraries available.
Full-custom offers the highest performance and lowest part cost (smallest die size) with the
disadvantages of increased design time, complexity, design expense, and highest risk.
Microprocessors were exclusively full-custom, but designers are increasingly turning to
semicustom ASIC techniques in this area too.
Other examples of full-custom ICs or ASICs are requirements for high-voltage (automobile),
analog/digital (communications), or sensors and actuators.
1.1.2 Standard-CellBased ASICs
A cell-based ASIC (CBICsea-bick)
Standard cells
Possibly megacells, megafunctions, fullcustom blocks, system-level macros (SLMs),
fixed blocks, cores, or Functional Standard
Blocks (FSBs)
All mask layers are customizedtransistors and
interconnect
Custom blocks can be embedded
Manufacturing lead time is about eight weeks.

standard-cell
area

1
2

fixed
blocks

0.02in
500 m

In datapath (DP) logic we may use a datapath compiler and a datapath library. Cells such
as arithmetic and logical units (ALUs) are pitch-matchedto each other to improve timing
and density.

ASICs... THE COURSE

1.1 Types of ASICs

VDD

m1

cell bounding box

(BB)

n-well
contact

ndiff
pdiff
Z
A1

B1

via

metal2
poly
ndiff

cell abutment box

(AB)
p-well
pdiff
pdiff
GND
10

Looking down on the layout of a standard cell from a standard-cell library

1.1.3 Gate-ArrayBased ASICs
A gate array, masked gate array, MGA, or prediffused array uses macros (books) to
reduce turnaround time and comprises a base array made from a base cell or primitive
cell. There are three types:
Channeled gate arrays
Channelless gate arrays
Structured gate arrays

SECTION 1

INTRODUCTION TO ASICs

ASICS... THE COURSE

expanded view
of part of flexible
block 1
250
terminal

no
connection
connection metal2
to power
pads
VSS VDD

to power
pads

metal1

VSS VDD

Z
feedthrough

row-end
cells

cell A.11

cell A.14

cell A.23

cell A.132

metal2

I1

metal1

spacer
cells

metal2

power cell

metal1

rows of standard cells

50

Routing a CBIC (cell-based IC)

A wall of standard cells forms a flexible block
metal2 may be used in a feedthrough cell to cross over cell rows that use metal1 for wiring
Other wiring cells: spacer cells, row-end cells, and power cells

A note on the use of hyphens and dashes in the spelling (orthography) of compound nouns: Be
careful to distinguish between a high-school girl (a girl of high-school age) and a high school
girl (is she on drugs or perhaps very tall?).
We write channeled gate array, but channeled gate-array architecture because the gate
array is channeled; it is not channeled-gate array architecture (which is an array of channeled-gates) or channeled gate array architecture (which is ambiguous).
We write gate-arraybased ASICs (with a en-dash between array and based) to mean (gate
array)-based ASICs.

ASICs... THE COURSE

1.1 Types of ASICs

1.1.4 Channeled Gate Array

A channeled gate array

base cell

Only the interconnect is customized

The interconnect uses predefined spaces between rows
of base cells
Manufacturing lead time is between two days and two
weeks

array of
base cells
(not all
shown)

1.1.5 Channelless Gate Array

base cell

A channelless gate array (channel-free gate array, seaof-gates array, or SOG array)
Only some (the top few) mask layers are customized
the interconnect
Manufacturing lead time is between two days and two
weeks.

1.1.6 Structured Gate Array

array of
base cells
(not all
shown)

SECTION 1

INTRODUCTION TO ASICs

An embedded gate array or structured gate

array (masterslice or masterimage)

ASICS... THE COURSE

embedded
block

Only the interconnect is customized

Custom blocks (the same for each design)
can be embedded
array of
base cells
(not all
shown)

Manufacturing lead time is between two days

and two weeks.

1.1.7 Programmable Logic Devices

Examples and types of PLDs: read-only memory (ROM) programmable ROM or PROM
electrically programmable ROM, or EPROM An erasable PLD (EPLD) electrically erasable PROM, or EEPROM UV-erasable PROM, or UVPROM mask-programmable ROM
A mask-programmed PLD usually uses bipolar technology
Logic arrays may be either a Programmable Array Logic (PAL, a registered trademark of
AMD) or a programmable logic array (PLA); both have an AND plane and an OR plane

A programmable logic device (PLD)

No customized mask layers or logic cells
Fast design turnaround

macrocell

A single large block of programmable interconnect

A matrix of logic macrocells that usually consist of
programmable array logic followed by a flip-flop or
latch

programmable
interconnect

ASICs... THE COURSE

1.2 Design Flow

1.1.8 Field-Programmable Gate Arrays

A field-programmable gate array (FPGA) or
complex PLD
None of the mask layers are customized
A method for programming the basic logic
cells and the interconnect

programmable
basic logic
cell

The core is a regular array of programmable

basic logic cells that can implement combinational as well as sequential logic (flip-flops)
A matrix of programmable interconnect surrounds the basic logic cells
Programmable I/O cells surround the core

programmable
interconnect

Design turnaround is a few hours

1.2 Design Flow

A design flow is a sequence of steps to design an ASIC
1. Design entry. Using a hardware description language (HDL) or schematic entry.
2. Logic synthesis. Produces a netlistlogic cells and their connections.
3. System partitioning. Divide a large system into ASIC-sized pieces.
4. Prelayout simulation. Check to see if the design functions correctly.
5. Floorplanning. Arrange the blocks of the netlist on the chip.
6. Placement. Decide the locations of cells in a block.
7. Routing. Make the connections between cells and blocks.
8. Extraction. Determine the resistance and capacitance of the interconnect.
9. Postlayout simulation. Check to see the design still works with the added loads of the
interconnect.

1.3 Case Study

SPARCstation 1: Better performance at lower cost Compact size, reduced power, and quiet
operation Reduced number of parts, easier assembly, and improved reliability

SECTION 1

INTRODUCTION TO ASICs

ASICS... THE COURSE

start
prelayout
simulation

logical
design

design entry
4

1
VHDL/Verilog
logic synthesis

netlist

2
A
system
partitioning

3
A

postlayout
simulation

floorplanning
9

chip

placement
6

circuit
extraction

block

physical
design

routing
8

back-annotated
netlist

logic cells

finish

ASIC design flow. Steps 14 are logical design, and steps 59 are physical design
The ASICs in the Sun Microsystems SPARCstation 1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

SPARCstation 1 ASIC
SPARC integer unit (IU)
SPARC floating-point unit (FPU)
Cache controller
Memory-management unit (MMU)
Data buffer
Direct memory access (DMA) controller
Video controller/data buffer
RAM controller
Clock generator

Gates (k-gates)
20
50
9
5
3
9
4
1
1

ASICs... THE COURSE

1.4 Economics of ASICs

The CAD tools used in the design of the Sun Microsystems SPARCstation 1
Design level
ASIC design

Board design

Mechanical design

Management

Function
ASIC physical design
ASIC logic synthesis
ASIC simulation
Schematic capture
PCB layout
Timing verification
Case and enclosure
Thermal analysis
Structural analysis
Scheduling
Documentation

Tool
LSI Logic
Internal tools and UC Berkeley tools
LSI Logic
Valid Logic
Valid Logic Allegro
Quad Design Motive and internal tools
Autocad
Pacific Numerix
Cosmos
Suntrac
Interleaf and FrameMaker

1.4 Economics of ASICs

Well compare the most popular types of ASICs: an FPGA, an MGA, and a CBIC. The figures in the following sections are approximate and used to illustrate the different components of cost.
1.4.1 Comparison Between ASIC Technologies
Example of an ASIC part cost: A 0.5 m, 20k-gate array might cost 0.010.02 cents/gate
(for more than 10,000 parts) or $2$4 per part, but an equivalent FPGA might be $20.
When does it make sense to use a more expensive part? This is what we shall examine
next.

10

SECTION 1

INTRODUCTION TO ASICs

ASICS... THE COURSE

1.4.2 Product Cost

In a product cost there are fixed costs and variable costs (the number of products sold is
the sales volume):
total product cost = fixed product cost + variable product cost products sold
In a product made from parts the total cost for any part is
total part cost = fixed part cost + variable cost per part volume of parts
For example, suppose we have the following (imaginary) costs:
FPGA: $21,800 (fixed) $39 (variable)
MGA: $86,000 (fixed) $10 (variable)
CBIC $146,000 (fixed) $8 (variable)
Then we can calculate the following break-even volumes:
FPGA/MGA 2000 parts
FPGA/CBIC 4000 parts
MGA/CBIC 20,000 parts

cost of parts
$1,000,000
break-even
FPGA/CBIC

CBIC
$100,000

MGA
FPGA

break-even
MGA/CBIC
break-even
FPGA/MGA

$10,000
10

100

1000

10,000

100,000

number of parts or volume

Break-even graph

ASICs... THE COURSE

1.4 Economics of ASICs

11

1.4.3 ASIC Fixed Costs

Examples of fixed costs: training cost for a new electronic design automation (EDA) system hardware and software cost productivity production test and design for test
programming costs for an FPGA nonrecurring-engineering (NRE) test vectors and
test-program development cost pass (turn or spin) profit model represents the profit
flow during the product lifetime product velocity second source

Training:
Days
Cost/day
Hardware
Software
Design:
Size (gates)
Gates/day
Days
Cost/day
Design for test:
Days
Cost/day
NRE:
Masks
Simulation
Test program
Second source:
Days
Cost/day
Total fixed costs

Spreadsheet, Fixed Costs

FPGA
$800

MGA
$2,000
2
$400

$10,000
$1,000
$8,000

CBIC
$2,000
5
$400

$10,000
$20,000
$20,000
10,000
500
20
$400

5
$400
$10,000
$40,000
$20,000

10,000
200
50
$400
$2,000

10,000
200
50
$400
$2,000

5
$400
$30,000

5
$400
$70,000

$10,000
$10,000
$10,000
$2,000

$2,000
5
$400

$21,800

$50,000
$10,000
$10,000
$2,000

5
$400
$86,000

5
$400
$146,000

12

SECTION 1

INTRODUCTION TO ASICs

sales per
quarter, s

ASICS... THE COURSE

peak sales
s1

$20M

lost sales

product
introduction

$10M

end of
product life

s2

t1

Profit model

Q1

Q2
Q3
Q4
t2
delay to market, d

Q1

Q2

t3

time

ASICs... THE COURSE

1.4 Economics of ASICs

13

1.4.4 ASIC Variable Costs

Factors affecting fixed costs: wafer size wafer cost Moores Law (Gordon Moore of Intel)
gate density gate utilization die size die per wafer defect density yield die cost
profit margin (depends on fab or fabless) price per gate part cost

FPGA
Wafer size
Wafer cost
Design
Density
Utilization
Die size
Die/wafer
Defect density
Yield
Die cost
Profit margin
Price/gate
Part cost

Spreadsheet, Variable Costs

MGA

6
1,400
10,000
10,000
60
1.67
88
1.10
65
25
60
0.39
$39

CBIC

6
1,300
10,000
20,000
85
0.59
248
0.90
72
7
45
0.10
$10

6
1,500
10,000
25,000
100
0.40
365
1.00
80
5
50
0.08
$8

Units
inches
$
gates
gates/sq.cm
%
sq.cm
defects/sq.cm
%
$
%
cents

14

SECTION 1

INTRODUCTION TO ASICs

ASICS... THE COURSE

cents/gate
1.00
CBIC 2 m
CBIC 1.5 m
CBIC 1 m
0.10
CBIC 0.6 m
FPGA 1 m
FPGA 0.6 m

32%/year
0.01
1984

1986

Example price per gate figures

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

ASICs... THE COURSE

1.5 ASIC Cell Libraries

15

1.5 ASIC Cell Libraries

You can:
(1) use a design kit from the ASIC vendor
(2) buy an ASIC-vendor library from a library vendor
(3) you can build your own cell library

(1) is usually a phantom librarythe cells are empty boxes, or phantoms, you hand off your
design to the ASIC vendor and they perform phantom instantiation (Synopsys CBA)

(2) involves a buy-or-build decision. You need a qualified cell library (qualified by the ASIC
foundry) If you own the masks (the tooling) you have a customer-owned tooling (COT, pronounced see-oh-tee) solution (which is becoming very popular)

(3) involves a complex library development process: cell layout behavioral model Verilog/VHDL model timing model test strategy characterization circuit extraction process control monitors (PCMs) or drop-ins cell schematic cell icon layout versus
schematic (LVS) check cell icon logic synthesis retargeting wire-load model routing model phantom

16

SECTION 1

INTRODUCTION TO ASICs

ASICS... THE COURSE

1.6 Summary
Key concepts:
We could define an ASIC as a design style that uses a cell library
The difference between full-custom and semicustom ASICs
The difference between standard-cell, gate-array, and programmable ASICs
The ASIC design flow
Design economics including part cost, NRE, and breakeven volume
The contents and use of an ASIC cell library
Types of ASIC
ASIC type
Full-custom
Semicustom
Programmable

Family member
Analog/digital
Cell-based (CBIC)
Masked gate array (MGA)
Field-programmable gate array (FPGA)
Programmable logic device (PLD)

Custom
mask layers
All
All
Some
None
None

Custom
logic cells
Some
None
None
None
None

1.7 Problems
Suggested homework: 1.4, 1.5, 1.9 (from ASICs... the book)

1.8 Bibliography
EE Times (ISSN 0192-1541, http://techweb.cmp.com/eet), EDN (ISSN 0012-7515,
http://www.ednmag.com), EDAC (Electronic Design Automation Companies)
(http://www.edac.org), The Electrical Engineering page on the World Wide Web
(E2W3) (http://www.e2w3.com), SEMATECH (Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology) (http://www.sematech.org), The MIT Semiconductor Subway (http://wwwmtl.mit.edu), EDA companies at http://www.yahoo.comunder
Business_and_Economyin Companies/Computers/Software/Graphics/CAD/IC_Design, The MOS Implementation Service (MOSIS)
(http://www.isi.edu), The Microelectronic Systems Newsletter at http://wwwece.engr.utk.edu/ece, NASA (http://nppp.jpl.nasa.gov/dmg/jpl/loc/asic
)

ASICs... THE COURSE

1.9 References

17

1.9 References
Glasser, L. A., and D. W. Dobberpuhl. 1985. The Design and Analysis of VLSI Circuits.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 473 p. ISBN 0-201-12580-3. TK7874.G573. Detailed analysis of circuits, but largely nMOS.
Mead, C. A., and L. A. Conway. 1980. Introduction to VLSI Systems. Reading, MA: AddisonWesley, 396 p. ISBN 0-201-04358-0. TK7874.M37.
Weste, N. H. E., and K. Eshraghian. 1993. Principles of CMOS VLSI Design: A Systems Perspective. 2nd ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 713 p. ISBN 0-201-53376-6.
TK7874.W46. Concentrates on full-custom design.

18

SECTION 1

INTRODUCTION TO ASICs

ASICS... THE COURSE

ASICs...THE COURSE (1 WEEK)

CMOS LOGIC

Key concepts: The use of transistors as switches The difference between a flip-flop and a
latch Setup time and hold time Pipelines and latency The difference between datapath,
standard-cell, and gate-array logic cells Strong and weak logic levels Pushing bubbles
Ratio of logic Resistance per square of layers and their relative values in CMOS Design
rules and
CMOS transistor (or device)
A transistor has three terminals: gate, source, drain (and a fourth that we ignore for a
moment)
An MOS transistor looks like a switch (conducting/on, nonconducting/off, not open or
closed)

n-channel transistor
drain
gate

p-channel transistor
source

'1'

gate
source

VDD

'1'

'0'
drain

'1'
'0'

'1'

on

'1'

off

VDD

'1'
=

'0'
'0'

'1'

'0'
GND or
VSS

'1'

=
GND or
VSS

'0'

VDD

'0'

(a)

off

'0'

on

(b)

GND or
VSS
(c)

CMOS transistors viewed as switches a CMOS inverter

SECTION 2

CMOS LOGIC

VDD

ASICS... THE COURSE

VDD

on

on

VDD

off

on

VDD

on

off

F=1

F=1

F=NAND(A, B)
A
0 1
F=0
B

off

off

F=1

(a)
off

B=0
A=0

on

B=1
A=0

off

off

B=0
A=1

off

on

B=1
A=1

on

on
p-channel
n-channel

VDD

A=0
(b)

on

B=0

VDD

A=1

off

B=0

on

off

off

on

B=1

on

F =1

VDD

A=0

off

on

VDD

off

F =0

on

off

F=NOR(A, B)
A
0 1
B

off

B=1

off

F =0

A=1

F =0

on

on

p-channel
n-channel

CMOS logic a two-input NAND gate a two-input NOR gate Good '1's Good '0's

ASICs... THE COURSE

2.1 CMOS Transistors

2.1 CMOS Transistors

drain
gate
+

+
VDS

W
gate
n-type
source
p-type

VGS

electrons
Ex

mobile channel charge

bulk

+
VGS

source

VDS

T ox
n-type
drain
depletion
region
fixed depletion charge

bulk
GND or
VSS

An n-channel transistor channel source drain depletion region gate bulk

current (amperes) = charge (coulombs) per unit time (second)

Channel charge = Q (imagine taking a picture and counting the electrons)
tf is time of flight or transit time
The drain-to-source current IDSn = Q/tf
The (vector) velocity of the electrons v = nE
n is the electron mobility (p is the hole mobility)
E is the electric field (units Vm1)
L
tf = =
vx

L2

nVDS

SECTION 2

CMOS LOGIC

ASICS... THE COURSE

Q = C(VGC Vtn) = C [ (VGS Vtn) 0.5 VDS ] = WLCox [ (VGS Vtn) 0.5 VDS ]
IDSn = Q/tf
'
= (W/L)nCox[ (VGS Vtn) 0.5 VDS ]VDS = (W/L)k n [ (VGS Vtn) 0.5 VDS ]VDS

k'n = nCox is the process transconductance parameter (or intrinsic transconductance)

n = k'n(W/L) is the transistor gain factor (or just gain factor)
The linear region (triode region) extends until VDS = VGS V tn
VDS = VGS V tn = VDS(sat) (saturation voltage)
VDS > VGS V tn (the saturation region, or pentode region, of operation)
saturation current, IDSn(sat)

IDSn(sat) = (n/2)(VGS Vtn)2 ; VGS > Vtn

ASICs... THE COURSE

2.1 CMOS Transistors

(a)
IDS /mA

(b)

2
n-ch. W/L=60/6

VGS /V
3.0
IDS /mA

n-ch. W/L=6/0.6
2.5

n-ch.
W/L=6/0.6

2.0

1.5
1.0
0.5, 0.0

0
0

3
VDS /V

3
2

0
1

3
2

VGS /V

VDS /V
1

(c)
IDS(sat) /mA
3

2
VDS =3.0 V

n-ch. W/L=6/0.6
IDS (sat) VGS V tn

MOS n-channel transistor characteristics

1

n-ch. W/L =60/6

IDS (sat) (VGS V tn)2

0
0

2.1.1 P-Channel Transistors

IDSp = k'p(W/L)[ (VGS Vtp) 0.5 VDS ]VDS ; VDS > VGS Vtp
IDSp(sat) = p/2 (VGS Vtp)2 ; VDS < VGS Vtp .
Vtp is negative
VDS and VGS are normally negative (and 3V<2V)

3
VGS /V

SECTION 2

CMOS LOGIC

ASICS... THE COURSE

2.1.2 Velocity Saturation

vmaxn =10 5 ms1
velocity saturation
tf =L eff/vmaxn
mobility degradation
IDSn(sat) = WvmaxnCox (VGS Vtn) ; VDS > VDS(sat) (velocity saturated).
2.1.3 SPICE Models
KP (in AV2) = k'n (k'p)
VT0 and TOX = Vtn (Vtp) and Tox
U0 (in cm2V1s1) = n (and p)

SPICE parameters
.MODEL CMOSN NMOS LEVEL=3 PHI=0.7 TOX=10E-09 XJ=0.2U TPG=1 VTO=0.65
DELTA=0.7
+ LD=5E-08 KP=2E-04 UO=550 THETA=0.27 RSH=2 GAMMA=0.6 NSUB=1.4E+17
NFS=6E+11
+ VMAX=2E+05 ETA=3.7E-02 KAPPA=2.9E-02 CGDO=3.0E-10 CGSO=3.0E-10
CGBO=4.0E-10
+ CJ=5.6E-04 MJ=0.56 CJSW=5E-11 MJSW=0.52 PB=1
.MODEL CMOSP PMOS LEVEL=3 PHI=0.7 TOX=10E-09 XJ=0.2U TPG=-1 VTO=0.92 DELTA=0.29
+ LD=3.5E-08 KP=4.9E-05 UO=135 THETA=0.18 RSH=2 GAMMA=0.47
NSUB=8.5E+16 NFS=6.5E+11
+ VMAX=2.5E+05 ETA=2.45E-02 KAPPA=7.96 CGDO=2.4E-10 CGSO=2.4E-10
CGBO=3.8E-10
+ CJ=9.3E-04 MJ=0.47 CJSW=2.9E-10 MJSW=0.505 PB=1

ASICs... THE COURSE

2.1 CMOS Transistors

2.1.4 Logic Levels

'1'

VGS >V tn

VGD >V tn

gate
n-type
source

'0'

'1'

VGS =V tn
gate

'0' '1'V tn
weak '1'
strong '0'
'1' '0'

n-type
drain

VGD =0
'1'

n-type
source

n-type
drain

VDD

p-type

p-type

no channel charge
strong '0'
VC
'1'

'1'

VC '1' '0' '0'

'1'
'1' '0'

'1'

'0'

VC

'1'

S
VC weak '1'

(a)

VGS = Vtp

gate
p-type
drain

'0'

p-type
source

n-type
+
VDD

'1' '0' Vtp

weak '0'

VC
G

'1'
VC

VGD < Vtp

gate

strong '1'

p-type
drain

'1'

+Q

p-type
source

+
VDD

n-type
+
VDD
'1'

'1' '0'V tp

'0'
t

'0'

'0'

'0' '1'

weak '0'
'0'

VGS <V tp

no channel charge

'0'

(b)
'0'

VGD =0

'0' '1'V tn

(c)

'0'

S
G

D
VC strong '1'

VC
'1'

'0' '1'

'0'
t

(d)

CMOS logic levels

VSS is a strong '0' VDD is a strong '1'
degraded logic levels: VDD V tn is a weak '1' ; VSS V tp (Vtp is negative) is a weak '0'

SECTION 2

CMOS LOGIC

ASICS... THE COURSE

2.2 The CMOS Process

4
1hour

3
1

5
furnace spin

wafer

grow crystal

resist

grow oxide

saw
etch
As +

resist
oxide
mask

10

11

12

The CMOS manufacturing process

Key words: boule wafer boat silicon dioxide resist mask chemical etch isotropic
plasma etch anisotropic ion implantation implant energy and dose polysilicon chemical
vapor deposition (CVD) sputtering photolithography submicron and deep-submicron
process n-well process p-well process twin-tub (or twin-well) triple-well substrate
contacts (well contacts or tub ties) active (CAA) gate oxide field field implant or channel-stop implant field oxide (FOX) bloat dopant self-aligned process positive resist
negative resist drain engineering LDD process lightly doped drain LDD diffusion or LDD
implant stipple-pattern

ASICs... THE COURSE

Mask/layer name
n-well
p-well
active
polysilicon
n-diffusion
implant
p-diffusion
implant

2.2 The CMOS Process

Derivation
from drawn
layers
=nwell
=pwell
=pdiff+ndiff
=poly

Alternative names for mask/layer

Mask label

bulk, substrate, tub, n-tub, moat

bulk, substrate, tub, p-tub, moat
thin oxide, thinox, island, gate oxide
poly, gate

CWN
CWP
CAA
CPG

=grow(ndiff)

ndiff, n-select, nplus, n+

CSN

=grow(pdiff)

pdiff, p-select, pplus, p+

CSP

contact

=contact

metal1
metal2
via2
metal3
glass

=m1
=m2
=via2
=m3
=glass

contact cut, poly contact, diffusion contact

first-level metal
second-level metal
metal2/metal3 via, m2/m3 via
third-level metal
passivation, overglass, pad

CCP and CCA

CMF
CMS
CVS
CMT
COG

10

SECTION 2

CMOS LOGIC

ASICS... THE COURSE

(a) nwell

(b) pwell

(c) ndiff

(d) pdiff

(e) poly

(f) contact

(g) m1

(h) via

(i) m2

(j) cell

(k) phantom

The mask layers of a standard cell

ASICs... THE COURSE

2.2 The CMOS Process

Active mask
CAA (mask) = ndiff (drawn) pdiff (drawn)
Implant select masks
CSN (mask) = grow (ndiff (drawn)) and
CSP (mask) = grow (pdiff (drawn))
Source and drain diffusion (on the silicon)
n-diffusion (silicon) = (CAA (mask) CSN (mask)) (CPG (mask)) and
p-diffusion(silicon)=(CAA(mask) CSP(mask)) (CPG(mask))
Source and drain diffusion (on the silicon) in terms of drawn layers
n-diffusion (silicon) = (ndiff (drawn)) (poly (drawn)) and
p-diffusion (silicon) = (pdiff (drawn)) (poly (drawn))

11

12

SECTION 2

CMOS LOGIC

ASICS... THE COURSE

nwell

pwell

ndiff

pdiff

poly

contact

Drawn layers and stipple patterns

(or solid)
m1

via1

(or solid)

nwell

m2

via2

m3

glass

(or solid)

p-diffusion
2
polysilicon

pdiff

field oxide
field implant
poly
gate oxide
LDD diffusion
source/drain diffusion

y
x
(a)

The transistor layers

y
x

n-well (or substrate)

(b)

ASICs... THE COURSE

2.2 The CMOS Process

(a)

(b)

m3
x

via2

m2

m2+via2 +m3

The interconnect layers

via1
m1
m2
contact
+m1
+via1
+m2

13

m3
2

contact

TiW
AlCu
(3000)
W plug
(4000)
Pt barrier
(200)

2.2.1 Sheet Resistance

Sheet resistance (0.35 m)

Sheet resistance (1m )

Layer
n-well
poly
n-diffusion
p-diffusion
m1/2
m3

Sheet
resistance
1.15 0.25
3.5 2.0
75 20
140 40
70 6
30 3

Units

Layer

k /square
/square
/square
/square
m /square
m /square

n-well
poly
n-diffusion
p-diffusion
m1/2/3
metal4

Sheet
resistance
1 0.4
10 4.0
3.5 2.0
2.5 1.5
60 6
30 3

Units
k /square
/square
/square
/square
m /square
m /square

Key words: diffusion /square (ohms per square) sheet resistance silicide selfaligned silicide (salicide) LI, white metal, local interconnect, metal0, or m0 m1 or metal1
diffusion contacts polysilicon contacts barrier metal contact plugs (via plugs)
chemicalmechanical polishing (CMP) intermetal oxide (IMO) interlevel dielectric
(ILD) metal vias, cuts, or vias stacked vias and stacked contacts two-level metal
(2LM) 3LM (m3 or metal3) via1 via2 metal pitch electromigration contact resistance and via resistance

14

SECTION 2

CMOS LOGIC

ASICS... THE COURSE

2.3 CMOS Design Rules

1.
1 well

2.
2

active

nwell

3
(2.2)

nwell
0 (1.4)

pdiff

9 (1.2)

ndiff

nwell

pwell

5 (2.3)

3 (2.1)

1 (3.5)
pdiff
3 (3.4)
2 (3.3)

nwell

3 ndiff 0 or 4 pdiff
(2.2)
(2.5)

pwell 0 or 6 (1.3)
4
4.

5 (2.3)
3 (2.4)
0 or 4
(2.5)
pdiff

ndiff

hot

3 poly
3.

3 (2.1)

10 (1.1)

2 (3.2)
poly

3 (2.4) pwell

2 (3.1)

select
pwell

nwell
p-select

5 poly
5.
contact

n-select

2 (5.3a)

1.5
(5.2a)

poly
pdiff

2 2 (5.1a)

ndiff

6
6.

1 (4.3)

active
contact

3 (4.1)

poly

1.5 (6.2a)

pdiff

ndiff

nwell

2 (6.3a)

2 (6.4a)

2 (4.2)
n-select
77.

metal1
pdiff
3
(7.2a)

2 2 1.5
(6.1a) (6.2a)

8.
8 via1

1 (7.3)

poly

3 (7.1)

poly

2 (8.4)

2 (8.5)

poly
contact

metal2

via1

1 (8.3)

m1

active
contact

m1
1 (7.4)

99.

p-select

metal2
m2

2 2 (14.1)
m2

1
(9.3)
m1

Scalable CMOS design rules

6 (10.3)

m3
via1

3
(14.2)

m2

4 (15.2)
glass

via2
m3

m2
2 (15.3)

30 (10.4)
m3

6
(15.1)

1
(14.3)

via2

via1

10 overglass (microns)
10.

m3

2 (14.4)

2 2 (8.1)

ndiff

15 metal3
15.

14 via2
14.

3 (9.1)

3
(9.2b) 4
(9.2a)

2 (8.5)
3 (8.2)

poly

2
(7.2b)

m2

15
(10.5)
m1

100 100 (10.1)

ASICs... THE COURSE

2.4 Combinational Logic Cells

15

2.4 Combinational Logic Cells

The AOI family of cells with three index numbers or less
Cell type1
Xa1
Xa11
Xab
Xab1
Xabc

Cells

Number of unique cells

2
2
3
3
4
14

X21, X31
X211, X311
X22, X33, X32
X221, X331, X321
X222, X333, X332, X322

Total

1Xabc: X={AOI, AO, OAI, OA}; a, b, c = {2, 3}; {} means choose one.

OAI321

AOI221
AND OR INVERT

Naming of complex CMOS combinational logic cells

A
B
C
D

OR AND INVERT
A
B
C
D
E
F

OAI321

AOI221
(a)

(b)

2.4.1 Pushing Bubbles

2.4.2 Drive Strength
We ratio a cell to adjust its drive strength and make n = p to create equal rise and fall
times

16

SECTION 2

CMOS LOGIC

A
B
Z
C
D
E
1
push bubbles to the inputs
A
B
C
D
E

ASICS... THE COURSE

OR = parallel
AND = series
3

VDD

VDD
adjust
4 sizes

6/1

6/1

6/1

6/1

6/1

E
OR = parallel
AND = series
E

6/(1+1+1) =
2/1

(a)

1/1

(b)

2/1

2/1

2/1

2/1

(c)

Constructing a CMOS logic cellan AOI221 pushing bubbles de Morgans theorem

network duals
2.4.3 Transmission Gates

S'
strong '1'
A

A
A

Z
S=1

charge sharing

S'

S=0
Z

Z
S

strong '0'

'0'
A

VSMALLVF
C SMALL

S
(a)

(b)

Z
'1'

VBIGVF
C BIG

(c)

CMOS transmission gate (TG, TX gate, pass gate, coupler)

Charge sharing: suppose CBIG =0.2pF and CSMALL =0.02pF, VBIG =0V and VSMALL =5V;
then
(0.2 1012) (0) + (0.02 1012) (5)

VF =

= 0.45 V
(0.2 1012) + (0.02 1012)

ASICs... THE COURSE

2.5 Sequential Logic Cells

17

2.5 Sequential Logic Cells

Two choices for sequential logic: multiphase clocks or synchronous design. We choose
the latter.
2.5.1 Latch

latch is transparent

CLKN
D

I2

I1
CLKP

I2

I1

CLKP
I3

I3

I2
storage
loop

I1

I3

CLKN

CLK
I4

CLKN

I5

1D
C1
(a)

CLKP

CLK

CLK

Q
(b)

(c)

CMOS latch enable transparent static sequential logic cell storage initial value

18

SECTION 2

CMOS LOGIC

ASICS... THE COURSE

2.5.2 Flip-Flop

master

slave

CLKN
D
(a)

CLKP

I1

I2
CLKP

CLKN

CLKP

I6

I7

CLKN

I5

I9

QN

CLKP

CLK
I4

CLKN

I3
CLKN

I8

1D
C1

CLKP

load master
D

I1

(b)

I2

I6

I8

store
CLK=1
I3

I7

I9

QN

load slave
D

I1

(c)

I2

I3
load master

(d)

D
M

I8

store

CLK=0

CLK

I6

t SU

I7

load slave load master

I9

QN

load slave

50%
tH

decision
window
tPD
t

CMOS flip-flop
master latch slave latch
active clock edge negative-edgetriggered flip-flop
setup time (tSU) hold time (tH) clock-to-Q propagation delay (tPD)
decision window

ASICs... THE COURSE

2.6 Datapath Logic Cells

2.6 Datapath Logic Cells

full adder (FA):

SUM = A B CIN = SUM(A, B, CIN) = PARITY(A, B, CIN) ,

COUT = A B + A CIN + B CIN = MAJ(A, B, CIN).

parity function ('1' for an odd numbers of '1's)

majority function ('1' if the majority of the inputs are '1')

S[i] = SUM (A[i], B[i], CIN)

COUT = MAJ (A[i], B[i], CIN)

COUT[2] COUT[3]
A[3]
B[3]
A[2]
B[2]
A[1]
CIN COUT
B[1]
ADD
A
B
SUM A[0]
B[0]
CIN

m2

S[3]
A
CIN

S[2]

COUT
S

m1
COUT[2] COUT[3]

S[1]
S[0]
CIN[0]
VSS

(a)

(b)

control
m2

m2

m1

m1
(c)

data
VSS
(d)

A datapath adder
Ripple-carry adder (RCA)
Data signals control signals datapath datapath cell or datapath element
Datapath advantages: predictable and equal delay for each bit built-in interconnect
Disadvantages of a datapath: overhead harder design software is more complex

19

20

SECTION 2

CMOS LOGIC

2.6.1 Datapath Elements

ASICS... THE COURSE

ASICs... THE COURSE

2.6 Datapath Logic Cells

21

Binary arithmetic
Operation

Unsigned
no change

3=
3=
zero=
max. positive=
max. negative=
addition=

0011
NA
0000
1111=15
0000=0
S=A+B

S= A+B

Binary Number Representation

Signed
Ones
magnitude
complement
if positive then
if negative
MSB=0
then flip bits
else MSB=1
0011
1011
0000 or 1000
0111=7
1111=7
if SG(A)=SG(B)
then S=A+B
else {if B<A then
S=AB

=addend+auge
nd

else S=BA}
SG(A)=sign of A
addition result: OR=COUT[M
SB]
OV=overflow,

if SG(A)=SG(B)
then
OV=COUT[MSB]

OR=out of range

else OV=0 (impossiCOUT is carry

ble)
out
SG(S)=sign of S NA
if SG(A)=SG(B)
then SG(S)=SG(A)

D= AB
=minuend
subtrahend

0011
1101
0000
0111=7
1000=8
S=A+B

A+B+COUT[MS
B]

COUT is carry
out
OV=

OV=

XOR(COUT[MS XOR(COUT[MS
B],
B],
COUT[MSB1]) COUT[MSB1]
)
NA

NA

else SG(S)=SG(B)}
SG(B)=NOT(SG(B));

Z=B (negate);

Z=B (negate);

D=A+B

D=A+Z

D=A+Z

else {if B<A then

SG(S)=SG(A)

S= A+B

subtraction=

0011
1100
1111 or 0000
0111=7
1000=7
S=

Twos
complement
if negative
then {flip bits;
add 1}

D=AB

22

SECTION 2

CMOS LOGIC

subtraction
result:

OR=BOUT[M
SB]

OV=overflow,

BOUT is borrow out

ASICS... THE COURSE

as in addition

as in addition

as in addition

OR=out of range
negation:
NA

Z=A;

Z=NOT(A)

Z=NOT(A)+1

Z=A (negate)

SG(Z)=NOT(SG(A))

2.6.2 Adders
Generate, G[i] and propagate, P[i]
method 1
G[i] = A[i] B[i]
P[i] = A[i] B[i
C[i] = G[i] + P[i] C[i1]
S[i] = P[i] C[i1]

method 2
G[i] = A[i] B[i]
P[i] = A[i] + B[i]
C[i] = G[i] + P[i] C[i1]
S[i] = A[i] B[i] C[i1]

Carry signal:
either
or

C[i] = A[i] B[i] + P[i] C[i 1]

C[i] = (A[i] + B[i]) (P[i]' + C[i 1]), where P[i]'=NOT(P[i])

Carry chain using two-input NAND gates, one per cell:

even stages
C1[i]' = P[i ] C3[i 1] C4[i 1]
C2[i] = A[i] + B[i ]
C[i] = C1[i ] C2[i ]

odd stages
C3[i]' = P[i ] C1[i 1] C2[i 1]
C4[i]' = A[i] B[i ]
C[i] = C3[i ]'+ C4[i ]'

Carry-save adder (CSA) cell CSA(A1[i], A2[i], A3[i ], CIN, S1[i], S2[i], COUT) has three outputs:
S1[i] = CIN ,
S2[i] = A1[i] A2[i] A3[i ] = PARITY(A1[i], A2[i], A3[i ])
COUT = A1[i] A2[i] + [(A1[i] + A2[i]) A3[i ]] = MAJ(A1[i], A2[i], A3[i ])

ASICs... THE COURSE

2.6 Datapath Logic Cells

Carry-propagate adder (CPA)

COUT[MSB]

COUT[MSB1]

COUT
A1
A2
A3

CSA

A1[MSB:0] n
S1

A2[MSB:0] n

S2

A3[MSB:0] n

CIN

CIN[0]

(a)

(b)
n

A1[MSB:0]
A2[MSB:0] n
A3[MSB:0] n
A4[MSB:0] n

+
+

+
+

A4[MSB:0] n

COUT[MSB1]
S1[MSB:0]
n

+
+
+

CSA1

S[MSB:0]

CSA2

(d)

(e)

1
2

+
+

CSA1
(f)

RCA
MSB

LSB

RCA

S2[MSB:0]

bit slice

CSA2

CLK

A3[MSB:0] n

OV

(c)

CSA1

A1[MSB:0] n
A2[MSB:0] n

COUT[MSB]

CLK
+

+
+
CSA2

CSA1

CLK

CSA2

CLK

+ S[MSB:0]

n
n
+
5
RCA

pipeline registers

The carry-save adder (CSA) pipeline latency bit slice

carry-bypass adders (CBA):
C[7]=(G[7]+P[7]C[6])BYPASS'+C[3]BYPASS
carry-skip adder:
CSKIP[i] = (G[i] + P[i] C[i 1]) SKIP' + C[i 2] SKIP

1 23

4 5

pipeline registers
(g)

RCA

23

24

SECTION 2

CMOS LOGIC

ASICS... THE COURSE

Carry-lookahead adder (CLA, for example the BrentKung adder):

C[1] = G[1] + P[1] C[0]
= G[1] + P[1] (G[0] + P[1] C[1])
= G[1] + P[1] G[0]
C[2] = G[2] + P[2] G[1] + P[2] P[1] G[0] ,
C[3] = G[3] + P[2] G[2] + P[2] P[1] G[1] + P[3] P[2] P[1] G[0]

G[0]
P[0]
G[1]
P[1]

C[1] =G[1]
+P[0]
P[0]P[1]
CLG
G[2]
L1
P[2]

C[2] =G[2]
+P[2]G[1]
+P[2]P[1]G[0]
P[0]P[1]P[2]
CLG
G[3]
L2
P[3]

CLG
L3

C[3]= G[3]
+P[3]G[2]
+ P[3]P[2]G[1]
+P[3]P[2]P[1]G[0]
P[0]P[1]P[2]P[3]

(a)

C[1]
G[0]
P[0]
G[1]
P[1]

CLG
G[i ]
G[i +1]+P[ i ]

C[2]

CLG

CLG

L1

L4

P[i ]
G[2]
P[2]
G[3]
P[3]

G[i +1]
P[i ]P[i + 1]

P[i +1]
(b)
G[i]/P[i ] in

0
1

C[i ] out
0
1
2
3

(d)

2
3

0
1
2
3
(e)

CLG

CLG

L2

L3
(c)

Each wire is a bundle of

G[i +1]+P[ i ] and P[i ]P[i +1].

0
1

C[3]

Create generate and propagate signals.

0
1
2
0
1
2
3

4
5
6
7

4
5

Create carry signals.

Create sum signals.
G[i ]

C[i]

A[i ] B[i ]

A[i ] B[i ]
or
P[i ]

7
(f)

Sum[i ]

P[i ]

(g)

The BrentKung carry-lookahead adder

Carry-select adder duplicates two small adders for the cases CIN='0' and CIN='1' and then
uses a MUX to select the case that we need

ASICs... THE COURSE

(a)

2.6 Datapath Logic Cells

A[i ]

B[i]

(c)
bit

H
stage

A[i ].B[i ]

1
A[1]

B[1]

H1

0
A[0]

B[0]

H0

carry out (carry in=0)

sum (carry in =0)

A[i] B[i ]
carry out (carry in=1)
A[i ]+B[ i ]
(A[ i ] B[i ])'

sum (carry in =1)

1

Q1_1

Q1_0
C1_0_0

C1_0_1

(b)
Si_j_1 or
Ci_j_1

Si_j_0 or
Ci_j_0
Ci_j_k

Qi_j

Si_j_k or Ci_j_k
Ci_j_k
Si_j_0 or
Ci_j_0
Si_j_1 or
Ci_j_1

G1
1
1

(k =0 or 1)
Si_j_k or
Ci_j_k

Q2_1
C[0]
S[1] C[2] S[0]

Ci_j_k =carry in to the i th bit assuming the carry in to the j th bit is k (k =0 or 1)

Si_j_k =sum at the ith bit assuming the carry in to the jth bit is k (k =0 or 1)

The conditional-sum adder

25

26

SECTION 2

CMOS LOGIC

ASICS... THE COURSE

2.6.3 A Simple Example

An 8-bit conditional-sum adder
module m8bitCSum (C0, a, b, s, C8); // Verilog conditional-sum adder
for an FPGA
//1
input [7:0] C0, a, b; output [7:0] s; output C8;
//2
wire
A7,A6,A5,A4,A3,A2,A1,A0,B7,B6,B5,B4,B3,B2,B1,B0,S8,S7,S6,S5,S4,S3,S2
,S1,S0;
//3
wire C0, C2, C4_2_0, C4_2_1, S5_4_0, S5_4_1, C6, C6_4_0, C6_4_1,
C8;
//4
assign {A7,A6,A5,A4,A3,A2,A1,A0} = a; assign
{B7,B6,B5,B4,B3,B2,B1,B0} = b;
//5
assign s = { S7,S6,S5,S4,S3,S2,S1,S0 };
//6
assign S0 = A0^B0^C0 ; // start of level 1: & = AND, ^ = XOR, | =
OR, ! = NOT
//7
assign S1 = A1^B1^(A0&B0|(A0|B0)&C0) ;
//8
assign C2 = A1&B1|(A1|B1)&(A0&B0|(A0|B0)&C0) ;
//9
assign C4_2_0 = A3&B3|(A3|B3)&(A2&B2) ; assign C4_2_1 =
A3&B3|(A3|B3)&(A2|B2) ;
//10
assign S5_4_0 = A5^B5^(A4&B4) ; assign S5_4_1 = A5^B5^(A4|B4) ;
//11
assign C6_4_0 = A5&B5|(A5|B5)&(A4&B4) ; assign C6_4_1 =
A5&B5|(A5|B5)&(A4|B4) ;
//12
assign S2 = A2^B2^C2 ; // start of level 2
//13
assign S3 = A3^B3^(A2&B2|(A2|B2)&C2) ;
//14
assign S4 = A4^B4^(C4_2_0|C4_2_1&C2) ;
//15
assign S5 = S5_4_0&
!(C4_2_0|C4_2_1&C2)|S5_4_1&(C4_2_0|C4_2_1&C2) ;
//16
assign C6 = C6_4_0|C6_4_1&(C4_2_0|C4_2_1&C2) ;
//17
assign S6 = A6^B6^C6 ; // start of level 3
//18
assign S7 = A7^B7^(A6&B6|(A6|B6)&C6) ;
//19
assign C8 = A7&B7|(A7|B7s)&(A6&B6|(A6|B6)&C6) ;
//20
endmodule
//21
2.6.4 Multipliers
Mental arithmetic: 15 (multiplicand) 19 (multiplier) = 15 (201) = 15 21
Suppose we want to multiply by B=00010111 (decimal 16+4+2+1=23)
Use the canonical signed-digit vector (CSD vector) D= 00101001 (decimal 328+1=
23)
B has a weight of 4, but D has a weight of 3 and saves hardware

ASICs... THE COURSE

2.6 Datapath Logic Cells

area/k 2

normalized
delay
120

3000

ripple-carry

ripple-carry

carry-select

carry-select

80

2000
carry-save

carry-save

40

1000

2-input
NAND =1
8

16

32
(a)

64
bits

16

32
(b)

64
bits

Datapath adders

To recode (or encode) any binary number, B, as a CSD vector, D:

Di = Bi + Ci 2Ci + 1 ,

where Ci +1 is the carry from the sum of Bi+1 +B i +C i (we start with C0 =0).

If B=011 (B2 =0, B 1 =1, B 0 =1; decimal 3), then: D0 = B0 + C0 2C1 = 1 + 0 2 = 1,

D1 = B1 + C1 2C2 = 1 + 1 2 = 0,
D2 = B2 + C2 2C3 = 0 + 1 0 = 1,
so that D= 101 (decimal 41=3).

We can use a radix other than 2, for example Booth encoding (radix-4):
B=101001 (decimal 932=23) E= 1 21 (decimal 168+1=23)
B=01011 (eleven) E= 11 1 (1641)
B=101 E= 11

27

28

SECTION 2

CMOS LOGIC

'0'
S50

redundant
carry

a0

'0'
S51

S41
b1

a1
S42

S33

S24

S31

CIN
FA
full adder

'0'

Sum

c1

5.1

S23
S14

S32

5.2

S50
S41
S32
S23
S14
S05

S05

S22
d2

e3

5.1

5.3

5.2

'0'

2
5.3

5.4

5.4

S04

half
adder

f4

5.5
5.5

full
adder

P5

'0'
(c)
P5

P4

carry-save chain
(a)

P5
Wallace tree
(b)

Tree-based multiplication at each stage we have the following three choices:

(1) sum three outputs using a full adder
(2) sum two outputs using a half adder
(3) pass the outputs to the next stage

S13

f5

e5

S50
S41

Each dot
represents
an output of
one stage
and an
input to the
next.

S05

S15

P6

b0

S14
e4

d4

COUT

S40

S23
d3

c3

A B

S32
c2

b2

f6

'0'
'0'

ASICS... THE COURSE

ASICs... THE COURSE

2.6 Datapath Logic Cells

S54S45 S53S44 S52S43 S51S42 S50 S41 S23S14 S22S13 S21S12 S20S11 S10'0' S00
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
1 35 2 34 3 33 4 32 5 05 6 04 7 03 8 02 9 01
S25

10

11

S15
S
12 24

13

14

S31

15

S30

20

S40

21

'0'

24

'0'

'0'
3

17

18

22

23

19

'0'

16

P1

P2

P3

0
1

P4

25

P0

'0'

2
6

P5

26

3
4

S55
7

27
P11 P10

A B
28
P9

29
P8

30
P7

P6

COUT

FA

5
CIN

Sum

A Wallace-tree multiplier works forward from the multiplier inputs

Full adder is a 3:2 compressor or (3, 2) counter
Half adder is a (2, 2) counter

6
7

full
adder

P5

29

30

SECTION 2

CMOS LOGIC

ASICS... THE COURSE

0
S25 S34 S15 S24 S42 S51 S05 S14 S32 S41 S04S13

2
S35 S44

3
4

7
S45 S54
13

S43

S33

'0'

S52
8

S53
14

'0'

S23

10
S50

15

16

17

S00
'0'

S22 S03 S12

11 S31 12 '0'
S40
18

P0

S21S02 S11
19 S30 20 S20

S55

'0'

21
P10

22
P9

23
P8

24
P7

25
P6

26
P5

27
P4

28
P3

29
P2

S10S01
30 '0'
P1

P11

The Dadda multiplier works backward from the final product

Each stage has a maximum of 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 13, 19, ...outputs (each successive stage is
3/2 times largerrounded down to an integer

The number of stages and thus delay (in units of an FA delayexcluding the CPA) for an n-bit
tree-based multiplier using (3, 2) counters is
log1.5 n = log10 n/log10 1.5 = log10 n/0.176

ASICs... THE COURSE

A3
B2

2.6 Datapath Logic Cells

S32 two-input
AND
A3 A1
A2 A0

A3 A1
A2 A0
B0
B1
B2
B3

S32

(3, 2)
counter

Z0

A1
B0
B0

Z'0

Z'1

A0
B1

B1

B1

Z'2

B2

(3, 2)
counter

(a)

A0
B0

2-bit
submultiplier

A0
B0
A1
B1

B3

(b)

FerrariStefanelli architecture nests multipliers

(c)

Z'4

31

32

SECTION 2

CMOS LOGIC

ASICS... THE COURSE

2.6.5 Other Arithmetic Systems

binary
1010111
+ 1100101

decimal
87
101

= 10111100

= 188

redundant binary
10101001
+ 11100111
01001110
11000101
111000100

CSD vector
10101001
+ 01100101
= 11001100
11000000
101001100

addend
augend
intermediate sum
intermediate carry
sum

Redundant binary addition redundant binary encoding avoids carry propagation

A[i]

B[i]

1
0
1
1
0

0
1
1
1
0

0
1
1

1
0
1

A[i1]

B[i1]

x
x
A[i1]=0/1 and
B[i1]=0/1
A[i1]=1 or B[i1]=1
x
x
x
x
x
x
A[i1]=0/1 and
B[i1]=0/1
A[i1]=1 or B[i1]=1
x
x

Intermediate Intermediate
sum
carry
0
1
1
1
0
0
0

0
1
0
0
0

1
1
0

1
0
1

101 (decimal) is 1100101 (in binary and CSD vector) or 11100111

188 (decimal) is 10111100 (in binary), 111000100, 101001100, or 101000100 (CSD
vector)
101 is represented as 010010 (using sign magnitude) rather wasteful
Residue number system
11 (decimal) is represented as [1, 2] residue (5, 3)
11R5 =11 mod 5=1 and 11R3 =11 mod 3=2
The size of this system is 3 5=15
We can now add, subtract, or multiply without using any carry

ASICs... THE COURSE

4
+ 7
= 11

2.6 Datapath Logic Cells

[4, 1]
+ [2, 1]
= [1, 2]

12
4
=8

[2, 0]
[4, 1]
= [3, 2]

3
4
= 12

33

[3, 0]
[4, 1]
= [2, 0]

The 5, 3 residue number system

n
0
1
2
3
4

residue 5 residue 3
0
0
1
1
2
2
3
0
4
1

n
5
6
7
8
9

residue 5 residue 3
0
2
1
0
2
1
3
2
4
0

n
10
11
12
13
14

residue 5 residue 3
0
1
1
2
2
0
3
1
4
2

34

SECTION 2

CMOS LOGIC

ASICS... THE COURSE

2.6.6 Other Datapath Operators

Full subtracter

DIFF =
=
NOT(BOUT
)=
=

CLK
D[MSB:0]

A NOT(B) (BIN)
SUM(A, NOT(B), NOT(BIN))
A NOT(B) + A NOT(BIN) + NOT(B) NOT(BIN)
MAJ(NOT(A), B, NOT(BIN))

PRE
Q[MSB:0]

Z[MSB:0]

A[MSB:0]

Z[MSB:0]

B[MSB:0]

B[MSB:0]
(c)
(b)

(a)

A[MSB:0]

+ S[MSB:0]

B[MSB:0]

+/-

S
A[MSB:0]
B[MSB:0]

0
1

Z[MSB:0]

Z[MSB:0]
+/-1

(d)

(e)

Z
=0
(f)

Z
=1
(g)

(h)

Symbols for datapath elements

Keywords: adder/subtracter barrel shifter normalizer denormalizer leading-one detector

priority encoder exponent correcter accumulator multiplieraccumulator (MAC)
incrementer decrementer incrementer/decrementer all-zeros detector all-ones detector
register file first-in first-out register (FIFO) last-in first-out register (LIFO)

ASICs... THE COURSE

2.7 I/O Cells

35

2.7 I/O Cells

Keywords:Tri-State is a registered trademark of National Semiconductor) drivers contention bus keeper or bus-hold cell (TI calls this Bus-Friendly logic) slew rate powersupply bounce simultaneously switching outputs (SSOs) quiet-I/O bidirectional I/O
open-drain level shifter electrostatic discharge, or ESD electrical overstress (EOS)
ESD implant human-body model (HBM) machine model (MM) charge-device model
(CDM, also called device chargedischarge) latch-up undershoot overshoot guard
rings

from core
logic

VDD
ND1

M1

OE

A three-state bidirectional output buffer

output
enable

I/O
pad
I2

M2

DATAout
NR1
DATAin
to core
logic

I1

2.8 Cell Compilers

Keywords: silicon compilers RAM compiler multiplier compiler single-port RAM dual-port
RAMs multiport RAMs asynchronous synchronous model compiler netlist compiler
correct by construction

2.9 Summary
The use of transistors as switches
The difference between a flip-flop and a latch
The meaning of setup time and hold time

36

SECTION 2

CMOS LOGIC

ASICS... THE COURSE

Pipelines and latency

The difference between datapath, standard-cell, and gate-array logic cells
Strong and weak logic levels
Pushing bubbles
Ratio of logic
Resistance per square of layers and their relative values in CMOS
Design rules and

2.10 Problems
Suggested homework: 2.1, 2.2, 2.38, 2.39 (from ASICs... the book)

ASICs...THE COURSE (1 WEEK)

ASIC LIBRARY
DESIGN

Key concepts: Tau, logical effort, and the prediction of delay Sizes of cells, and their drive
strengths Cell importance The difference between gate-array macros, standard cells, and
datapath cells
ASIC design uses predefined and precharacterized cells from a libraryso we need to
design or buy a cell library. A knowledge of ASIC library design is not necessary but makes
it easier to use library cells effectively.

3.1 Transistors as Resistors

tPDf
0.35VDD = VDD exp
Rpd (Cout + Cp)
An output trip point of 0.35 is convenient because ln(1/0.35)=1.04 1 and thus
tPDf = Rpd(Cout + Cp) ln (1/0.35) Rpd(Cout + Cp)
For output trip points of 0.1/0.9 we multiply by ln(0.1) = 2.3, because exp (2.3) = 0.100

SECTION 3

ASIC LIBRARY DESIGN

ASICS... THE COURSE

VDD
v(in1)
m2

v(out1)

VDD
IDSp

in1

t' =0

VDD
VDD exp[t' / (Rpd (Cp + C out ))]

out1

m2
Rpu

in1

out1

0.5VDD

m1
I DSn

(I DSp + IDSn )

m1

0.35VDD
0

Cout

tPDf
t'
R pd (C p + Cout)

t' =0
m1: off saturation

(a)

Rpd
C

Cp

Cout

t' =0

linear

(b)

(c)

A linear model for CMOS logic delay

Ideal switches = no delay Resistance and capacitance causes delay
Load capacitance, Cout parasitic output capacitance, Cp input capacitance, C
Linearize the switch resistance Pull-up resistance, Rpu pull-down resistance, Rpd
Measure and compare the input, v(in1) and output, v(out1)
Input trip point of 0.5 output trip points are 0.35 (falling) and 0.65 (rising)
The linear propramp model: falling propagation delay, tPDf Rpd (Cp +Cout)

ASICs... THE COURSE

3.1 Transistors as Resistors

(a)

(b)

v(out1) / V

nonequilibrium path

max(I DSn, IDSp) /mA

equilibrium
path

nonequilibrium path

IDSn

v(in1) /V
3

IDSn =I DSp

I DSp

0
3
0
0

3
v(in1) /V

equilibrium
path

2
1

v(out1) / V

0
0

(c)
max(IDSn , IDSp ) /mA

0.4

CMOS inverter characteristics

equilibrium
path

Equilibrium switching
Non-equilibrium switching

IDSn =I DSp

0.2

Nonlinear switching resistance

Switching current
0.0

3
v(in1) /V

SECTION 3

ASIC LIBRARY DESIGN

ASICS... THE COURSE

3.2 Transistor Parasitic Capacitance

channel edge
ndiff
D

1
CBSSW

pwell

2
CGB
CGD 2
CGDOV 3

2
C GS
3 C GSOV

S
L

poly

PS

field
implant

AS
W

channel
LDD diffusion
depletion region
bulk, B

D
3
5

CBDJ 4

(b)

CGBOV CGB

TFOX

(d)

(c)

channel
edge
CBSJ GATE

CGBOV

W EFF
2
channel edge
T ox

C GD
C GB
C GS

LEFF

(e)

CGDOV

AS

channel edge

(f)

LD

PS

WEFF

C GSOV

C BS
= C BSJ + C BSSW
+ C BSJGATE

CGS CGSOV

LEFF

C BD
= C BDJ + CBDSW
+ C BDJ GATE

CBSJ

CGD C GDOV

1
L

FOX

GND or
VSS

(a)

1
CBDSW

CBSJ
(g)

(h)

CBSSW

Transistor parasitic capacitance

Constant overlap capacitances CGSOV, CGDOV, and CGBOV
Variable capacitances CGS, CGB, and CGD depend on the operating region
CBS and CBD are the sum of the area (CBSJ, CBDJ), sidewall (CBSSW, CBDSW ), and channel edge (CBSJGATE, CBDJGATE) capacitances
LD is the lateral diffusion TFOX is the field-oxide thickness

ASICs... THE COURSE

NAME
MODEL
ID
VGS
VDS
VBS
VTH
VDSAT
GM
GDS
GMB
CBD
CBS
CGSOV
CGDOV
CGBOV
CGS
CGD
CGB

m1
CMOSN
7.49E-11
0.00E+00
3.00E+00
0.00E+00
4.14E-01
3.51E-02
1.75E-09
1.24E-10
6.02E-10
2.06E-15
4.45E-15
1.80E-15
1.80E-15
2.00E-16
0.00E+00
0.00E+00
3.88E-15

3.2 Transistor Parasitic Capacitance

m2
CMOSP
-7.49E-11
-3.00E+00
-4.40E-08
0.00E+00
-8.96E-01
-1.78E+00
2.52E-11
1.72E-03
7.02E-12
1.71E-14
1.71E-14
2.88E-15
2.88E-15
2.01E-16
1.10E-14
1.10E-14
0.00E+00

ID (IDS), VGS, VDS, VBS, VTH (Vt), and VDSAT (VDS(sat) ) are DC parameters
GM, GDS, and GMB are small-signal conductances (corresponding to IDS/VGS,
IDS/VDS, and IDS/VBS, respectively)

SECTION 3

ASIC LIBRARY DESIGN

ASICS... THE COURSE

ASICs... THE COURSE

3.2 Transistor Parasitic Capacitance

Calculations of parasitic capacitances for an n-channel MOS transistor.

PSpice Equation

Values1 for VGS =0V, VDS =3V, VSB =0V

CBD

CBD = 1.855 1013 + 2.04 1016 = 2.06

CBD = CBDJ + CBDSW

1013 F

CBDJ + AD CJ ( 1 + VDB/B)mJ (B =
PB)

CBDJ = (4.032 1015)(1 + (3/1))0.56 = 1.86

1015 F

CBDSW = PD CJSW (1 + VDB/B)mJSW

16
0.5 = 2.04
(PD may or may not include channel CBDSW = (4.2 10 )(1 + (3/1))
edge)
1016 F
CBS = 4.032 1015 + 4.2 1016 = 4.45

CBS
CBS = CBSJ + CBSSW

1015 F
AS CJ = (7.2 1015)(5.6 104) = 4.03

CBSJ + AS CJ ( 1 + VSB/B)mJ

1015 F
PS CJSW = (8.4 106)(5 1011) = 4.2

CGSOV

CBSSW = PS CJSW (1 + VSB/B)mJSW 1016 F

CGSOV =W EFF CGSO ; WEFF =W2W
CGSOV = (6 106)(3 1010) = 1.8 1016 F
D

CGDOV

CGDOV =W EFF CGSO

CGDOV = (6 106)(3 1010) = 1.8 1015 F

CGBOV

CGBOV =L EFF CGBO ; LEFF =L2L D

CGDOV = (0.5 106)(4 1010) = 2 1016 F

CGS

CGS/CO = 0 (off), 0.5 (lin.), 0.66 (sat.) CO = (6 106)(0.5 106)(0.00345) = 1.03

CO (oxide capacitance) = WEF LEFF ox 1014 F
/ Tox
CGS = 0.0 F

CGD

CGD/CO = 0 (off), 0.5 (lin.), 0 (sat.)

CGB

CGB = 0 (on), = CO in series with CGS CGB = 3.88 1015 F, CS =depletion capaci(off)
tance
.MODEL CMOSN NMOS LEVEL=3 PHI=0.7 TOX=10E-09 XJ=0.2U TPG=1
VTO=0.65 DELTA=0.7
+ LD=5E-08 KP=2E-04 UO=550 THETA=0.27 RSH=2 GAMMA=0.6
NSUB=1.4E+17 NFS=6E+11
+ VMAX=2E+05 ETA=3.7E-02 KAPPA=2.9E-02 CGDO=3.0E-10
CGSO=3.0E-10 CGBO=4.0E-10
+ CJ=5.6E-04 MJ=0.56 CJSW=5E-11 MJSW=0.52 PB=1
m1 out1 in1 0 0 cmosn W=6U L=0.6U AS=7.2P AD=7.2P PS=8.4U
PD=8.4U

1Input

CGD = 0.0 F

SECTION 3

ASIC LIBRARY DESIGN

ASICS... THE COURSE

3.2.1 Junction Capacitance

Junction capacitances, CBD and CBS, consist of two parts: junction area and sidewall
Both CBD and CBS have different physical characteristics with parameters: CJ and MJ
for the junction, CJSW and MJSW for the sidewall, and PB is common
CBD and CBS depend on the voltage across the junction (VDB and VSB)
The sidewalls facing the channel (CBSJGATE and CBDJGATE) are different from the sidewalls that face the field
It is a mistake to exclude the gate edge assuming it is in the rest of the modelit is not
In HSPICE there is a separate mechanism to account for the channel edge capacitance (using parameters ACM and CJGATE)
3.2.2 Overlap Capacitance
The overlap capacitance calculations for CGSOV and CGDOV account for lateral diffusion
SPICE parameter LD=5E-08 or LD =0.05 m
Not all SPICE versions use the equivalent parameter for width reduction, WD, in calculating CGDOV
Not all SPICE versions subtract WD to form WEFF
3.2.3 Gate Capacitance
The gate capacitance depends on the operating region
The gatesource capacitance CGS varies from zero (off) to 0.5C O in the linear region to
(2/3)C O in the saturation region
The gatedrain capacitance CGD varies from zero (off) to 0.5C O (linear region) and
back to zero (saturation region)
The gatebulk capacitance CGB is two capacitors in series: the fixed gate-oxide capacitance, CO, and the variable depletion capacitance, CS
As the transistor turns on the channel shields the bulk from the gateand CGB falls to
zero
Even with VGS =0V, the depletion width under the gate is finite and thus CGB is less than
CO

ASICs... THE COURSE

3.2 Transistor Parasitic Capacitance

capacitance/fF

off

saturation

linear

0
0

0.5

1.5

2
2.5
3
inverter input voltage, v(in1) /V

CBD

CBS

CGSOV

CGDOV

CGBOV

CGS

CGD

CGB

The variation of n-channel transistor parasitic capacitance

PSpice v5.4 (LEVEL=3)
Created by varying the input voltage, v(in1), of an inverter
Data points are joined by straight lines
Note that CGSOV=CGDOV

10

SECTION 3

ASIC LIBRARY DESIGN

ASICS... THE COURSE

3.2.4 Input Slew Rate

(a)
(b)

(c)

Measuring the input capacitance of an inverter

(a) Input capacitance is measured by monitoring the input current to the inverter, i(Vin)
(b) Very fast (non-equilibrium) switching: input current of 40fA = input capacitance of 40fF
(c) Very slow (equilibrium) switching: input capacitance is now equal for both transitions

ASICs... THE COURSE

3.2 Transistor Parasitic Capacitance

(a)

(b)

11

(c)

(d)

Parasitic capacitance measurement

(a) All devices in this circuit include parasitic capacitance
(b) This circuit uses linear capacitors to model the parasitic capacitance of m9/10.
The load formed by the inverter (m5 and m6) is modeled by a 0.0335pF capacitor (c2)
The parasitic capacitance due to the overlap of the gates of m3 and m4 with their source,
drain, and bulk terminals is modeled by a 0.01pF capacitor (c3)
The effect of the parasitic capacitance at the drain terminals of m3 and m4 is modeled by a
0.025pF capacitor (c4)
(c) Comparison of (a) and (b). The delay (1.221.135=0.085ns) is equal to tPDf for the inverter m3/4
(d) An exact match would have both waveforms equal at the 0.35 trip point (1.05V).

12

SECTION 3

ASIC LIBRARY DESIGN

ASICS... THE COURSE

3.3 Logical Effort

We extend the propramp model with a catch all term, tq, that includes:
delay due to internal parasitic capacitance
the time for the input to reach the switching threshold of the cell
the dependence of the delay on the slew rate of the input waveform

tPD = R(Cout + Cp) + tq

We can scale any logic cell by a scaling factor s: tPD = (R/s)(Cout + sCp) + stq
Cout
tPD = RC + RCp + stq
Cin
(RC) (Cout / Cin ) + RCp + stq
Normalizing the delay: d =

=f+p+q

The time constant tau, = Rinv Cinv , is a basic property of any CMOS technology
The delay equation is the sum of three terms, d = f + p + q or
delay = effort delay + parasitic delay + nonideal delay
The effort delay f is the product of logical effort, g, and electrical effort, h: f = gh
Thus, delay = logical effort electrical effort + parasitic delay + nonideal delay
R and C will change as we scale a logic cell, but the RC product stays the same
Logical effort is independent of the size of a logic cell
We can find logical effort by scaling a logic cell to have the same drive as a 1X
minimum-size inverter
Then the logical effort, g, is the ratio of the input capacitance, Cin, of the 1X logic cell to
Cinv

ASICs... THE COURSE

3.3 Logical Effort

13

2 units of
gate capacitance
2/1

2/1

2/1

C inv

1/1

Cinv

A
1 unit

2/1

1X

ZN

ZN

Cin =2+2=4

2/1

1
Measure the input
capacitance of a
minimum-size
inverter.
C inv =2+1=3

1X

g = C in /C inv = 4/3

Make the cell have the same Measure ratio of cell input
drive strength as a
capacitance to that of a
minimum-size inverter.
minimum-size inverter.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Logical effort For a two-input NAND cell, the logical effort, g=4/3
(a) Find the input capacitance, Cinv, looking into the input of a minimum-size inverter in
terms of the gate capacitance of a minimum-size device
(b) Size a logic cell to have the same drive strength as a minimum-size inverter (assuming
a logic ratio of 2). The input capacitance looking into one of the logic-cell terminals is then
Cin
(c) The logical effort of a cell is Cin/ Cinv
The h depends only on the load capacitance Cout connected to the output of the logic
cell and the input capacitance of the logic cell, Cin; thus
electrical effort h = Cout /Cin
parasitic delay p = RCp/ (the parasitic delay of a minimum-size inverter is: pinv = Cp/
Cinv )
nonideal delay q = stq /
Cell effort, parasitic delay, and nonideal delay (in units of ) for single-stage CMOS cells
Cell
inverter
n-input NAND
n-input NOR

Cell effort
(logic ratio=2)
1 (by definition)
(n+2)/3
(2n+1)/3

Cell effort
(logic ratio=r)
1 (by definition)
(n+r)/(r+1)
(nr+1)/(r+1)

Parasitic delay/ Nonideal delay/

pinv (by definition) qinv (by definition)
np inv
nq inv
np inv
nq inv

14

SECTION 3

ASIC LIBRARY DESIGN

ASICS... THE COURSE

3.3.1 Predicting Delay

Example: predict the delay of a three-input NOR logic cell
2X drive
driving a net with a fanout of four
0.3pF total load capacitance (input capacitance of cells we are driving plus the interconnect)
p =3pinv and q =3qinv for this cell
the input gate capacitance of a 1X drive, three-input NOR logic cell is equal to gCinv
for a 2X logic cell, Cin = 2gCinv
Cout

g(0.3 pF)
(0.3 pF)
gh = g = = (Notice g cancels out in this equation)
Cin
2gCinv
(2)(0.036 pF)
The delay of the NOR logic cell, in units of , is thus

d = gh + p + q

0.3 1012
+ (3)(1) + (3)(1.7)
(2)(0.036 1012)

= 4.1666667 + 3 + 5.1
= 12.266667 equivalent to an absolute delay, tPD 12.3 0.06ns=0.74ns
The delay for a 2X drive, three-input NOR logic cell is tPD = (0.03 + 0.72Cout + 0.60) ns
With Cout =0.3pF, tPD = 0.03 + (0.72)(0.3) + 0.60 = 0.846 ns compared to our prediction of
0.74ns

ASICs... THE COURSE

3.3 Logical Effort

3.3.2 Logical Area and Logical Efficiency

VDD

An OAI221 logic cell

Logical-effort vector g=(7/3, 7/3,
5/3)

A
A
B
C
D
E

4/1

4/1

4/1

2/1

4/1

Z
E

The logical area is 33 logical

squares

A
C

3/1
3/1
3/1

B
D

3/1
3/1

VDD
A

An AOI221 logic cell

g=(8/3, 8/3, 7/3)
Logical area is 39 logical squares
Less logically efficient than OAI221

A
B
C
D
E

6/1

6/1

6/1
Z

1/1

B
D

6/1
6/1

2/1

2/1
B

2/1
2/1

15

16

SECTION 3

ASIC LIBRARY DESIGN

ASICS... THE COURSE

3.3.3 Logical Paths

path delay D =

gi hi +
(pi + qi)
i path
i path

3.3.4 Multistage Cells

(a)

delay d1
g2 =1.4
g0 =1
p0 =1
p2 =2
q0 =1.7 q2 =3.4
A1
A2 2
B1
B2
C

AOI21

g3 =1.4
p3 =2 AOI221
q3 =3.4
ZN
3
4

h0 =1.4
1.4
A1
A2

1.0

g1 =(2, 1.6)
p1 =3
q1 =5.4

AOI221

2.0

1.4

h3 =0.7
3

B1
B2
C

g4 =1
p4 =1
q4 =1.7

h2 =1.0

1.4

4
1.0

1.6

d1=( g0 h0 + p0 + q0) +( g2 h2 + p2 + q2) +( g3h 3 + p3 + q3) +( g4h4 + p4 + q4)

=(1 1.4 +1+1.7)+(1.4 1+2+3.4)+(1.4 0.7+ 2+3.4) +(1 C L +1+1.7)=20+
(b)

1.0
g0 =1
p0 =1
q0 =1.7

2.6
A1
A2
B1
B2
C

CL
h4 =C L

CL

delay d1
ZN
g1 =(2.6, 2.6, 2.2)
CL
p1 =5
q1 =8.5
AOI221

d1=(1 2.6+1+1.7) +(1 C L +5+8.5)=18.8+

CL

Logical paths Comparison of multistage and single-stage implementations

(a) An AOI221 logic cell constructed as a multistage cell, d1 = 20 + CL
(b) A single-stage AOI221 logic cell, d1 = 18.8 + CL

ZN

(b) is
slightly
faster
than (a)

ASICs... THE COURSE

3.3 Logical Effort

3.3.5 Optimum Delay

path logical effort

G=

gi
i path
Cout

path electrical effort

H=

hi

Cin

i path
Cout is the load and Cin is the first input capacitance on the path
path effort

F = GH

optimum effort delay

f^i = gihi

= F1/N

optimum path delay

D^ = NF1/N

= N(GH)1/N + P + Q

P+Q =

pi + hi
i path

3.3.6 Optimum Number of Stages

Delay of N inverter stages driving
a path effort of H = C out /C in .

delay/(ln H)
= h /(ln h)
12

Stage effort
h
1.5
2
2.7
3
4
5

h/(ln h)
3.7
2.9
2.7
2.7
2.9
3.1

10

4.3

10
8

C in

Cout
h

4
2
0
1

6
7
8
9 10
stage electrical effort, h=H 1/N

Chain of N inverters each with equal stage effort, f=gh

Total path delay is Nf=Ngh=Nh, since g =1 for an inverter

17

18

SECTION 3

ASIC LIBRARY DESIGN

ASICS... THE COURSE

To drive a path electrical effort H, hN = H, or N ln h =lnH

Delay, Nh = hlnH/ln h
Since lnH is fixed, we can only vary h/ln(h)
h/ln(h) is a shallow function with a minimum at h =e 2.718
Total delay is Ne=eln H

3.4 Library-Cell Design

A big problem in library design is dealing with design rules
Sometimes we can waive design rules
Symbolic layout, sticks or logs can decrease the library design time (9 months for
Virtual Siliconcurrently the most sophisticated standard-cell library)
Mapping symbolic layout uses 1020 percent more area (510 percent with compaction)
Allowing 45 layout decreases silicon area (some companies do not allow 45 layout)

ASICs... THE COURSE

3.5 Library Architecture

3.5 Library Architecture

(a)
1

(b)
50

normalized cell use

(minimum-size inverter=1)

normalized cell area

(minimum-size inverter=1)

cell number
ordered by
cell use

cell number
ordered by
cell use

(c)
4

(d)

cell area cell use

(minimum-size inverter=1)

normalized cell importance

(D flip-flop=1)

0
cell number
ordered by
cell importance

cell number
ordered by
cell use

(e)
Cell library statistics

80percent of an ASIC uses less than

20percent of the cell library

cell use (minimum-size inverter=1)

cell importance =cell area cell use
(D flip-flop=1)

Cell importance
A D flip-flop (with a cell importance of 3.5)
contributes 3.5 times as much area on a typical ASIC than does an inverter (with a cell importance of 1)

0
cell number
ordered by
cell use and
by cell importance

19

20

SECTION 3

ASIC LIBRARY DESIGN

ASICS... THE COURSE

3.6 Gate-Array Design

Key words: gate-array base cell (or base cell) gate-array base (or base) horizontal tracks
vertical track gate isolation isolator transistor oxide isolation oxide-isolated gate array

n-well
contact

VDD

2
3

continuous
p-diff strip

4
5
6
7

bent gate

8
9
10
11

continuous
n-diff strip

contact for
isolator

12

n-well

13

p-well

14

n-diff

15

p-diff

16

poly

17

m1

18

m2

19

contact

20

p-well

VSS

contact
(a)

(b)

21
(c)

The construction of a gate-isolated gate array

(a) The one-track-wide base cell containing one p-channel and one n-channel transistor
(b) The center base cell is isolating the base cells on either side from each other
(c) The base cell is 21 tracks high (high for a modern cell library)

ASICs... THE COURSE

3.6 Gate-Array Design

break in diffusion
1
1
2
(3)
4
5
6
7
8
9
(10)
11
12

poly
n-well
contact
p-well
contact

VDD

n-well
p-well
n-diff
p-diff
poly
GND

m1
m2
contact
base cell

An oxide-isolated gate-array base cell

Two base cells, each contains eight transistors and two well contacts
The p-channel and n-channel transistors are each 4 tracks high
The cell is 12 tracks high (812 is typical for a modern library)
The base cell is 7 tracks wide

p-diff

p-diff
n-diff

21

22

SECTION 3

ASIC LIBRARY DESIGN

ASICS... THE COURSE

1
n-well contact

2
(3)
VDD
(4)
5

poly cross-under

6
7
8
9

n-well

10

p-well
n-diff

(11)

p-diff

VSS
(12)

poly
m1

13

m2
14

contact
1

An oxide-isolated gate-array base cell

14 tracks high and 4 tracks wide
VDD (tracks 3 and 4) and GND (tracks 11 and 12) are each 2 tracks wide
10 horizontal routing tracks (tracks 1, 2, 510, 13, 14)unusually large number for modern cells
p-channel and n-channel polysilicon bent gates are tied together in the center of the cell
The well contacts leave room for a poly cross-under in each base cell.

ASICs... THE COURSE

3.6 Gate-Array Design

VDD

contact for
isolator
CLR
QN

Q
CLK
connector

VSS

Flip-flop macro in a gate-isolated gate-array library

Only the first-level metallization and contact pattern, the personalization, is shown, but
this is enough information to derive the schematic
This is an older topology for 2LM (cells for 3LM are shorter in height)

23

24

SECTION 3

ASIC LIBRARY DESIGN

ASICS... THE COURSE

1
2
3

n-well
p-well

7
n-diff
8

p-diff
poly
m1

10
m2
11

The SiARC/Synopsys cell-based array (CBA) basic cell

This is CBA I for 2LM (CBA II is intended for 3LM and salicide proceses)

ASICs... THE COURSE

3.6 Gate-Array Design

a
b

n-well

poly

d
e
f

mm

aa+bb
= xx + yy
g
= 2.75
aa bb cc dd ee ff gg hh ii
= (0.5 P.4 + C.3)
yy
= 1.5
= C.3
xx
= 1.25
= 0.5 P.4

kk ll

h
i

nn

ndiff

l
contact

BB

base
cell 1

jj

BB = cell bounding box

BB

oo

pdiff

base
cell 2

n
ndiff

pdiff
o
p

p-well

A simple gate-array base cell

BB

25

26

SECTION 3

ASIC LIBRARY DESIGN

3.7 Standard-Cell Design

A D flip-flop standard cell

Performance-optimized library Area-optimized library
Wide power buses and transistors for a performance-optimized cell
Double-entry cell intended for a 2LM process and channel routing
Five connectors run vertically through the cell on m2
The extra short vertical metal line is an internal crossover
bounding box (BB) abutment box (AB) physical connector abut

ASICS... THE COURSE

ASICs... THE COURSE

3.7 Standard-Cell Design

VDD

GND

A D flip-flop from a 1.0m standard-cell library

27

28

SECTION 3

ASIC LIBRARY DESIGN

ASICS... THE COURSE

b
9

5
t6 t7

t4 t5

1
3

5
4

4
a t1

t2

10
3

4 t23

10

6
8

7
t29 8

ndiff
0
t28

10

contact
t14 t15

10

t27

0
t24

poly

t21

8
t10 t11

t25 t26

t22
t20

t9

t3

t12 t13

1
2

t8

t34

9 t31

6
t30

0
10
t32

t33
pdiff

5
contact

VDD
1
m2
4
2

3
9

5
6
via

10
8

VSS

m1

D flip-flop
(Top) n-diffusion, p-diffusion, poly, contact (n-well and p-well are not shown)
(Bottom) m1, contact, m2, and via layers

ASICs... THE COURSE

3.8 Datapath-Cell Design

3.8 Datapath-Cell Design

VSS

VDD

VDD

VSS

A datapath D flip-flop cell

29

30

SECTION 3

ASIC LIBRARY DESIGN

10/1.8
t6

p2

8/1.8

p2

p1

8/1.8
t2
p1

6/1.8 n1
t4
n1

n1

10/1.8
t14
10/1.8 p1

t8
p1

10/1.8 p1
t5

CLK

ASICS... THE COURSE

n1

t13

t7
6/1.8

p1
4.5/6.7
t10
p1

t3

t1
6/1.8

6/1.8 n1
n1

n2

n1

p1

p1

n1

6/1.8 n1

t15
6/1.8

t19

6/1.8 n1
t12
n1
t11

t18
4.5/6.7
p1
n1

6/1.8
t9
4.5/13.6

VDD
8/1.8
t20

8/1.8
t16

n2

t17
n1

4.5/13.6
VSS

The schematic of a datapath D flip-flop cell

(a)

A narrow datapath
(a) Implemented in a two-level metal process
(b) Implemented in a three-level metal process

(b)

ASICs... THE COURSE

3.9 Summary

3.9 Summary
Key concepts:
Tau, logical effort, and the prediction of delay
Sizes of cells, and their drive strengths
Cell importance
The difference between gate-array macros, standard cells, and datapath cells

31

32

SECTION 3

ASIC LIBRARY DESIGN

ASICS... THE COURSE

ASICs...THE COURSE (1 WEEK)

PROGRAMMABLE
ASICs

Key concepts: programmable logic devices (PLDs) field-programmable gate arrays

(FPGAs) programming technology basic logic cells I/O logic cells programmable interconnect software to design and program the FPGA

4.1 The Antifuse

antifuse polysilicon

ONO dielectric

n+ antifuse
diffusion

antifuse
link

antifuse
polysilicon

antifuse

antifuse
polysilicon

oxidenitrideoxide
(ONO) dielectric
n+ antifuse diffusion
2
(a)

<10nm

20nm
2
(b)

n+ antifuse
diffusion

contacts
2
(c)

Actel antifuse
antifuse programming current (about 5mA) (PLICE) oxidenitrideoxide (ONO) dielectric Activator in-system programming (ISP) gang programmers one-time programmable (OTP) FPGAs

SECTION 4

PROGRAMMABLE ASICs

Number of
antifuses on Actel FPGAs
Device
A1010
A1020
A1225
A1240
A1280

Antifuses
112,000
186,000
250,000
400,000
750,000

ASICS... THE COURSE

percentage
100

0
antifuse resistance/

The resistance of blown Actel antifuses

ASICs... THE COURSE

4.1 The Antifuse

4.1.1 MetalMetal Antifuse

(a)

link

(b)
link

m2

m3
via

SiO2
m1

SiO2

SiO2
2

tungsten
plug

m2
amorphous Si

m2

amorphous Si

2
m3

Metalmetal antifuse
QuickLogic metalmetal antifuse (ViaLink) alloy of tungsten, titanium, and silicon bulk resistance of about 500mcm

percentage
100

Resistance values for the QuickLogic

metalmetal antifuse
0
antifuse resistance/

SECTION 4

PROGRAMMABLE ASICs

ASICS... THE COURSE

4.2 Static RAM

Xilinx SRAM (static RAM) configuration cell

use in reconfigurable hardware

Q'

READ or
WRITE

use of programmable read-only

memory or PROM to hold configuration

configuration
control

DATA

4.3 EPROM and EEPROM Technology

+VGS > V tn

+VGS > Vtn

gate2
GND

gate1

UV light
+VPP
drain

source

GND

+VDS
drain

source

bulk
GND

electrons
(a)

bulk
GND

bulk

no channel
(b)

(c)

An EPROM transistor
(a) With a high (>12V) programming voltage, VPP, applied to the drain, electrons gain
enough energy to jump onto the floating gate (gate1)
(b) Electrons stuck on gate1 raise the threshold voltage so that the transistor is always off
for normal operating voltages
(c) UV light provides enough energy for the electrons stuck on gate1 to jump back to the
bulk, allowing the transistor to operate normally
Facts and keywords: Altera MAX 5000 EPLDs and Xilinx EPLDs both use UV-erasable
electrically programmable read-only memory (EPROM) hot-electron injection or avalanche
injection floating-gate avalanche MOS (FAMOS)

ASICs... THE COURSE

4.4 Practical Issues

Hardware security key
computer-aided engineering (CAE) tools PC vs. workstation
ease of use cost of ownership

4.4.1 FPGAs in Use

inventory
risk inventory or safety supply
just-in-time (JIT)
printed-circuit boards (PCBs)
pin locking or I/O locking

4.5 Specifications
qualification kit
down-binning

4.6 PREP Benchmarks

Programmable Electronics Performance Company (PREP)
http://www.prep.org

4.4 Practical Issues

SECTION 4

PROGRAMMABLE ASICs

ASICS... THE COURSE

4.7 FPGA Economics

Xilinx part-naming convention
XC4010-10 PG156C

Not all parts are available in all packages

temperature range
number of pins
package
speed
device type

Some parts are packaged with fewer

leads than I/Os

Programmable ASIC part codes

Item
Manufacturers

Code
A
XC

Description
Actel
Xilinx

Code Description
ATT
AT&T (Lucent)
isp
Lattice Logic

EPM

Altera MAX

M5

EPF
CY7C
PL or
PC
PQ
CQ or
CB
PG

Altera FLEX
Cypress
plastic J-leaded chip carrier,
PLCC
plastic quad flatpack, PQFP
ceramic quad flatpack, CQFP

QL

ceramic pin-grid array, PGA

C
I
M

commercial
industrial
military

WB,
PB
B
E

code

Package
type

Application

VQ
TQ
PP

AMD MACH 5 is on the

device
QuickLogic
very thin quad flatpack,
VQFP
thin plastic flatpack, TQFP
plastic pin-grid array, PPGA
ball-grid array, BGA
MIL-STD-883
extended

ASICs... THE COURSE

4.7 FPGA Economics

1992 base Actel

FPGA prices
Actel part
A1010A-PL44C
A1020A-PL44C
A1225-PQ100C
A1240-PQ144C
A1280-PQ160C

1992 base Xilinx XC3000

FPGA prices
1H92 base price
$23.25
$43.30
$105.00
$175.00
$305.00

Xilinx part
XC3020-50PC68C
XC3030-50PC44C
XC3042-50PC84C
XC3064-50PC84C
XC3090-50PC84C

1H92 base
price
$26.00
$34.20
$52.00
$87.00
$133.30

SECTION 4

PROGRAMMABLE ASICs

ASICS... THE COURSE

4.7.1 FPGA Pricing

How much do FPGAs cost? How much does a car cost? pricing matrix
Actel price adjustment factors
Purchase quantity, all types
(19)
(1099)
100%
96%

(100999)
84%

Purchase time, in (100999) quantity

1H92
2H92
93
100%
8095%
6080%
Qualification type, same package
Commercial
Industrial
Military
100%
120%
150%

883-B
230300%

Speed bin1
ACT 1-Std
100%

ACT 1-2
140%

ACT 2-Std
100%

ACT 2-1
120%

PQ100
125%
PQ100
125%
PG100
175%
PG132
140%
PG176
145%

PG84
400%
JQ44, 68, 84
270%

PG84
275%

ACT 1-1
115%

Package type
A1010:
PL44, 64, 84
100%
A1020:
PL44, 64, 84
100%
A1225:
PQ100
100%
A1240:
PQ144
100%
A1280:
PQ160
100%
1

CQ84
400%

CQ172
160%

Actel bins: Std=standard speed grade; 1=medium speed grade; 2=fastest speed grade

ASICs... THE COURSE

4.7 FPGA Economics

4.7.2 Pricing Examples

base prices and adjustment factors sticker price
Example Actel part-price calculation
Example: A1020A-2-PQ100 in (100999) quantity, purchased 1H92.
Factor
Example
Base price
A1020A
Quantity
100999
Time
1H92
Qualification type
Industrial (I)
2
Speed bin1

Value
$43.30
84%
100%
120%
140%

Package
Estimated price (1H92)
Actual Actel price (1H92)

125%
$76.38
$75.60

PQ100

The speed bin is a manufacturers code (usually a number) that follows the family part number
and indicates the maximum operating speed of the device
Marshall at http://marshall.com, carry Xilinx
Hamilton-Avnet, at http://www.hh.avnet.com, carry Xilinx
Wyle, at http://www.wyle.com carries Actel and Altera

10

SECTION 4

PROGRAMMABLE ASICs

ASICS... THE COURSE

4.8 Summary
Programmable ASIC technologies
Actel
Programming Polydiffusion
technology
antifuse, PLICE

Xilinx LCA1
Erasable SRAM
ISP

Altera EPLD
Xilinx EPLD
UV-erasable
UV-erasable
EPROM (MAX 5k) EPROM

EEPROM (MAX
7/9k)
Size of
Small but requires Two inverters plus One n-channel
programming contacts to metal pass and switch
EPROM device.
element
devices. Largest.
Medium.
Process
Special: CMOS
Standard CMOS Standard EPROM
plus three extra
and EEPROM
masks.
ProgramSpecial hardware PC card, PROM,
ISP (MAX 9k) or
ming method
or serial port
EPROM programmer
QuickLogic
Programming Metalmetal
technology
antifuse, ViaLink

Crosspoint
Metalpolysilicon
antifuse

Size of
Smallest
programming

Small

element
Process

One n-channel
EPROM device.
Medium.
Standard EPROM

EPROM programmer

Atmel
Erasable SRAM.

Altera FLEX
Erasable SRAM.

ISP.
Two inverters plus
pass and switch
devices. Largest.

ISP.
Two inverters plus
pass and switch
devices. Largest.

Special, CMOS
Special, CMOS
Standard CMOS
plus ViaLink
plus antifuse
ProgramSpecial hardware Special hardware PC card, PROM,
ming method
or serial port

Standard CMOS
PC card, PROM,
or serial port

1Lucent (formerly AT&T) FPGAs have almost identical properties to the Xilinx LCA family

All FPGAs have the following key elements:

The programming technology
The basic logic cells
The I/O logic cells
Programmable interconnect
Software to design and program the FPGA

ASICs... THE COURSE

4.9 Problems

4.9 Problems

11

12

SECTION 4

PROGRAMMABLE ASICs

ASICS... THE COURSE

ASICs...THE COURSE (1 WEEK)

PROGRAMMABLE
ASIC LOGIC
CELLS

Key concepts: basic logic cell multiplexer-based cell look-up table (LUT) programmable
array logic (PAL) influence of programming technology timing worst-case design

5.1 Actel ACT

5.1.1 ACT 1 Logic Module

Logic Module

Actel ACT

A0
A1
SA
B0
B1

(a)

SB

M1
0 F1
M3
1
S
0
F
1
M2
S
0
1 F2
S

S3

S0
S1

O1

Logic Module

Logic Module

A0
A1

'1'

F1
F2

SA

0
1

F1
0
1

B0
B1

D
'1'

SB

0
1

F2

S0
S1

S3
O1

'0'
B
F=(A B) +(B' C)+D

(b)

(c)

(d)

The Actel ACT architecture

(a) Organization of the basic logic cells
(b) The ACT 1 Logic Module (LM, the Actel basic logic cell). The ACT 1 family uses just
one type of LM. ACT 2 and ACT 3 FPGA families both use two different types of LM
(c) An example LM implementation using pass transistors (without any buffering)
(d) An example logic macro. Connect logic signals to some or all of the LM inputs, the remaining inputs to VDD or GND

SECTION 5

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC LOGIC CELLS

ASICS... THE COURSE

5.1.2 Shannons Expansion Theorem

We can use the Shannon expansion theorem to expand F =AF(A='1') +
A'F(A='0')
Example: F =A'B + ABC' + A'B'C = A(BC') + A'(B + B'C)
F(A='1')=BC' is the cofactor of F with respect to (wrt) A or FA
If we expand F wrt B, F =A'B + ABC' + A'B'C = B(A' + AC') + B'(A'C)
Eventually we reach the unique canonical form, which uses only minterms
(A minterm is a product term that contains all the variables of Fsuch as AB'C)
Another example: F=(AB) + (B'C) + D
Expand F wrt B: F=B(A + D) + B'(C + D) =BF2 + B'F1
F = 2:1 MUX, with B selecting between two inputs: F(A='1') and F(A='0')
F also describes the output of the ACT 1 LM
Now we need to split up F1 and F2
Expand F2 wrt A, and F1 wrt C: F2=A + D=(A1) + (A'D); F1=C + D=(C1) + (C'D)
A, B, C connect to the select lines and '1' and D are the inputs of the MUXes in the
ACT 1 LM
Connections: A0=D, A1='1', B0=D, B1='1', SA=C, SB=A, S0='0', and S1=B

ASICs... THE COURSE

5.1 Actel ACT

5.1.3 Multiplexer Logic as Function Generators

The 16 logic functions of 2 variables:

F

2 of the 16 functions are not very interesting (F='0', and F='1')

There are 10 functions that we can

implement using just one 2:1 MUX

4 ways to
arrange
one '1'

6 functions are useful: INV, BUF,

AND, OR, AND1-1, NOR1-1

F
0

6 ways to
arrange
two '1's

4 ways to
arrange
one '0'

14 functions of 2 variables (and F='0', F ='1' makes 16)

Boolean functions using a 2:1 MUX

Function, F
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

'0'
NOR1-1(A, B)
NOT(A)
AND1-1(A, B)
NOT(B)
BUF(B)
AND(A, B)
BUF(A)
OR(A, B)
'1'

F=

Canonical form

'0'

'0'

(A+B')
A'
AB'
B'
B
AB
A
A+B
'1'

Minterms
none
1
0, 1
2
0, 2
1, 3
3
2, 3
1, 2, 3

A'B
A'B' + A'B
AB'
A'B' + AB'
A'B + AB
AB
AB' + AB
A'B + AB' + AB
A'B' + A'B + AB' +
0, 1, 2, 3
AB

Minterm
code
0000
0010
0011
0100
0101
1010
1000
1100
1110
1111

FuncM1
tion
number A0 A1
0
0 0
2
B 0
3
0 1
4
A 0
5
0 1
6
0 B
8
0 B
9
0 A
13
B 1
15

SA
0
A
A
B
B
1
A
1
A
1

Example of using the WHEEL functions to implement F=NAND(A, B)=(AB)'

1. First express F as the output of a 2:1 MUX: we do this by expanding F wrt A (or wrt
B; since F is symmetric) F=A(B') + A'('1')
2. Assign WHEEL1 to implement INV(B), and WHEEL2 to implement '1'
3. Set the select input to the MUX connecting WHEEL1 and WHEEL2, S0+S1=A. We
can do this using S0=A, S1='1'

SECTION 5

A0
A1

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC LOGIC CELLS

M1
0
1

BUF

M1
0
1

INV

F1
AND-11

ASICS... THE COURSE

AND1-1

SA

M2
0
1
NOR1-1

A two-input MUX
can implement
these functions,
selected by A0,
A1, and SA.

OR

AND

M1
M3
0 F
1

A, B
WHEEL1
M2
C, D

NOR-11

S3

WHEEL2

S0
S1
WHEEL

M3
0 F
1

S3

S0
S1
The ACT 1 Logic Module can
implement these functions.

(a)

(b)

The ACT 1 Logic Module as a Boolean function generator

(a) A 2:1 MUX viewed as a function wheel
(b) The ACT 1 Logic Module is two function wheels, an OR gate, and a 2:1 MUX
A 2:1 MUX is a function wheel that can generate BUF, INV, AND-11, AND1-1, OR, AND
WHEEL(A, B) =MUX(A0, A1, SA)
MUX(A0, A1, SA)=A0SA' + A1SA
The inputs (A0, A1, SA) ={A, B, '0', '1'}
Each of the inputs (A0, A1, and SA) may be A, B, '0', or '1'
The ACT 1 LM is built from two function wheels, a 2:1 MUX, and a two-input OR gate
ACT 1 LM =MUX [WHEEL1, WHEEL2, OR(S0, S1)]
5.1.4 ACT 2 and ACT 3 Logic Modules
ACT 1 requires 2 LMs per flip-flop: with unknown interconnect capacitance
ACT 2 and ACT 3 use two types of LMs, one includes a D flip-flop
ACT 2 C-Module is similar to the ACT 1 LM but can implement five-input logic functions
combinatorial module implements combinational logic (blame MMI for the misuse of
terms)
ACT 2 S-Module (sequential module) contains a C-Module and a sequential element

ASICs... THE COURSE

5.1 Actel ACT

5.1.5 Timing Model and Critical Path

Keywords and concepts: timing model deals only with internal logic estimates delays
before place-and-route step nondeterministic architecture find slowest registerregister
delay or critical path
Example of timing calculations (a rather complex examination of internal module timing):
The setup and hold times, measured inside (not outside) the S-Module, are t'SUD and
t'H (a prime denotes parameters that are measured inside the S-Module)
The clockQ propagation delay is t'CO
The parameters t'SUD, t'H, and t'CO are measured using the internal clock signal CLKi
The propagation delay of the combinational logic inside the S-Module is t'PD
The delay of the combinational logic that drives the flip-flop clock signal is t'CLKD
From outside the S-Module, with reference to the outside clock signal CLK1:
tSUD =t' SUD + (t'PD t'CLKD ), tH =t' H + (t'PD t'CLKD ), tCO =t' CO + t'CLKD
We do not know the internal parameters t'SUD, t'H, and t'CO, but assume reasonable
values:
t'SUD =0.4ns,

t'H =0.1ns,

t'CO =0.4ns.

t'PD (combinational logic inside the S-Module) is equal to the C-Module delay, so
t'PD =3ns for the ACT 3
We do not know t'CLKD ; assume a value of t'CLKD =2.6ns (the exact value does not matter)
Thus the external S-Module parameters are: tSUD =0.8ns, tH =0.5ns, tCO =3.0ns
These are the same as the ACT 3 S-Module parameters (I chose t'CLKD so they would
be)
Of the 3.0ns combinational logic delay: 0.4ns increases the setup time and 2.6ns
increases the clockoutput delay, tCO
Actel says that the combinational logic delay is buried in the flip-flop setup time. But this
is borrowed moneyyou have to pay it back.
5.1.6 Speed Grading
Speed grading (or speed binning) uses a binning circuit
Measure tPD =(t PLH + tPHL)/2 and use the fact that properties match across a chip
Actel speed grades are based on 'Std' speed grade

SECTION 5

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC LOGIC CELLS

C-Module
D00
D01
D10
D11

ASICS... THE COURSE

S-Module (ACT 2)

D00
D01
D10
D11

OUT

S-Module (ACT 3)
D00
D01
D10
D11

SE
Y

A1
B1

S1

A1
B1

S1

A0
B0

S0

A0
CLR

S0

A1
B1

S0

(b)

(c)

SE (sequential element)

1
D

SE

C2
C1
CLR

S1

A0
B0
CLR
CLK

CLK
(a)

SE

master
latch
combinational
logic for clock
and clear

D
Z

S
slave
latch

CLK

C2
C1

CLR

CLR

flip-flop macro
D
CLK

(d)

1D
C1

(e)

Actel ACT 2 and ACT 3 Logic Modules

(a) The C-Module for combinational logic
(b) The ACT 2 S-Module
(c) The ACT 3 S-Module
(d) The equivalent circuit (without buffering) of the SE (sequential element)
(e) The SE configured as a positive-edgetriggered D flip-flop
'1' speed grade is approximately 15 percent faster than 'Std'
'2' speed grade is approximately 25 percent faster than 'Std'
'3' speed grade is approximately 35 percent faster than 'Std'.

ASICs... THE COURSE

5.1 Actel ACT

tSUD

t PD
(a)

tCO

combinational setup
logic delay
time
3.0ns
0.8ns

tSUD

t CO

clock to
setup clock to
output delay time
output delay
0.8ns 3.0ns
3.0ns

(tH)
internal
signal

C-Module

I1

(hold time)
(0.5ns)
S-Module

CL

DQ

CL

internal
signal

S-Module
DQ

O1

C1
clock
pad

clock buffer

CLK1

S1

D1

CL

S-Module
t'SUD t'CO
(t'H)
Di

Qi

S1
S-Module
3ns 0.4 ns 0.4ns
(0.1 ns)

timing
parameters
typical
figures
Q1

D1

CLKi

t'CLKD
View CLK1
from
inside
looking
out.
View
from
outside
looking
in.

= variable routing delay

internal clock

CLK
S1
t'PD

S2

CLK2

CL

Di

DQ

Q1

CLKi

2.6ns

tSUD tCO
(tH)
D1

Qi

0.8ns 3.0 ns
(0.5ns)

CLK1
Q1

D1

CLK1

DQ

Q1

CLK1

t SUD = t'SUD + t'PD t'CLKD

t SUD = (0.4 + 3.0 2.6) = 0.8ns

t H = t'H + t'PD t' CLKD

t H = (0.1 + 3.0 2) = 0.5ns

t CO = t'CO + t'CLKD

t CO = (0.4 + 2.6) = 3.0ns

(b)

(c)

Timing views from inside and outside the Actel ACT S-module
(a) Timing parameters for a 'Std' speed grade ACT 3
(b) Flip-flop timing
(c) An example of flip-flop timing based on ACT 3 parameters

SECTION 5

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC LOGIC CELLS

ASICS... THE COURSE

5.1.7 Worst-Case Timing

Keywords and concepts: Using synchronous design you worry about how slow your circuit
may benot how fast ambient temperature, TA package case temperature, TC (military)
temperature of the chip, the junction temperature, TJ nominal operating conditions:
VDD =5.0V, and TJ =25C worst-case commercial conditions: VDD =4.75V, and TJ =+70C
always design using worst-case timing derating factors critical path delay between
registers process corner (slowslow fastfast slowfast fastslow) Commercial.
VDD =5V 5%, TA (ambient)=0 to +70C Industrial. VDD =5V 10%, TA (ambient)=40 to
+85C Military: VDD =5V 10%, TC (case)=55 to +125C Military: Standard MIL-STD883C Class B Military extended: unmanned spacecraft
ACT 3 timing parameters
Family
ACT 3-3 (data book)
ACT3-2 (calculated)
ACT3-1 (calculated)
ACT3-Std (calculated)

Delay
tPD
tPD/0.85
tPD/0.75
tPD/0.65

1
2.9
3.41
3.87
4.46

2
3.2
3.76
4.27
4.92

Fanout
3
3.4
4.00
4.53
5.23

4
3.7
4.35
4.93
5.69

8
4.8
5.65
6.40
7.38

85
1.07
1.03
1.00
0.97
0.93

125
1.17
1.12
1.09
1.06
1.01

ACT 3 derating factors

VDD/V
4.5
4.75
5.00
5.25
5.5

55
0.72
0.70
0.68
0.66
0.63

40
0.76
0.73
0.71
0.69
0.66

Temperature TJ (junction)/C
0
25
70
0.85
0.90
1.04
0.82
0.87
1.00
0.79
0.84
0.97
0.77
0.82
0.94
0.74
0.79
0.90

5.1.8 Actel Logic Module Analysis

Actel uses a fine-grain architecture which allows you to use almost all of the FPGA
Synthesis can map logic efficiently to a fine-grain architecture

ASICs... THE COURSE

5.2 Xilinx LCA

Physical symmetry simplifies place-and-route (swapping equivalent pins on opposite

sides of the LM to ease routing)
Matched to small antifuse programming technology
LMs balance efficiency of implementation and efficiency of utilization
A simple LM reduces performance, but allows fast and robust place-and-route

5.2 Xilinx LCA

Keywords and concepts: Xilinx LCA (a trademark, logic cell array) configurable logic block
coarse-grain architecture
5.2.1 XC3000 CLB
A 32-bit look-up table (LUT)
CLB propagation delay is fixed (the LUT access time) and independent of the logic
function
7 inputs to the XC3000 CLB: 5 CLB inputs (AE), and 2 flip-flop outputs (QX and QY)
2 outputs from the LUT (F and G). Since a 32-bit LUT requires only five variables to
form a unique address (32=2 5), there are several ways to use the LUT:
Use 5 of the 7 possible inputs (AE, QX, QY) with the entire 32-bit LUT (the CLB outputs (F and G) are then identical)
Split the 32-bit LUT in half to implement 2 functions of 4 variables each; choose 4 input
variables from the 7 inputs (AE, QX, QY).You have to choose 2 of the inputs from the 5
CLB inputs (AE); then one function output connects to F and the other output connects
to G.
You can split the 32-bit LUT in half, using one of the 7 input variables as a select input
to a 2:1 MUX that switches between F and G (to implemen some functions of 6 and 7
variables).
5.2.2 XC4000 Logic Block

10

SECTION 5

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC LOGIC CELLS

DI

ASICS... THE COURSE

data in
flip-flop
QX

DQ
M

QX

combinational
function

A
B

RD

CL

CLB
outputs

G
QY

flip-flop

QY

DQ
M
EC

enable clock

RD
M

'1' (enable)
K
RD

clock
M

reset direct
'0' (inhibit)

(global reset)

programmable MUX
M

The Xilinx XC3000 CLB (configurable logic block)

(Source: Xilinx.)

ASICs... THE COURSE

5.2 Xilinx LCA

C1

to/from adjacent CLB

H1
carry
in

C2

clock
enable
DIN
F'
G'
H' M

G'

LUT

H'

LUT
4

4
CL

F'

LUT
carry
logic

EC
1

carry
in

to/from adjacent CLB

Y
CLB
outputs
X
SET/RST
control

SD
D

QX
flip-flop

EC
1

RD

DIN
F'
G'
H' M

carry
out

flip-flop

global clock

programmable
S/R MUX
SET/RST
control
SD
D
QY

4
CL

four control lines per CLB for internal

control or SRAM control
EC

carry
out

F1:F4

C4

DIN

carry
logic
G1:G4

C3

= programmable MUX

The Xilinx XC4000 family CLB (configurable logic block). (Source: Xilinx.)

RD

11

12

SECTION 5

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC LOGIC CELLS

ASICS... THE COURSE

5.2.3 XC5200 Logic Block

LC0 to LC1 and

LC2 to LC3 only
F5_MUX

carry
out

M
0
1

4
F4:F1

LUT

carry
chain

M
S

flip-flop or
latch
DQ
CE

DO

LC3

LC2
LC1

CLK
CLR

LC0

X
combinational
function

data in

DI

Logic Cell (LC)

CO

= programmable MUX

carry
in
CI

CE, CK, CLR

CLB
(4 LCs in a CLB)

CE,
CK,
CLR

The Xilinx XC5200 family Logic Cell (LC) and configurable logic block (CLB).(Source: Xilinx.)
5.2.4 Xilinx CLB Analysis
The use of a LUT has advantages and disadvantages:
An inverter is as slow as a five-input NAND
A LUT simplifies timing of synchronous logic
Matched to large SRAM programming technology
Xilinx uses two speed-grade systems:
Maximum guaranteed toggle rate of a CLB flip-flop (in MHz) as a suffixhigher is
faster
Example: Xilinx XC3020-125 has a toggle frequency of 125MHz
Delay time of the combinational logic in a CLB in nslower is faster
Example: XC4010-6 has tILO =6.0ns
Correspondence between grade and tILO is fairly accurate for the XC2000, XC4000,
and XC5200 but not for the XC3000

ASICs... THE COURSE

Xilinx LCA timing model (XC5210-6)

(Source: Xilinx.)

5.2 Xilinx LCA

internal
signal
I1

CLKC1

IK

t DICK

tCKO

t ILO

setup
time

clock to combinational setup

time
output logic delay
delay

0.8 ns 5.8ns

5.6ns

CLB1

CLB2

DQ

CL

tICK

13

t CKO
clock to
output delay
5.8ns

2.3ns
CLB3

DQ

CL

O1

CLKC3
I2

internal clock

= variable routing delay

14

SECTION 5

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC LOGIC CELLS

ASICS... THE COURSE

5.3 Altera FLEX

Logic Element (LE)

Altera FLEX

LE3

local
interconnect

CRYO CASCO
LE2

(a)
D4:D1
4

carry
chain

4
D4:D1

LUT

CL

Logic Array
Block (LAB)
D3

PRE, CLR

CL

cascade
out

carry
out

CL
cascade
chain

OUT
PRE M
DQ
CLK
flip-flop
CLR

LC2:LC1
(b)

CLK
LE2

LC4:LC3

LC4:LC1
8 LEs
per LAB

carry
in
CRYI

cascade
in

= programmable
M MUX

CASCI
LE1
LE0
(c)

The Altera FLEX architecture

(a) Chip floorplan
(b) Logic Array Block (LAB)
(c) Details of the Logic Element (LE)
(Source: Altera (adapted with permission).)

ASICs... THE COURSE

5.4 Altera MAX

15

5.4 Altera MAX

programmable AND array (2i jk)

k macrocells

product
term

j-wide OR array

OUT

j
macrocell
CLK
A

i inputs

A registered PAL with i inputs, j product terms, and k macrocells. (Source: Altera (adapted with
permission).)
Features and keywords:
product-term line
programmable array logic
bit line
word line
programmable-AND array (or product-term array)
pull-up resistor
wired-logic
wired-AND
macrocell
22V10 PLD

16

SECTION 5

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC LOGIC CELLS

ASICS... THE COURSE

5.4.1 Logic Expanders

(b)

(a)
LAB

LAB

LAB

LAB

LAB
(Logic Array Block)

LA
LAB

LAB

16
macrocells
per LAB

Altera
MAX
chipwide
interconnect
system system
clock(s) clear
LA
(local
array)

macrocell 1
3

programmable
inversion
product
term
5 select

shared
expander

macrocell 2
clock, clear,
preset, enable
DQ

OUT
macrocell
output

parallel expander
to next macrocell
macrocell feedback
other
macrocells
in LAB

114

(c)

The Altera MAX architecture (the macrocell details vary between the MAX familiesthe functions shown here are closest to those of the MAX 9000 family macrocells) (Source: Altera
(adapted with permission).) (a) Organization of logic and interconnect (b) LAB (Logic Array
Block) (c) Macrocell
Features:
Logic expanders and expander terms (helper terms) increase term efficiency
Shared logic expander (shared expander, intranet) and parallel expander (internet)
Deterministic architecture allows deterministic timing before logic assignment
Any use of two-pass logic breaks deterministic timing
Programmable inversion increases term efficiency

ASICs... THE COURSE

5.4 Altera MAX

5.4.2 Timing Model

(a)

tLOCAL

tLAD

local
array
0.5

logic setup
array
4.0
3.0

internal
LA
signal

tRD

(b)

register
delay
1.0
total=8.5ns

local
array

t2

t4

tPEXP

local
array
0.5

logic
array
4.0

parallel setup
expander
1.0
3.0

t1

t2

t3

tLOCAL

t LAD

tSEXP

local
array
0.5

logic
array
4.0

shared
expander
5.0

internal
LA
signal
I3

M1
t1

t2

M2

t1

internal
signal
t5

t2

O2

M1

I3

internal
M2 signal

t4

O3
t5

O2
M2

LA

t1

t4

t3
t 4 t5

(f)
t LOCAL t COMB
local
combinational
array
total=11ns
0.5
1.0
LA

t3

M1

I2

register
delay
total=9.5ns
1.0

t4

(e)

O1

(d)

tRD

t SU

M2

M1

t3 t 4

LA

t LAD

I2

t1

O1

tLOCAL

internal
LA
signal

macrocell
array

t2

t3

(c)

I1

internal
signal

M1
t1

I1

t SU

t2

LA

t3
M1
t5

O3
M2

Altera MAX timing model (ns for the MAX 9000 series, '15' speed grade) (Source: Altera .)
(a) A direct path through the logic array and a register
(b) Timing for the direct path
(c) Using a parallel expander
(d) Parallel expander timing
(e) Making two passes through the logic array to use a shared expander
(f) Timing for the shared expander (there is no register in this path)

17

18

SECTION 5

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC LOGIC CELLS

ASICS... THE COURSE

5.4.3 Power Dissipation in Complex PLDs

Key points: static power Turbo Bit

5.5 Summary
Key points: The use of multiplexers, look-up tables, and programmable logic arrays The difference between fine-grain and coarse-grain FPGA architectures Worst-case timing design
Flip-flop timing Timing models Components of power dissipation in programmable ASICs
Deterministic and nondeterministic FPGA architectures

5.6 Problems

ASICs...THE COURSE (1 WEEK)

PROGRAMMABLE
ASIC I/O CELLS

Key concepts:
Input/output cell (I/O cell) I/O requirements DC output AC output DC input AC input
Clock input Power input

6.1 DC Output
A robot arm example
To design a system work from the outputs
back to the inputs

motor

openclose
updown

(a) Three small DC motors drive the arm

leftright
direction control

(b) Switches control each motor

(a)

A circuit to drive a small electric

motor (0.5A) using ASIC I/O buffers

I/O buffer

(b)

all R=470
5V
+

Work from the outputs to the inputs

The 470 resistors drop up to 5V
if an output buffer current
approaches 10mA, reducing the
drive to the output transistors

motor
direction
control

ASIC

I Omax =10mA (continuous)

SECTION 6

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC I/O CELLS

VDD
M1
IO

IN

I/O
pad

VDD
'0'

'1'

(a)

VOL
trying
to be '0'

M2

IO

M1

R1

off
I OL

VO
M2

VDD

ASICS... THE COURSE

trying
to be '1'

I OH
(negative)
off

IOHpeak IOLpeak
IOL

VOH

I OH
8mA

0
R2

(b)

(c)

VDD
VOLmax

VO

VOHmin
(d)

CMOS output buffer characteristics

(a) A CMOS complementary output buffer
(b) Transistor M2 (M1 off) sinks (to GND) a current IOL through a pull-up resistor, R1
(c) Transistor M1 (M2 off) sources (from VDD) a current IOH (IOH is negative) through a
pull-down resistor, R2
(d) Output characteristics:
Data books specify characteristics at two points, A (VOHmin, IOHmax) and B (VOLmax,
IOLmax)
Example (Xilinx XC5200):
VOLmax =0.4V, low-level output voltage at IOLmax =8.0mA
VOHmin =4.0V, high-level output voltage at IOHmax =8.0mA
Output current, IO, is positive if it flows into the output
Input current, if there is any, is positive if it flows into the input
Output buffer can force the output pad to 0.4V or lower and sink no more than 8mA
When the output is 4V, the buffer can source 8mA
Specifying only VOLmax =0.4V and VOHmin =4.0V for a technology is strictly incorrect
We do not know the value of IOLpeak or IOHpeak (typical values are 50200mA)

ASICs... THE COURSE

6.2 AC Output

6.1.1 Totem-Pole Output

Keywords: totem-pole output buffer similar to TTL totem-pole output two n-channel
transistors in a stack reduced output voltage swing
6.1.2 Clamp Diodes

VDD

VDD

M1
I/O
pad
M2

M1

IO
IO VO
+

IO

D1

I OL

IO VO
+

M2

I OL

IOH

IOH
D2

VDD VO
VDD V tn
(a)

(b)

VO
0.5V

(c)

VDD +0.5V
(d)

Output buffer characteristics

(a) A CMOS totem-pole output stage (both M1 and M2 are n-channel transistors)
(b) Totem-pole output characteristics (notice the reduced signal swing)
(c) Clamp diodes, D1 and D2, in an output buffer (totem-pole or complementary) prevent
the I/O pad from voltage excursions greater than VDD and less than VSS
(d) The clamp diodes conduct as the output voltage exceeds the supply voltage bounds

6.2 AC Output
Keywords: bus transceivers bus transaction (a sequence of signals on a bus) floating a bus
bus keeper trip points three-stated (high-impedance or hi-Z) time to float disable time,
time to begin hi-Z, or time to turn off slew sustained three-state (s/t/s) turnaround cycle

SECTION 6

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC I/O CELLS

ASICS... THE COURSE

'1'

hi-Z

hi-Z to '0'

VOHmin

Three-state bus timing

The on-chip delays, t2OE and t3OE,
for the logic that generates signals
CHIP2.E1 and CHIP3.E1 are
derived from the timing models

VILmax
(Xilinx)

BUSA.B1
tfloat t active
CHIP2.OE
(ACT2/3)

t slew

50%

CHIP3.OE
(XC3000)

'0'

VOLmax

50%

(The minimum values for each chip

would be the clock-to-Q delay times)
50%

CLK
t 2OE

t3OE

tspare

ASICs... THE COURSE

6.2 AC Output

6.2.1 Supply Bounce

VDD

VDD

M2

OUT1

Vi1

'1'

M5

Vo2
(c)

GND
RS
LS

t
false '1'

1.4V
VOLmax

VSS
1.4 V
0V

2.5V
1.4V
VOLmax

Vo2

M1

I OL
M1 switching
causes ground
bounce

OUT2

O2
Vo1

'0' to '1'

(b)

I OL

I1
M3

TTL '1'

VOHmin

M4

RL

IN1

Vo1

VDD

Vi1

VOLP

3.0V
(d)
t

1.4V
0V

(a)

false '0'

Supply bounce
A substantial current IOL may flow in the resistance, RS, and inductance, LS, that are between the on-chip GND net and the off-chip, external ground connection
(a) As the pull-down device, M1, switches, it causes the GND net (value VSS) to bounce
(b) The supply bounce is dependent on the output slew rate
(c) Ground bounce can cause other output buffers to generate a logic glitch
(d) Bounce can also cause errors on other inputs
Keywords: simultaneously-switching outputs (SSOs) quiet I/O slew-rate control I/O
management packaging PCB layout ground planes inductance

SECTION 6

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC I/O CELLS

ASICS... THE COURSE

6.2.2 Transmission Lines

R0
Vin

C in

V1

V1

V2
2t f

5V

tf

5V

V2
0
TX line

DR
Z0

V1

Vin

R0

5V
tf
1ns per 15cm
(a)

Z0

RX

Z0

V2

2tf

VOHmin
2.5V

+
Vin

V1

VOLmax
t

t
(b)

(c)

Transmission lines
(a) A printed-circuit board (PCB) trace is a transmission (TX) line (Z0 = 50100)
(b) A driver launches an incident wave, which is reflected at the end of the line
(c) A connection starts to look like a TX line when the rise time is about 2 line delay (2tf)

6.3 DC Input

ASICs... THE COURSE

6.3 DC Input

VDD
V1

Z0 V2
100

Z0
100

R1
Z0
100

300

R2

100

TX line
Cin

(a)

(b)

Z0
100

100

R0

(c)

Z0

Z0

100

100

R1

R0

50

(d)

100

R0

100

VB

C1

100pF

(e)

(f)

Transmission line termination

(a) Open-circuit or capacitive termination
(b) Parallel resistive termination
(c) Thvenin termination
(d) Series termination at the source
(e) Parallel termination using a voltage bias
(f) Parallel termination with a series capacitor
A switch input
(a) A pushbutton switch
connected to an input buffer
with a pull-up resistor
(b) As the switch bounces
several pulses may be
generated
We might have to debounce
this signal using an SR flip-flop
or small state machine

Vi1
VDD
I/O
pad
Vi1
I1

RPU
550k
Vi2
I2
input
buffer

Cin
10pF

Switch closes,
bounces, and
closes again.

5V

1.4V
0V
Vi 2

t1
t2 t3

(a)

t4

(b)

t5

SECTION 6

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC I/O CELLS

Vout

Vin
Vout

(b)

hysteresis

5.0V
(c)

2.5V

Vin
5V
3V
2.5 V
2V
0V
Vout

(no hysteresis)

0V
0V

5V Vin

(d)

ASICS... THE COURSE

Vout

(a)

I/O pad

OUT

IN

Vin Vout
Vout

200mV

5.0V
t
glitch
t
t

2.5V
0V
0V 1.4V

5V V
in

(e)

DC input
(a) A Schmitt-trigger inverter lower switching threshold upper switching threshold
difference between thresholds is the hysteresis
(b) A noisy input signal
(c) Output from an inverter with no hysteresis
(d) Hysteresis helps prevent glitches
(e) A typical FPGA input buffer with a hysteresis of 200mV and a threshold of 1.4V

ASICs... THE COURSE

6.3 DC Input

6.3.1 Noise Margins

V1

input
output
buffer/inverter buffer
Vin
Vout

V2

V2

V2

5V

slope=1

5V
Vin is here
for logic '1'

VIHmin

slope
=1
0V

5V V1

VILmax =1V

inputs

5V V1
VIHmin = 3.5V

Vin is here
for logic '0'

VILmax

(b)
outputs

Vout is
here for
logic '1'

VOLmax

Vout is
here for
logic '0'

bad

0V

(a)

VDD
VOHmin

VSS
(c)

CMOS CMOS

CMOS

CMOS

logic
CMOS

5.0V
4.5V

noise

socket

VNMH =1V

3.5V
1.0V
CMOS
(d)

0.5V
0.0V

VNML =0.5V
plug
(e)

(f)

Noise margins
(a) Transfer characteristics of a CMOS inverter with the lowest switching threshold
(b) The highest switching threshold
(c) A graphical representation of CMOS logic thresholds
(d) Logic thresholds at the inputs and outputs of a logic gate or an ASIC
(e) The switching thresholds viewed as a plug and socket
(f) CMOS plugs fit CMOS sockets and the clearances are the noise margins

10

SECTION 6

TTL

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC I/O CELLS

5.0V
2.7V

2.0V
0.8V

0.4V
0.0V

CMOS

5.0V
4.5V

ASICS... THE COURSE

TTL

CMOS

TTL/CMOS

5.0V
3.86V

3.5V
1.0V

TTL
(a)

0.5V
0.0V
CMOS
(b)

TTL and CMOS logic thresholds

(a) TTL logic thresholds
(b) Typical CMOS logic thresholds
(c) A TTL plug will not fit in a CMOS socket
(d) Raising VOHmin solves the problem

2.0V
0.8V
TTL
(c)

CMOS

0.4V
0.0V
TTL/CMOS
(d)

ASICs... THE COURSE

6.3 DC Input

11

6.3.2 Mixed-Voltage Systems

FPGA logic thresholds
Input
levels
XC3000
TTL
2.0
0.8
CMOS
3.85 0.9
XC3000L
2.0
0.8
XC4000
2.0
0.8
XC4000H
TTL
TTL
2.0
0.8
CMOS CMOS 3.85 0.9
XC8100
TTL
R
2.0
0.8
CMOS
C
3.85 0.9
ACT 2/3
2.0
0.8
FLEX10k
3V/5V 2.0
0.8
I/O options

Output levels (high

Output levels (low
current)
current)
3.86 4.0 0.40 4.0
3.86 4.0 0.40 4.0
2.40 4.0 0.40 4.0 2.80 0.1 0.2
0.1
2.40 4.0 0.40 12.0
2.40 4.0 0.50 24.0
4.00 1.0 0.50 24.0
3.86 4.0 0.50 24.0
3.86 4.0 0.40 4.0
2.4 8.0 0.50 12.0 3.84 4.0 0.33 6.0
2.4 4.0 0.45 12.0

VDDIO

VDDINT

Mixed-voltage systems
TTL

(a) TTL levels

(b) Low-voltage CMOS
levels JEDEC 8
3.30.3V
(c) Mixed-voltage ASIC
5V-tolerant I/O V DDint
and VDDI/O
(d) A problem when connecting two chips with
different supply
voltagescaused by the
input clamp diodes

CMOS3V

5.0V
2.7V

2.0V
0.8V

3.3V
2.4V

2.0V
0.8V

0.4V
0.0V

0.4V
0.0V
CMOS3V

TTL

core

I/O

(b)

(a)
VDD1 +
M1

D1

5.5V

(c)

CHIP1
powers
CHIP2

D3

M3

3.0V

'0'

I2
M2

OUT1
D2

(d)
CHIP1

R in
1k

+ VDD 2

IN2
D4
CHIP2

M4

12

SECTION 6

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC I/O CELLS

ASICS... THE COURSE

6.4 AC Input
Keywords and concepts: input bus sampled data clock frequency of 100kHz FPGA system clock 10MHz Data should be at the flip-flop input at least the flip-flop setup time before
the clock edge. Unfortunately there is no way to guarantee this; the data clock and the system
clock are completely independent
6.4.1 Metastability

tsu 1
I/O
pad

Metastability
(a) Data coming from one clocked
system is an asynchronous input
to another

t pd t su2

asynchronous
input
D1
Q1

(a)
fdata

CL

D2

Q2

fclk
CLK

CLK2

(b) A flip-flop (or latch, a sampler)

has a very narrow decision window
bounded by the setup and hold
times to resolve the input
If the data input changes inside the
decision window (a setup or holdtime violation) the output may be
metastableneither '1' or '0'an
upset

tr

decision
window

setup and hold window

(limits of decision window)
50%

CLK
D1
(b)

metastable output
Q1
D2
Q2
tr

t pd

tsu2

ASICs... THE COURSE

6.4 AC Input

13

Metastability parameters for FPGA flip-flops (not guaranteed by the vendors)

FPGA

T0 /s
1.0E09
1.5E10
2.94E11
8.38E11
1.23E10
2.98E17
1.01E13

Actel ACT 1
Xilinx XC3020-70
QuickLogic QL12x16-0
QuickLogic QL12x16-1
QuickLogic QL12x16-2
Altera MAX 7000
Altera FLEX 8000

c /s
2.17E10
2.71E10
2.91E10
2.09E10
1.85E10
2.00E10
7.89E11

The mean time between upsets (MTBU) or MTBF is

MTBU =

pfclockfdata

exp tr/c
=
fclock fdata

where fclock is the clock frequency and fdata is the data frequency
A synchronizer is built from two flip-flops in cascade, and greatly reduces the effective values of c and T0 over a single flip-flop. The penalty is an extra clock cycle of latency.

14

SECTION 6

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC I/O CELLS

ASICS... THE COURSE

MTBF/s
1012

QuickLogic pASIC 1-0

QuickLogic pASIC 1-1
QuickLogic pASIC 1-2

f clock =10MHz
f data =1MHz

Actel ACT 1

108
(3 years)

Xilinx XC302070

104

100
2

resolution
time, t r /ns

Mean time between failure (MTBF) as a function of resolution time

The data is from FPGA vendors data books for a single flip-flop with clock frequency of
10MHz and a data input frequency of 1MHz

ASICs... THE COURSE

6.5 Clock Input

6.5 Clock Input

tPICK =7ns

I/O
pad

(a)

Di

t PSUF
pin-to-pin
setup time

CLK

clock-buffer cell

Dn

I/O
cell

I/O
cell
tskew
tPG

latency

CLB

Qn

CLKn

skew

CLK
tPG

tPICK =7ns

Qi

CLKi

CL

CLK

I/O
pad

= variable routing delay

50%

CLKi
t skew
CLKi
I/O cell

t skew

(b)

tPG
Dn

clock
spine
CLKn

CLKn

t PGmax =8ns
tPICK = 7ns
t PSUF

t PSUFmin =2ns

(c)

Clock input
(a) Timing model (Xilinx XC4005-6)
(b) A simplified view of clock distribution clock skew clock latency
(c) Timing diagram
(Xilinx eliminates the variable internal delay tPG, by specifying a pin-to-pin setup time,
t PSUFmin =2ns)

15

16

SECTION 6

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC I/O CELLS

ASICS... THE COURSE

6.5.1 Registered Input

pin-to-pin pin-to-pin
setup time hold time
without tPSUF
delay
=2ns

tPHF
=5.5ns

with
delay

tPH
=0ns

tPSU
=21ns

T = programmable delay

CLK

internal hold time

(t CKI =0ns)

I/O
pad

D1

D1D

CLK1

Q1

D1D=D1
(without
delay)

CLK1

tPG
t PSUF

t CKI (zero)
t PHF

D1
(with delay)

CLK

tPH (zero)

t PSU

t PG (variable)

(b)

(a)

Programmable input delay

(a) Pin-to-pin timing model (XC4005-6) with pin-to-pin timing parameters
(b) Timing diagrams with and without programmable delay
Notice tPSUFmin = 2 ns tPICK tPGmax = 1 ns

Registered output
(a) Timing model with
values for an XC4005-6
programmed with the
fast slew-rate option
(b) Timing diagram

t OKPOF =7.5ns
tICKOF =15.5ns
clock
buffer

D1

Q1

CLK1

I/O pad

CLK
CLK1
t PG
Q1
t OKPOF

IOB
CLK
t PG (variable)
(a)

t ICKOF
(b)

ASICs... THE COURSE

6.6 Power Input

17

6.6 Power Input

6.6.1 Power Dissipation
Thermal characteristics of ASIC packages
Package

Pin count

CPGA
CQFP
CQFP
VQFP

84
84
172
80

Max. power
Pmax/W

JA /CW1
(still air)
33
40
25
68

JA /CW1
(still air)
3238

6.6.2 Power-On Reset

Key concepts: Power-on reset sequence Xilinx FPGAs configure all flip-flops (in either the
CLBs or IOBs) as either SET or RESET after chip programming is complete, the global
SET/RESET signal forces all flip-flops on the chip to a known state this may determine the initial state of a state machine, for example

18

SECTION 6

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC I/O CELLS

ASICS... THE COURSE

6.7 Xilinx I/O Block

slew passive passive
rate pull-down pull-up
M
OE

OUT
output
clock
OK

I1

I2

three-state
M

TS
FFO
DQ

D1

R1
100 kohm

output
buffer

VDD

I/O
pad

M1

OB

IO
M

flip-flop or
latch

FFI
QD

IB

D2

input
buffer
M

M2

delay
T

R3
100 ohm

R2
100 kohm
M = SRAM cell

flip-flop or
latch
M

input clock
IK

The Xilinx XC4000 family IOB (input/output block). (Source: Xilinx.)

= programmable MUX

ASICs... THE COURSE

tPID

t DICK

tCKO

input (slow)

setup

11.4ns

0.8ns

clock to combinational setup

output logic
5.8ns
5.6ns
2.3ns

t PSU
pin-to-pin
setup
8.5 ns

6.7 Xilinx I/O Block

CLB1

IOB1

I1

t ILO

DQ

CLB2

CLK2

I/O
pad

CL

t CKO

t OP

clock to
output
5.8ns

output
4.6ns (fast)
9.5ns (slow)

CLB3

CL

IOB3

DQ

internal
clock IK

CLK3

IOB4

CLK

DQ

tBUFG, global buffer delay=9.4 ns

I3
input (fast), tPIDF =5.7ns

O1

global clock
buffer

I2

tICK

IOB2

= variable routing delay

CL = combinational logic

O2

CLK4
clock to output
tOKPO
10.1ns (fast)
14.9ns (slow)

The Xilinx LCA (Logic Cell Array) timing model (XC5210-6). (Source: Xilinx.)

19

20

SECTION 6

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC I/O CELLS

ASICS... THE COURSE

6.7.1 Boundary Scan

Key concepts: IEEE boundary-scan standard 1149.1 Many FPGAs contain a standard
boundary-scan test logic structure with a four-pin interface in-system programming (ISP)

6.8

Other I/O Cells

A simplified block diagram of the Altera

I/O Control Block (IOC) used in the
MAX 5000 and MAX 7000 series

output enable
Logic Array Block
(LAB)

The I/O pin feedback allows the I/O

pad to be isolated from the macrocell

612 IOCs
per LAB

It is thus possible to use a LAB without

using up an I/O pad (as you often
have to do using a PLD such as a
22V10)
The PIA is the chipwide interconnect

I/O
pad

fast input to macrocell (7000E only)

I/O pin
feedback
Programmable
Interconnect Array (PIA)

I/O Control
Block (IOC)

FastTrack Interconnect
data in

A simplified block diagram of the Altera

I/O Element (IOE), used in the FLEX
8000 and 10k series

output enable

I/O
pad
D

The MAX 9000 IOC (I/O Cell) is similar

The FastTrack Interconnect bus is the
chipwide interconnect
The Peripheral Control Bus (PCB) is
used for control signals common to
each IOE

IO

Q
FF1

B1
3-state
buffer

CLK

EN

slew-rate
control

= programmable MUX
CLRN

Peripheral
Control Bus (PCB)

= programmable memory

ASICs... THE COURSE

6.9

Summary

Key concepts:
Outputs can typically source or sink 510mA continuously into a DC load
Outputs can typically source or sink 50200mA transiently into an AC load
Input buffers can be CMOS (threshold at 0.5VDD) or TTL (1.4V)
Input buffers normally have a small hysteresis (100200mV)
CMOS inputs must never be left floating
Clamp diodes to GND and VDD are present on every pin
Inputs and outputs can be registered or direct
I/O registers can be in the I/O cell or in the core
Metastability is a problem when working with asynchronous inputs

6.9 Summary

21

22

SECTION 6

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC I/O CELLS

ASICS... THE COURSE

ASICs...THE COURSE (1 WEEK)

PROGRAMMABLE
ASIC
INTERCONNECT

Key concepts: programmable interconnect raw materials: aluminum-based metallization

and a line capacitance of 0.2pFcm 1

7.1 Actel ACT

Actel ACT

Each LM has 8 inputs:

4 input stubs on top
output
and 4 on bottom.
stub

long
vertical
track
(LVT)

routing channels: 7 or 13
(A1010/20) full-size and 2
half-size (top and bottom)

antifuse
Each LM output drives
an output stub that
spans 2 channels up
and 2 channels down.
Logic Modules (LM):
8 or 14 (A1010/20)
rows of 44 modules

two-antifuse connection

four-antifuse connection

input stub
8
1

10

20

30

40

44

The interconnect architecture used in an Actel ACT family FPGA. (Source: Actel.)
Features and keywords:
Wiring channels (or just channels) Horizontal channels Vertical channels
Tracks Channel capacity Long vertical tracks (LVTs)
Input stubs and output stubs
Wire segments Segmented channel routing Long lines

SECTION 7

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC INTERCONNECT

5 vertical tracks: 4
tracks for output stubs,
1 track for long vertical
track (LVT)
8 vertical
tracks for
input
stubs

channel
height

ASICS... THE COURSE

Actel ACT

column width

Logic Module
(LM)

expanded view of
part of the channel

1
5
track
number

10

GND
GCLK
VDD

15
20
25
programmed
antifuse

module
height

dedicated
connection
to module
outputno
antifuse
needed

ACT 1 horizontal and vertical channel architecture. (Source: Actel.)

Features:
Input stubs
Output stubs
Long vertical tracks (LVT)
Fully populated interconect array

25 horizontal
tracks per
channel, varying
between 4
columns and 44
columns long: 22
signal tracks,
global clock,
VDD, and GND

ASICs... THE COURSE

7.1 Actel ACT

7.1.1 Routing Resources

Actel FPGA routing resources

A1010
A1020
A1225A
A1240A
A1280A

Horizontal
tracks per
channel, H
22
22
36
36
36

Vertical
Total
tracks per Rows, R Columns, C antifuses on
column, V
each chip
13
8
44
112,000
13
14
44
186,000
15
13
46
250,000
15
14
62
400,000
15
18
82
750,000

HVR C
100,672
176,176
322,920
468,720
797,040

7.1.2 Elmores Constant

R22

node
voltage

V2
R24
R1

V0
t =0

C2
i2
R3

R2
V1

1V
V3

C1
i1

R4

V4

C3

C4

i3

i4

V3
0V

V0

V1

V2

t =0
(a)

V4

time, t /s
(b)

Measuring the delay of a net

(a) An RC tree
(b) The waveforms as a result of closing the switch at t = 0
n
Vi (t) = exp (t/Di)

Di =

RkiCk

k=1
The time constant Di is often called the Elmore delay and is different for each node.
I call Di the Elmore time constant as a reminder that, if we approximate Vi by an
exponential waveform, the delay of the RC tree using 0.35/0.65 trip points is approximately
Di seconds.

SECTION 7

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC INTERCONNECT

ASICS... THE COURSE

7.1.3 RC Delay in Antifuse Connections

L4

L2

LM1

LM2
L3

LM2
V0

R1

C0

L0

V1

R2

C1

V2

C2

R3
C3

V3

R4

V4

C4

L1
LM1

interconnect model

antifuse model

(a)

(b)

Actel routing model

(a) A four-antifuse connection. L0 is an output stub, L1 and L3 are horizontal tracks, L2 is a
long vertical track (LVT), and L4 is an input stub
(b) An RC-tree model. Each antifuse is modeled by a resistance and each interconnect segment is modeled by a capacitance.
D4 = R14C1 + R24C2 + R14C1 + R44C4
= (R1+ R2+ R3+ R4)C4 + (R1+ R2+ R3)C3 + (R1+ R2)C2 + R1C1
D4 = 4RC4 + 3RC3 + 2RC2 + RC1
Two antifuses will generate a 3RC time constant
Three antifuses a 6RC time constant
Four antifuses gives a 10RC time constant
Interconnect delay grows quadratically ( n2) as we increase the interconnect length and
the number of antifuses, n
7.1.4 Antifuse Parasitic Capacitance
7.1.5 ACT 2 and ACT 3 Interconnect
channel density fast fuse

ASICs... THE COURSE

7.1 Actel ACT

Actel interconnect parameters

Parameter
Technology
Die height (A1010)
Die width (A1010)
Die area (A1010)
Logic Module (LM) height (Y1)
LM width (X)
LM area (X Y1)
Channel height (Y2)
Channel area per LM (X Y2)
LM and routing area
(X Y1+X Y2)
Antifuse capacitance
Metal capacitance
Output stub length
(spans 3 LMs + 4 channels)
Output stub metal capacitance
Output stub antifuse connections
Output stub antifuse capacitance
Horiz. track length
Horiz. track metal capacitance
Horiz. track antifuse connections
Horiz. track antifuse capacitance
Long vertical track (LVT)
LVT metal capacitance
LVT track antifuse connections
LVT track antifuse capacitance
Antifuse resistance (ACT 1)

A1010/A1020
2.0 m, =1.0 m
240mil
360mil
86,400mil 2 =56M 2
180 m=180
150 m=150
27,000 m2 =27k 2
25 tracks=287 m
43,050 m2 =43k 2

A1010B/A1020B
1.2 m, =0.6 m
144mil
216mil
31,104mil 2 =56M 2
108 m=180
90 m=150
9,720 m2 =27k 2
25 tracks=170 m
15,300 m2 =43k 2

70,000 m2 =70k 2

25,000 m2 =70k 2

0.2pFmm 1

10 fF
0.2pFmm 1

4 channels=1688 m

4 channels=1012 m

0.34pF

0.20pF

100

100

1.0pF

444 cols.= 6006600 m

0.11.3pF

444 cols.= 3603960 m

0.070.8pF

52572 antifuses

52572 antifuses

0.525.72 pF

814 channels=37606580
m
0.080.13pF
200350 antifuses

814 channels=22403920
m
0.450.8pF
200350 antifuses
23.5pF
0.5k (typ.), 0.7k (max.)

SECTION 7

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC INTERCONNECT

Actel interconnect:
An input stub (1 channel) connects to 25 antifuses
An output stub (4 channels) connects to 100 (254) antifuses
An LVT (1010, 8 channels) connects to 200 (258) antifuses
An LVT (1020, 14 channels) connects to 350 (2514) antifuses
A four-column horizontal track connects to 52 (134) antifuses
A 44-column horizontal track connects to 572 (1344) antifuses

ASICS... THE COURSE

ASICs... THE COURSE

7.2 Xilinx LCA

7.2 Xilinx LCA

Xilinx LCA
(a)

CLB matrix
height, Y

switching
matrix

CLB
matrix
width, X

F4 C4 G4 YQ
G1
C1

F4 C4 G4 YQ
Y

G1
C1

F3
XQ F2 G2 G2

Y
G3
CLB3

C3
F1

F4 C4 G4 YQ

C1
K

CLB2

C3
F1

single-length lines

G3
K

CLB1

double-length lines
double-length lines

G1
Y

G3
K

longlines

programmable
interconnection
points (PIPs)

C3
F1

F3

F3

XQ F2 G2 G2

XQ F2 G2 G2

(b)

Xilinx LCA interconnect

(a) The LCA architecture (notice the matrix element size is larger than a CLB)
(b) A simplified representation of the interconnect resources. Each of the lines is a bus.
The vertical lines and horizontal lines run between CLBs.
The general-purpose interconnect joins switch boxes (also known as magic
boxes or switching matrices).
The long lines run across the entire chip. It is possible to form internal buses using
long lines and the three-state buffers that are next to each CLB.
The direct connections (not used on the XC4000) bypass the switch matrices and
directly connect adjacent CLBs.
The Programmable Interconnection Points (PIPs) are programmable pass transistors that connect the CLB inputs and outputs to the routing network.
The bidirectional (BIDI) interconnect buffers restore the logic level and logic
strength on long interconnect paths

SECTION 7

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC INTERCONNECT

ASICS... THE COURSE

XC3000 interconnect parameters

Parameter
Technology
Die height
Die width
Die area
CLB matrix height (Y)
CLB matrix width (X)
CLB matrix area (X Y)
Matrix transistor resistance, RP1
Matrix transistor parasitic capacitance, CP1
PIP transistor resistance, RP2

XC3020
1.0 m, =0.5 m
220mil
180mil
39,600mil 2 =102M 2
480 m=960
370 m=740
17,600 m2 =710k 2
0.51k
0.010.02pF
0.51k

PIP transistor parasitic capacitance, CP2

0.010.02pF

Single-length line (X, Y)

Single-length line capacitance: C LX, CLY

370 m, 480 m

Horizontal Longline (8X)

Horizontal Longline metal capacitance, CLL

0.075pF, 0.1pF
8 cols.=2960 m
0.6pF

ASICs... THE COURSE

7.2 Xilinx LCA

20
6
F4 C4 G4 YQ

F4 C4 G4 YQ

CLB1

CLB2

CLB3

(a)

20

switching matrix

20

switching matrix

M
R P1

20

16

on

M
M

16

M
6

(c)

(b)

16

16

CP1

(d)

PIP

PIP
RP2
CP2
CP2

M
F4
(e)

F4

F4
(f)
switching matrix
20 R P1 6

PIP
R P2
C1

C P2 C P2

(g)

C2

3C P1

3C P1

YQ
CLB1

PIP
RP2
C3

C P2

CP2

C4
F4

(h)

CLB3

Components of interconnect delay in a Xilinx LCA array

(a) A portion of the interconnect around the CLBs
(b) A switching matrix
(c) A detailed view inside the switching matrix showing the pass-transistor arrangement
(d) The equivalent circuit for the connection between nets 6 and 20 using the matrix
(e) A view of the interconnect at a Programmable Interconnection Point (PIP)
(f) and (g) The equivalent schematic of a PIP connection (h) The complete RC delay path

10

SECTION 7

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC INTERCONNECT

ASICS... THE COURSE

7.3 Xilinx EPLD

programmable
AND array
UIM

Xilinx EPLD
UIM

9 I/Os per FB

FB
21
FB

918
FB

FB

FB

FB

word line
FB
bit line

CB

V
FB

VDD
sense
amplifier

CD
CW

21 inputs
per FB

CG
EPROM

n inputs
H
(a)

(b)

(c)

The Xilinx EPLD UIM (Universal Interconnection Module)

(a) A simplified block diagram of the UIM. The UIM bus width, n, varies from 68 (XC7236) to
198 (XC73108)
(b) The UIM is actually a large programmable AND array
(c) The parasitic capacitance of the EPROM cell

ASICs... THE COURSE

7.4 Altera MAX 5000 and 7000

7.4 Altera MAX 5000 and 7000

Altera MAX 5000/7000

programmable
AND array

M4

t PIA
LAB1

LAB2

M4
CH

macrocells
LAB3

PIA

LAB4
CV

LAB5

VDD

LAB2

tPIA

(a)

t LAD

LAB6

(b)

(c)

A simplified block diagram of the Altera MAX interconnect scheme

(a) The PIA (Programmable Interconnect Array) is deterministicdelay is independent of
the path length
(b) Each LAB (Logic Array Block) contains a programmable AND array
(c) Interconnect timing within a LAB is also fixed

11

12

SECTION 7

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC INTERCONNECT

ASICS... THE COURSE

7.5 Altera MAX 9000

The Altera MAX 9000
interconnect scheme

Altera MAX 9000

row
96 FastTrack

row FastTrack

(a) A 45 array of Logic

Array Blocks (LABs), the
same size as the
EMP9400 chip

B
16

LAB

C
114-wide
LAB local
array

(b) A simplified block diagram of the interconnect

architecture showing the
connection of the FastTrack buses to a LAB

66
48

16
macrocells

column FastTrack
(a)

column
FastTrack

(b)

7.6 Altera FLEX

row FastTrack

Altera FLEX

FastTrack aspect
10 ratio
1
16

168
24

row
FastTrack

A
8

Logic Array
Block (LAB)

column FastTrack
(a)

32-wide
8 Logic
LAB local
Elements
interconnect (LEs)
(b)

column
FastTrack

The Altera FLEX interconnect scheme

(a) The row and column FastTrack interconnect. The chip shown, with 4 rows 21 columns, is the same size as the EPF8820
(b) A simplified diagram of the interconnect architecture showing the connections between
the FastTrack buses and a LAB. Boxes A, B, and C represent the bus-to-bus connections

ASICs... THE COURSE

7.7 Summary

13

7.7 Summary
The RC product of the parasitic elements of an antifuse and a pass transistor are not too different. However, an SRAM cell is much larger than an antifuse which leads to coarser interconnect architectures for SRAM-based programmable ASICs. The EPROM device lends itself
to large wired-logic structures.
These differences in programming technology lead to different architectures:
The antifuse FPGA architectures are dense and regular.
The SRAM architectures contain nested structures of interconnect resources.
The complex PLD architectures use long interconnect lines but achieve deterministic routing.
Key points:
The difference between deterministic and nondeterministic interconnect
Estimating interconnect delay
Elmores constant

7.8 Problems

14

SECTION 7

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC INTERCONNECT

ASICS... THE COURSE

ASICs...THE COURSE (1 WEEK)

PROGRAMMABLE
ASIC DESIGN
SOFTWARE

Key concepts: There are five components of a programmable ASIC or FPGA :

(1) the programming technology
(2) the basic logic cell
(3) the I/O cell
(4) the interconnect
(5) the design software that allows you to program the ASIC
The design software is much more closely tied to the FPGA architecture than is the case for
other types of ASICs

8.1 Design Systems

Keywords: design kits original equipment manufacturer (OEM) generic cell library hardware description languages (HDLs) ABEL (pronounced able) CUPL (cupple) PALASM
(pal-azzam) VHDL Verilog logic simulator back-annotation postlayout timing
information postlayout netlist (also called a back-annotated netlist) postlayout timing simulation timing-analysis timing constraint timing violation forward-annotation

SECTION 8

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC DESIGN SOFTWARE

ASICS... THE COURSE

8.1.1 Xilinx

m2_1
1ns
start
prelayout
simulation

0
1

Xilinx cell
library

design entry
netlist
with unit
delays

...toxnf

.XNF netlist without

netlist delays

xmake

partition logic
into CLBs

.LCA
netlist
ppr/apr

1.12 ns

place and
route

back-annotated
.XNF netlist with delays
netlist

postlayout
simulation

create
makebits programming
file
.BIT
file

Xilinx
software
5

10011000...

to FPGA or PROM

The Xilinx FPGA design flow

(The program names and file names change with the newer Xilinx Alliance and Foundation
tools, but the information flow is identical.)

ASICs... THE COURSE

8.1 Design Systems

8.1.2 Actel
File types used by Actel design software (an examplethese change often)
ADL
IPF
CRT
VALIDATED
COB
VLD
PIN
DFR
LOC
PLI
SEG
STF
RTI
FUS
DEL
AVI

Main design netlist

Partial or complete pin assignment for the design
Net criticality
Audit information
List of macros removed from design
Information, warning, and error messages
Complete pin assignment for the design
Information about routability and I/O assignment quality
Placement of non-I/O macros, pin swapping, and freeway assignment
Feedback from placement step
Assignment of horizontal routing segments
Back-annotation timing
Feedback from routing step
Fuse coordinates (column-track, row-track)
Delays for input pins, nets, and I/O modules
Fuse programming times and currents for last chip programmed

SECTION 8

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC DESIGN SOFTWARE

ASICS... THE COURSE

FPGA state-machine language (an example of third-party tools)

LOG/iC state-machine language
*IDENTIFICATION
sequence detector
LOG/iC code
*X-NAMES
X; !input
*Y-NAMES
D; !output, D = 1 when three 1's
appear on X
*FLOW-TABLE
;State, X input, Y output, next
state
S1, X1,
Y0,
F2;
S1, X0,
Y0,
F1;
S2, X1,
Y0,
F3;
S2, X0,
Y0,
F1;
S3, X1,
Y0,
F4;
S3, X0,
Y0,
F1;
S4, X1,
Y1,
F4;
S4, X0,
Y0,
F1;
*STATE-ASSIGNMENT
BINARY;
*RUN-CONTROL
PROGFORMAT = P-EQUATIONS;
*END

PALASM version

TITLE sequence detector

CHIP MEALY USER
CLK Z QQ2 QQ1 X
EQUATIONS
Z = X * QQ2 * QQ1
QQ2 := X * QQ1 + X * QQ2
QQ1 := X * QQ2 + X * /QQ1

ASICs... THE COURSE

8.2 Logic Synthesis

8.1.3 Altera
Altera uses a self-contained design system, MAX+plus (as well as an interface to EDIF for
third-party schematic entry or logic synthesis).
The interconnect scheme in Altera complex PLDs is nearly deterministic, simplifying the
physical-design software as well as eliminating the need for back-annotation and a postlayout
simulation.
As Altera FPGAs become larger and more complex, some cases require signals to make
more than one pass through the routing structures or travel large distances across the Altera
FastTrack interconnect. It is possible to tell if this will be the case only by trying to place and
route an Altera device.

8.2 Logic Synthesis

It is easier to write A = B + C than to draw an FPGA schematic for a 32-bit adder at the gate
level
Key concepts, facts, and terms: logic synthesis logic minimization mapping fine-grain
architecture coarse-grain architecture vendor independence Synplicity Synopsys FPGA
Express FPGA Compiler Design Compiler Exemplar X-BLOX LPM IP cores

SECTION 8

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC DESIGN SOFTWARE

ASICS... THE COURSE

8.2.1 FPGA Synthesis

The VHDL code for a sequence detector
entity detector is port (X, CLK: in BIT; Z : out BIT); end;

architecture behave of detector is

type states is (S1, S2, S3, S4);
signal current, next: states;
begin
combinational: process begin
case current is
when S1 =>
if X = '1' then Z <= '0'; next <= S3; else Z <= '0';
S1; end if;
when S2 =>
if X = '1' then Z <= '0'; next <= S2; else Z <= '0';
S1; end if;
when S3 =>
if X = '1' then Z <= '0'; next <= S2; else Z <= '0';
S1; end if;
when S4 =>
if X = '1' then Z <= '1'; next <= S4; else Z <= '0';
S1; end if
end case;
end process
sequential: process begin
wait until CLK'event and CLK = '1'; current <= next ;
end process;
end behave;

next <=

next <=

next <=

next <=

A Synopsys script
/design checking/
search_path = .
/use the TI cell libraries/
link_library = tpc10.db
target_library = tpc10.db
symbol_library = tpc10.sdb
read -f vhdl detector.vhd
current_design = detector
write -n -f db -hierarchy -0
detector.db
check_design > detector.rpt

report_design > detector.rpt

/optimize for area/
max_area 0.0
compile
write -h -f db -o detector_opt.db
report -area -cell -timing >
detector.rpt
free -all
/write EDIF netlist/
write -h -f edif -0
exit

ASICs... THE COURSE

8.3 The Halfgate ASIC

8.3 The Halfgate ASIC

SECTION 8

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC DESIGN SOFTWARE

ASICS... THE COURSE

8.3.1 Xilinx
Design flow for the Xilinx implementation of the halfgate ASIC
Script (using Compass tools as an example)
# halfgate.xilinx.inp
shell setdef
path working xc4000d xblox cmosch000x
quit
asic
1
open [v]halfgate
synthesize
save [nls]halfgate_p
2
quit
fpga
set tag xc4000
set opt area
3
optimize [nls]halfgate_p
quit
qtv
open [nls]halfgate_p
4
trace critical
print trace [txt]halfgate_p
quit
shell vuterm
exec xnfmerge -p 4003PC84 halfgate_p >
/dev/null
exec xnfprep halfgate_p > /dev/null
exec ppr halfgate_p > /dev/null
exec makebits -w halfgate_p > /dev/null
exec lca2xnf -g -v halfgate_p
halfgate_b > /dev/null
quit
manager notice
utility netlist
5
open [xnf]halfgate_b
save [nls]halfgate_b
save [edf]halfgate_b
quit
qtv
open [nls]halfgate_b
trace critical
print trace [txt]halfgate_b
quit

Design flow

IBUF

myOutput = ~myInput
myOutput

myInput

_IN_myInput

OBUF

3
myOutput

myInput
_IN_myInput_IBUF

myOutput_OBUF

myInput

myOutput

4
1ns

2.8ns
IBUF

11.6ns
_IN_myInput

OBUF

5
myInput
XSYM2

myOutput
XSYM1

ASICs... THE COURSE

8.3 The Halfgate ASIC

The Xilinx files for the halfgate ASIC

Verilog file (halfgate.v)
module halfgate(myInput, myOutput); input myInput; output
myOutput; wire myOutput;
assign myOutput = ~myInput;
endmodule
Preroute XNF file (halfgate_p.xnf)
LCANET, 5
USER, FPGA-Optimizer, 4.1,
Date:960710 , Option: Area
PROG, FPGA-Optimizer, 4.1,
"Lib=4000"
PART, 4010PG191
PWR, 0, GND
PWR, 1, VCC
SYM,_IN_myInput_IBUF,IBUF,LIB
VER = 2.0.0
PIN, I, I, myInput,
PIN, O, O, _IN_myInput,

END
EXT, myInput, I,
SYM,
myOutput_obuf,OBUF,LIBVER=
2.0.0,
PIN, I, I, _IN_myInput,,
INV
PIN, O, O, myOutput,
END
EXT, myOutput, O,
EOF

10

SECTION 8

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC DESIGN SOFTWARE

ASICS... THE COURSE

LCA file (halfgate_p.lca)

;: halfgate_p.lca (4003PC844), makebits 5.2.0, Tue Jul 16
20:09:43 1996
Version 2
Design 4003PC84 4 0
Speed -4
Addnet PAD_myInput PAD61.I2
PAD1.O
Netdelay PAD_myInput PAD1.O
3.1
Program PAD_myInput {65G521}
{65G287} {65G50} {63G50}
{52G50} {45G50}
NProgram PAD_myInput
col.B.long.3:PAD1.O
col.B.long.3:row.G.local.1
col.B.long.3:row.M.local.5-s
MB.
40.1.14 MB.40.1.35
row.M.local.5:PAD61.I2

Editblk PAD61
Base IO
Config INFF: I1: I2:I O:
OUT: PAD: TRI:
Endblk
Editblk PAD1
Base IO
Config INFF: I1: I2: O:
OUT:O:NOT PAD: TRI:
Endblk
Nameblk PAD61 myInput
Nameblk PAD1 myOutput
Intnet myOutput PAD
myOutput
Intnet myInput PAD myInput
System FGG 0 VERS 2 !
System FGG 1 GD0 0 !

Postroute XNF file (halfgate_b.xnf)

LCANET, 4
EXT, myOutput, O, 10
PROG, LCA2XNF, 5.2.0, "COMMAND
EXT, myInput, I, 29
= -g -v halfgate_p halfgate_b
EOF
TIME = Tue Jul 16 21:53:31
1996"
PART, 4003PC84-4
SYM, XSYM1, OBUF, SLOW
PIN, O, O, myOutput, 3.0
PIN, I, I, _IN_myInput,
8.6, INV
END
SYM, XSYM2, IBUF
PIN, O, O, _IN_myInput,
2.8
PIN, I, I, myInput
END

ASICs... THE COURSE

8.3 The Halfgate ASIC

11

8.3.2 Actel
The Actel files for the halfgate ASIC
ADL file

; HEADER
; FILEID ADL ./halfgate_io.adl
85e8053b
; CHECKSUM 85e8053b
; PROGRAM certify
; VERSION 23/1
; ALSMAJORREV 2
; ALSMINORREV 3
; ALSPATCHREV .1
; NODEID 72705192
; VAR FAMILY 1400
; ENDHEADER
DEF halfgate_io; myInput,
myOutput.
USE ADLIB:INBUF; INBUF_2.
USE ADLIB:OUTBUF; OUTBUF_3.
USE ADLIB:INV; u2.
NET DEF_NET_8; u2:A, INBUF_2:Y.
NET DEF_NET_9; myInput,
INBUF_2:PAD.
NET DEF_NET_11; OUTBUF_3:D, u2:Y.
NET DEF_NET_12; myOutput,
OUTBUF_3:PAD.
END.

STF file
; HEADER
; FILEID STF ./halfgate_io.stf
c96ef4d8
... lines omitted ... (126 lines
total)
DEF halfgate_io.
USE ; INBUF_2/U0;
TPADH:'11:26:37',
TPADL:'13:30:41',
TPADE:'12:29:41',
TPADD:'20:48:70',
TYH:'8:20:27',
TYL:'12:28:39'.
PIN u2:A;
RDEL:'13:31:42',
FDEL:'11:26:37'.
USE ; OUTBUF_3/U0;
TPADH:'11:26:37',
TPADL:'13:30:41',
TPADE:'12:29:41',
TPADD:'20:48:70',
TYH:'8:20:27',
TYL:'12:28:39'.
PIN OUTBUF_3/U0:D;
RDEL:'14:32:45',
FDEL:'11:26:37'.
END.

12

SECTION 8

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC DESIGN SOFTWARE

ASICS... THE COURSE

8.3.3 Altera
EDIF netlist in Altera format for the halfgate ASIC
(edif halfgate_p
(edifVersion 2 0 0)
(edifLevel 0)
(keywordMap
(keywordLevel 0))
(status
(written
(timeStamp 1996 7
10 23 55 8)
(program "COMPASS
Design Automation -EDIF Interface"
(version "v9r1.2
last updated 26-Mar96"))
(author
"mikes")))
(library flex8kd
(edifLevel 0)
(technology
(numberDefinition
)
(simulationInfo
(logicValue H)
(logicValue
L)))
(cell not
(cellType
GENERIC)
(view
COMPASS_mde_view
(viewType
NETLIST)
(interface
(port IN
(direction
INPUT))
(port OUT

(direction
OUTPUT))
(designator
"@@Label")))))
(library working
(edifLevel 0)
(technology
(numberDefinition
)
(simulationInfo
(logicValue H)
(logicValue
L)))
(cell halfgate_p
(cellType
GENERIC)
(view
COMPASS_nls_view
(viewType
NETLIST)
(interface
(port myInput
(direction
INPUT))
(port myOutput
(direction
OUTPUT))
(designator
"@@Label"))
(contents
(instance B1_i1
(viewRef
COMPASS_mde_view
(cellRef not
(libraryRef
flex8kd))))
(net myInput
(joined

(portRef
myInput)
(portRef IN
(instanceRef
B1_i1))))
(net myOutput
(joined
(portRef
myOutput)
(portRef OUT
(instanceRef
B1_i1))))
(net VDD
(joined )
(property
global
(string
"vcc")))
(net VSS
(joined )
(property
global
(string
"gnd")))))))
(design halfgate_p
(cellRef halfgate_p
(libraryRef
working))))

ASICs... THE COURSE

8.3 The Halfgate ASIC

13

Report for the halfgate ASIC fitted to an Altera MAX 7000 complex PLD
** INPUTS **

Pin
43

LC
-

LAB
-

Primitive
INPUT

Code

Shareable
Expanders
Fan-In
Fan-Out
Total Shared n/a INP FBK OUT FBK
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

Name
myInput

Shareable
Expanders
Fan-In
Fan-Out
Total Shared n/a INP FBK OUT FBK
0
0
0
1
0
0
0

Name
myOutput

** OUTPUTS **

Pin
41

LC
17

LAB
B

Primitive
OUTPUT

Code
t

** LOGIC CELL INTERCONNECTIONS **

Logic Array Block 'B':
+- LC17 myOutput
|
LC
| | A B | Name
Pin
43

-> * | - * | myInput

* = The logic cell or pin is an input to the logic cell (or LAB) through the PIA.
- = The logic cell or pin is not an input to the logic cell (or LAB).

The structural postlayout files generated by the Altera MAX+plus software:

// halfgate_p (EPM7032LC44) MAX+plus II Version 5.1 RC6 10/03/94
// Wed Jul 17 04:07:10 1996
`timescale 100 ps / 100 ps

module TRI_halfgate_p( IN, OE, OUT ); input IN; input OE; output OUT;
bufif1 ( OUT, IN, OE );
specify
specparam TTRI = 40; specparam TTXZ = 60; specparam TTZX = 60;
(IN => OUT) = (TTRI,TTRI);
(OE => OUT) = (0,0, TTXZ, TTZX, TTXZ, TTZX);
endspecify
endmodule

module halfgate_p (myInput, myOutput);

input myInput; output myOutput; supply0 gnd; supply1 vcc;
wire B1_i1, myInput, myOutput, N_8, N_10, N_11, N_12, N_14;
TRI_halfgate_p tri_2 ( .OUT(myOutput), .IN(N_8), .OE(vcc) );
TRANSPORT transport_3 ( N_8, N_8_A );
defparam transport_3.DELAY = 10;
and delay_3 ( N_8_A, B1_i1 );

14

SECTION 8

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC DESIGN SOFTWARE

ASICS... THE COURSE

xor xor2_4 ( B1_i1, N_10, N_14 );

or or1_5 ( N_10, N_11 );
TRANSPORT transport_6 ( N_11, N_11_A );
defparam transport_6.DELAY = 60;
and and1_6 ( N_11_A, N_12 );
TRANSPORT transport_7 ( N_12, N_12_A );
defparam transport_7.DELAY = 40;
not not_7 ( N_12_A, myInput );
TRANSPORT transport_8 ( N_14, N_14_A );
defparam transport_8.DELAY = 60;
and and1_8 ( N_14_A, gnd );
endmodule

// MAX+plus II Version 5.1 RC6 10/03/94 Wed Jul 17 04:07:10 1996

`timescale 100 ps / 100 ps
module TRANSPORT( OUT, IN ); input IN; output OUT; reg OUTR;
wire OUT = OUTR; parameter DELAY = 0;
`ifdef ZeroDelaySim
always @IN OUTR <= IN;
`else
always @IN OUTR <= #DELAY IN;
`endif
`ifdef Silos
initial #0 OUTR = IN;
`endif
endmodule

ASICs... THE COURSE

8.3 The Halfgate ASIC

unused
OE output enable
vcc

LAB B Logic Cell 17

macrocell

'1'
n_and_8
gnd
n_12
n_and_6

n_tri_halfgate_p

n_14
n_xor_4

B1_i1

myOutput Pin
41
I/O pad
I/O Control
Block (IOC)

n_8

n_11
n_or_5

n_10

n_delay_3

n_12
Programmable
Interconnect Array (PIA)

n_not_7

myInput Pin
43
I/O pad
I/O Control
Block (IOC)

The VHDL version of the postlayout Altera MAX 7000 schematic for the halfgate ASIC

15

16

SECTION 8

PROGRAMMABLE ASIC DESIGN SOFTWARE

ASICS... THE COURSE

8.3.4 Comparison
Xilinx XC4000, a nondeterministic coarse-grained FPGA
Actel ACT 3, a nondeterministic fine-grained FPGA
Altera MAX 7000, a deterministic complex PLD
The differences:
1. The Xilinx LCA architecture does not permit an accurate timing analysis until after place and
route. This is because of the coarse-grained nondeterministic architecture.
2. The Actel ACT architecture is nondeterministic, but the fine-grained structure allows fairly
accurate preroute timing prediction.
3. The Altera MAX CPLD requires logic to be fitted to the product steering and programmable
array logic. The Altera MAX 7000 has an almost deterministic architecture, which allows accurate preroute timing.

8.4 Summary
Key concepts:
FPGA design flow: design entry, simulation, physical design, and programming
Schematic entry, hardware design languages, logic synthesis
PALASM as a common low-level hardware description
EDIF, Verilog, and VHDL as vendor-independent netlist standards

ASICs...THE COURSE (1 WEEK)

LOW-LEVEL
DESIGN ENTRY

Key concepts: design entry electronic-design automation (EDA) schematic connectivity

schematic entry schematic capture netlist documentation hardware description language
(HDL) logic synthesis low-level design-entry

9.1 Schematic Entry

Key terms and concepts: graphical design entry transforms an idea to a computer file an
old method that periodically regains popularity schematic sheets frame border spades
and shovels component or device low-cost
ANSI (American National Standards Institute) and ISO (International Standards
Organization) schematic sheet sizes
ANSI sheet
A
B
C
D
E

Size (inches)
8.5 11
11 17
17 22
22 34
34 44

ISO sheet
A5
A4
A3
A2
A1
A0

Size (cm)
21.0 14.8
29.7 21.0
42.0 29.7
59.4 42.0
84.0 59.4
118.9 84.0

SECTION 9

LOW-LEVEL DESIGN ENTRY

(a)

ASICS... THE COURSE

(b)
26

19
A
26

4
13

5
10
26

"spade"
and
"shovel"

NAND

B
26
exclusive-OR

IEEE-recommended dimensions and their construction for logic-gate symbols

(a) NAND gate
(b) exclusive-OR gate (an OR gate is a subset)

instance attribute:
cell name
dot
AND

fanout=2
carryout

A
B
and1
connection

net fanout=4

net fanin=4

INV
net attribute:
net name

symbol inv1
OR
or1

AND

and2

instance attribute: cell fanin=2

instance name

Terms used in circuit schematics

sum

little

GND
connector

VDD

big

ASICs... THE COURSE

9.1 Schematic Entry

9.1.1 Hierarchical Design

Key terms and concepts: use of hierarchy to hide complexity hierarchical design subschematic child parent flat design flat netlist

cell: AND
instance: and1
A

C
cell: INV instance: inv1

AC
BD

D
cell: OR
instance: or1

cell: AND
instance: and1

(a)

AC

BD

parent

cell: OR
instance: or1
CO

cell: INV
instance: INV1
cell: OR
instance: OR1

AC
CI

(b)

multiple instances of
the same cell
cell: HADD

cell: HADD
instance: ha1
A

cell: HADD

BD

S
children

cell: HADD
instance: ha2

cell: AND
instance: and1
instance: and2

(c)

Schematic example showing hierarchical design

(a) The schematic of a half-adder, the subschematic of cell HADD
(b) A schematic symbol for the half adder
(c) A schematic that uses the half-adder cell
(d) The hierarchy of cell HADD

(d)

SECTION 9

LOW-LEVEL DESIGN ENTRY

ASICS... THE COURSE

9.1.2 The Cell Library

Key terms: modules (cells, gates, macros, books) schematic library (vendor-dependent)
retargeting porting a design primitive cells or cells (flip-flops or transistors?) hard macro
(placement) soft macro (connection)
9.1.3 Names
Key terms: cell name cell instance instance name icon (picture) symbol name spaces
case sensistivity hierarchical names
9.1.4 Schematic Icons and Symbols
Key terms: derived icon derived symbol subcell vectored instance cardinality

instance name

schematic
cell library

internal node

Trigger

and1
D
primitive EN
cells

n1

connector
name
Q

n2

inv1
and2

(a)

or1

(b)

n3
external node

Data

DQ

e1

EN
DLAT
(c)

Flag

cell
name

A cell and its subschematic

(a) A schematic library containing icons for the primitive cells
(b) A subschematic for a cell, DLAT, showing the instance names for the primitive cells
(c) A symbol for cell DLAT

ASICs... THE COURSE

9.1 Schematic Entry

internal node
D1
different
instance
names

vectored name

and1
inv1

D1

or1

n1

Q1
and2
n3

D2

external
node
D2

inv2

L1

Q2

DQ

Q1

L[1:4]

EN

D[1:4]

DQ

DLAT

EN

EN

L2

DQ

Q[1:4]

DLAT vectored
instance
(c)

Q2

EN
DLAT

D3
D3

inv3
Q3

L3

DQ

Q3

EN

bus
width

DLAT
D4

D4
inv4

EN

Q4

L4

EN

DQ
EN

DLAT
(a)

(b)

Q4
bus

DQ

EN
FourBit
(d)

A 4-bit latch:
(a) drawn as a flat schematic from gate-level primitives
(b) drawn as four instances of the cell symbol DLAT
(c) drawn using a vectored instance of the DLAT cell symbol with cardinality of 4
(d) drawn using a new cell symbol with cell name FourBit

SECTION 9

LOW-LEVEL DESIGN ENTRY

ASICS... THE COURSE

9.1.5 Nets
Key terms: local nets external nets delimiter Verilog and VHDL naming
9.1.6 Schematic Entry for ASICs and PCBs
Key terms: component TTL SN74LS00N Quad 2-input NAND component parts reference
designator R99 pin number part assignment
9.1.7 Connections
Key terms: terminals pins, connectors, or signals wire segments or nets bus or buses (not
busses) bundle or array breakout ripper (EDIF) extractor swizzle (Compass datapath)

C
D[1]
D[2]

3
2
1
0

D[1]
D[2]
B

3
2
1
0

DQ7
DQ6
DQ5
DQ4

bus ripper 8
E[1]
E[2]

3
2
1
0

E[1]
E[2]

(a)

3
2
1
0

DQ3
DQ2
DQ1
DQ0

DQ7
DQ6
DQ3
DQ2
DQ5
DQ4
DQ2
DQ0
DQ3
DQ2
DQ1
DQ0

(b)

An example of the use of a bus to simplify a schematic

(a) An address decoder without using a bus
(b) A bus with bus rippers simplifies the schematic and reduces the possibility of making a
mistake in creating and reading the schematic

ASICs... THE COURSE

9.1 Schematic Entry

9.1.8 Vectored Instances and Buses

D[1:4]

NB1
DQ

Q[1:4]

16

D[1:16]
EN

EN

DQ

Q[1:16]

SixteenBit

NB2
D[5:8]

16

EN

FourBit

DQ

(b)
4

Q[5:8]

EN
FourBit
NB3
D[9:12]

DQ

D1

D[9:12]

FourBit

EN

DQ

NB4
D[13:16]

vectored
instance

EN

vectored
bus

Q[9:12]

DQ

EN

EN
4
FourBit[1:4]

Q[13:16]

EN

Q[1:16]
4

mismatch in
cardinality

mismatch in
cardinality

FourBit
(a)

(c)

A 16-bit latch:
(a) drawn as four instances of cell FourBit
(b) drawn as a cell named SixteenBit
(c) drawn as four multiple instances of cell FourBit
9.1.9 Edit-in-Place
Key terms: edit-in-place alias dictionary of names
9.1.10 Attributes
Key terms: name identifier label attribute property NFS filenames (28 characters)

SECTION 9

LOW-LEVEL DESIGN ENTRY

ASICS... THE COURSE

9.1.11 Netlist Screener

Key terms: schematic or netlist screener catches errors at an early stage handle (to find components) snap to grid wildcard matching automatic naming datapath (multiple instances)
vectored cell instance vectored instance cell cardinality cardinality terminal polarity terminal direction fanout fanin standard load
9.1.12 Schematic-Entry Tools
Key terms: icon edit-in-place timestamp or datestamp versions version number design
manager or library manager version history check-out undo rubber banding global nets
connectors off-page connector multipage connector fanout fanin standard load
9.1.13 Back-Annotation
Key terms: logical design prelayout simulation physical design parasitic capacitance
interconnect delay back-annotation postlayout simulation

ASICs... THE COURSE

9.2 Low-Level Design Languages

9.2 Low-Level Design Languages

Key terms and concepts: changes to a schematic are tedious no standards for schematics
PLD design entry a design language is better than schematic entry a low-level design
language is not as powerful as logic synthesis legacy code
9.2.1 ABEL
ABEL
Statement
Module
Title

Example
module MyModule
title 'Title in a String'

Device
MYDEV device '22V10' ;
Comment

@ALTERNATE

Pin declaration

"comments go between double

quotes"
"end of line is end of
comment
@ALTERNATE "use alternate
symbols

Comment
You can have multiple modules.
A string is a character series between
quotes.
MYDEV is Device ID for documentation.
22V10 is checked by the compiler.
The end of a line signifies the end of a
comment; there is no need for an end
quote.
operator

alternate

default

AND
*
&
OR
+
#
NOT
/
!
XOR
:+:
$
XNOR
:*:
!$
Pin 22 is the IO for input on pin 2 for a
22V10.

MYINPUT pin 2; I3, I4 pin 3,

4 ;
MYOUTPUT is active-low at the chip
/MYOUTPUT pin 22; IO3,IO4 pin
pin.
21,20 ;
Signal names must start with a letter.
Equations
equations
Defines combinational logic.
IO4 = HELPER ; HELPER = /I4 ; Two-pass logic
Assignments MYOUTPUT = /MYINPUT ;
Equals '=' is unlocked assignment.

10

SECTION 9

LOW-LEVEL DESIGN ENTRY

IO3 := I4 ;
Signal sets

Suffix
Addition

D = [D0, D1, D2, D3] ;

Q = [Q0, Q1, Q2, Q3];
Q := D ;
MYOUTPUT.RE = CLR ;
MYOUTPUT.PR = PRE ;
COUNT = [D0, D1, D2];
COUNT := COUNT + 1;

Enable
ENABLE IO3 = IO2;
IO3 = MYINPUT;
Constants
Relational

K = [1, 0, 1] ;
IO# = D == K5 ;

End

end MyModule

ASICS... THE COURSE

Clocked assignment operator (registered IO)

A signal set, an ABEL bus
4-bit-wide register
Register reset
Register preset
Cant use @ALTERNATE
if you use '+' to add.
Three-state enable (ENABLE is a keyword).
IO3 must be a three-state pin.
K is 5.
Operators:
==
!=
<
>
<=
>=
Last statement in module

Example:

module MUX4
title '4:1 MUX'
MyDevice device 'P16L8' ;
@ALTERNATE
"inputs
A, B, /P1G1, /P1G2 pin 17,18,1,6 "LS153 pins 14,2,1,15
P1C0, P1C1, P1C2, P1C3 pin 2,3,4,5 "LS153 pins 6,5,4,3
P2C0, P2C1, P2C2, P2C3 pin 7,8,9,11 "LS153 pins 10,11,12,13
"outputs
P1Y, P2Y pin 19, 12 "LS153 pins 7,9
equations
P1Y = P1G*(/B*/A*P1C0 + /B*A*P1C1 + B*/A*P1C2 + B*A*P1C3);
P1Y = P1G*(/B*/A*P1C0 + /B*A*P1C1 + B*/A*P1C2 + B*A*P1C3);
end MUX4

ASICs... THE COURSE

9.2 Low-Level Design Languages

11

9.2.2 CUPL
Key terms and concepts: CUPL is a PLD design language from Logical Devices CUPL 4.0
extension fitter Atmel ATV2500B complex PLD buried features pin-number tables
skeleton headers and pin declarations
SEQUENCE BayBridgeTollPlaza {
PRESENT red
IF car NEXT green OUT go; /* conditional synchronous output */
DEFAULT NEXT red;
/* default next state */
PRESENT green
NEXT red; }
/* unconditional next state */
CUPL statements for state-machine entry
IF
IF

IF
DEFAULT
DEFAULT
DEFAULT

Statement
NEXT
NEXT OUT
NEXT
NEXT OUT
OUT
OUT
NEXT
NEXT

OUT
OUT

Description
Conditional next state transition
Conditional next state transition with synchronous output
Unconditional next state transition
Unconditional next state transition with asynchronous output
Unconditional asynchronous output
Conditional asynchronous output
Default next state transition
Default asynchronous output
Default next state transition with synchronous output

You may encode state machines as truth tables in CUPL:

FIELD input = [in1..0];

FIELD output = [out3..0];
TABLE input => output {00 => 01; 01 => 02; 10 => 04; 11 => 08; }

CUPL file for a 4-bit counter (for an ATMEL PLD) that illustrates extensions:

Name 4BIT; Device V2500B;

/* inputs */

12

SECTION 9

LOW-LEVEL DESIGN ENTRY

ASICS... THE COURSE

pin 1 = CLK; pin 3 = LD_; pin 17 = RST_;

pin [18,19,20,21] = [I0,I1,I2,I3];
/* outputs */
pin [4,5,6,7] = [Q0,Q1,Q2,Q3];
field CNT = [Q3,Q2,Q1,Q0];
/* equations */
Q3.T = (!Q2 & !Q1 & !Q0) & LD_ & RST_ /* count down */
# Q3 & !RST_ /* ReSeT */
# (Q3 $ I3) & !LD_; /* LoaD*/
Q2.T = (!Q1 & !Q0) & LD_ & RST_ # Q2 & !RST_ # (Q2 $ I2) & !LD_;
Q1.T = !Q0 & LD_ & RST_ # Q1 & !RST_ # (Q1 $ I1) & !LD_;
Q0.T = LD_ & RST_ # Q0 & !RST_ # (Q0 $ I0) & !LD_;
CNT.CK = CLK; CNT.OE = 'h'F; CNT.AR = 'h'0; CNT.SP = 'h'0;

CUPL extensions guide the logic fitter, for example:

output.ext = (Boolean expression);
.OE is output enable
.CK marks the clock
.T configures sequential logic as T flip-flops
.OE (wired high) is an output enable
.AR (wired low) is an asynchronous reset
.SP (wired low) is an synchronous preset

ASICs... THE COURSE

9.2 Low-Level Design Languages

13

CUPL 4.0 extensions

Extension
D

D input to a D register

Extension
DFB

L input to a latch

LFB

J, K

J-K-input to a J-K register

TFB

S, R
T

L
L

S-R input to an S-R register

T input to a T register

INT
IO

DQ
LQ

R D output of an input D
register
R Q output of an input latch

AP, AR

Asynchronous preset/reset

SP, SR

Synchronous preset/reset

CK

Product clock term (async.)

OE

Product-term output enable

CA
PR

L
L

Complement array
Programmable preload

APMUX,
ARMUX
CKMUX
LEMUX

CE

CE input of a D-CE register

OEMUX

LE

Product-term latch enable

IMUX

OBS

TEC

BYP

Programmable observability
of buried nodes
Programmable register
bypass

Explanation

IOD/T
IOL
IOAP,
IOAR
IOSP,
IOSR
IOCK

T1

Explanation
R D register feedback of
combinational output
R Latched feedback of
combinational output
R T register feedback of
combinational output
R Internal feedback
R Pin feedback of registered
output
R D/T register on pin feedback
path selection
R Latch on pin feedback path
selection
L Asynchronous preset/reset
of register on feedback path
L Synchronous preset/reset of
register on feedback path
L Clock for pin feedback
register
L Asynchronous preset/reset
multiplexor selection
L Clock multiplexor selector
L Latch enable multiplexor
selector
L Output enable multiplexor
selector
L Input multiplexor selector of
two pins
L Technology-dependent fuse
selection
L T1 input of 2-T register

14

SECTION 9

LOW-LEVEL DESIGN ENTRY

ASICS... THE COURSE

ABEL and CUPL pin declarations for an ATMEL ATV2500B

ABEL
device_id device 'P2500B';
"device_id used for JEDEC
filename
I1,I2,I3,I17,I18 pin 1,2,3,17,18;
O4,O5 pin 4,5 istype
'reg_d,buffer';
O6,O7 pin 6,7 istype 'com';
O4Q2,O7Q2 node 41,44 istype
'reg_d';
O6F2 node 43 istype 'com';
O7Q1 node 220 istype 'reg_d';

CUPL

device V2500B;
pin [1,2,3,17,18] =
[I1,I2,I3,I17,I18];
pin [7,6,5,4] = [O7,O6,O5,O4];
pinnode [41,65,44] =
[O4Q2,O4Q1,O7Q2];
pinnode [43,68] = [O6Q2,O7Q1];

ASICs... THE COURSE

9.2 Low-Level Design Languages

15

9.2.3 PALASM
Key terms and concepts: PALASM is a PLD design language from AMD/MMI PALASM 2
ordering of the pin numbers is important DEVICE often need manufacturers data sheet
PALASM 2
Statement
Chip
Pinlist
String
Equations

Polarity inversion
Assignment
Comment
Functional equation

Example
Comment
CHIP abc 22V10
Specific PAL type
CHIP xyz USER
Free-form equation entry
CLK /LD D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 GND Part of CHIP statement; PAL pins in
NC Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0 /RST VCC numerical order starting with pin 1
STRING string_name 'text' Before EQUATIONS statement
EQUATIONS
After CHIP statement
A = /B
Logical negation
A = B * C
Logical AND
A = B + C
Logical OR
A = B :+: C
Logical exclusive-OR
A = B :*: C
Logical exclusive-NOR
/A = /(B + C)
Same as A = B + C
A = B + C
Combinational assignment
A := B + C
Registered assignment
A = B + C ; comment
Comment
name.TRST
Output enable control
name.CLKF
name.RSTF
name.SETF

Register clock control

Register reset control
Register set control

Example:

TITLE video ; shift register

CHIP video PAL20X8
CK /LD D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 CURS GND NC REV Q7 Q6 Q5 Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1
Q0 /RST VCC
STRING Load 'LD*/REV*/CURS*RST' ; load data
STRING LoadInv 'LD*REV*/CURS*RST' ; load inverted of data

16

SECTION 9

LOW-LEVEL DESIGN ENTRY

ASICS... THE COURSE

STRING Shift '/LD*/CURS*/RST' ; shift data from MSB to LSB

EQUATIONS
/Q0 := /D0*Load+D0*LoadInv:+:/Q1*Shift+RST
/Q1 := /D1*Load+D1*LoadInv:+:/Q2*Shift+RST
/Q2 := /D2*Load+D2*LoadInv:+:/Q3*Shift+RST
/Q3 := /D3*Load+D3*LoadInv:+:/Q4*Shift+RST
/Q4 := /D4*Load+D4*LoadInv:+:/Q5*Shift+RST
/Q5 := /D5*Load+D5*LoadInv:+:/Q6*Shift+RST
/Q6 := /D6*Load+D6*LoadInv:+:/Q7*Shift+RST
/Q7 := /D7*Load+D7*LoadInv:+:Shift+RST;

ASICs... THE COURSE

9.3 PLA Tools

17

9.3 PLA Tools

Key terms and concepts: developed at UC Berkeley eqntott input format espresso
logic-minimization program widely used tools in the 1980s important stepping stones to
modern logic synthesis software
A PLA tools example
Input (6 minterms): F1 =
A
B
C
F1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1

A|B|!C; F2 = !B&C; F3 = A&B|C;

F2
F3
eqntott output
0
0
.i 3
1
1
.o 3
0
0
.p 6
0
1
--0 100
--1 001
0
0
-01 010
1
1
-1- 100
0
1
1-- 100
11- 001
0
1
.e

espresso output
.i 3
.o 3
.p 6
1-- 100
11- 001
--0 100
-01 011
-11 101
.e

Output (5 minterms): F1 = A|!C|(B&C); F2 = !B&C; F3 = A&B|(!B&C)|(B&C);

18

SECTION 9

LOW-LEVEL DESIGN ENTRY

ASICS... THE COURSE

The format of the input and output files used by the PLA design tool espresso
Expression
# comment
[d]
[s]
.i [d]
.o [d]
.p [d]
.ilb [s1] [s2]...
[sn]
.ob [s1] [s2]...
[sn]
.type f
.type fd
.type fr
.type fdr
.e

Explanation
# must be first character on a line
Decimal number
Character string
Number of input variables
Number of output variables
Number of product terms
Names of the binary-valued variables must be after .i and .o
Names of the output functions must be after .i and .o
Following table describes the ON set; DC set is empty
Following table describes the ON set and DC set
Following table describes the ON set and OFF set
Following table describes the ON set, OFF set, and DC set.
Optional, marks the end of the PLA description.

The format of the plane part of the input and output files for espresso
Plane
I
I
I
O
O
O
O

Character
1
0
1 or 4
0
2 or 3 or ~

Explanation
The input literal appears in the product term
The input literal appears complemented in the product term
The input literal does not appear in the product term
This product term appears in the ON set
This product term appears in the OFF set
This product term appears in the dont care set
No meaning for the value of this function

ASICs... THE COURSE

9.4 EDIF

19

9.4 EDIF
Key terms: electronic design interchange format (EDIF) EDIF version 2 0 0 EDIF 3 0 0 handles buses, bus rippers, and buses across schematic pages EDIF 4 0 0 includes new extensions for PCB and multichip module (MCM) data Library of Parameterized Modules (LPM)
Electronic Industries Association (EIA) ANSI/EIA Standard 548-1988
9.4.1 EDIF Syntax
Key terms: EDIF looks like Lisp or Postscript a write-only language (keywordName
{form}) keywords forms define before use identifiers &clock, Clock, and clock
are

the

same

(e 14 -1) is 1.4 scale factor technology section

numberDefinition scale "A quote is % 34 %"is a string with an embedded

double-quote character

EDIF file
library
library
technology
cell

The hierarchical nature of an EDIF file

cell
view
view
interface
contents

20

SECTION 9

LOW-LEVEL DESIGN ENTRY

ASICS... THE COURSE

9.4.2 An EDIF Netlist Example

EDIF file for the halfgate netlist
(edif halfgate_p
(edifVersion 2 0 0)
(edifLevel 0)
(keywordMap
(keywordLevel 0))
(status
(written
(timeStamp 1996 7
10 22
5 10)
(program "COMPASS
Design Automation -EDIF Interface"
(version "v9r1.2
last updated 26-Mar96"))
(author
"mikes")))
(library xc4000d
(edifLevel 0)
(technology
(numberDefinition
)
(simulationInfo
(logicValue H)
(logicValue
L)))
(cell
(rename INV
"inv")
(cellType
GENERIC)
(view
COMPASS_mde_view

(viewType NETLIST)
(interface
(port I
(direction
INPUT))
(port O
(direction
OUTPUT))
(designator
"@@Label")))))
(library working
(edifLevel 0)
(technology
(numberDefinition )
(simulationInfo
(logicValue H)
(logicValue L)))
(cell
(rename HALFGATE_P
"halfgate_p")
(cellType GENERIC)
(view
COMPASS_nls_view
(viewType NETLIST)
(interface
(port myInput
(direction
INPUT))
(port myOutput
(direction
OUTPUT))
(designator
"@@Label"))
(contents
(instance B1_i1

(viewRef
COMPASS_mde_view
(cellRef INV
(libraryRef
xc4000d))))
(net myInput
(joined
(portRef
myInput)
(portRef I
(instanceRef
B1_i1))))
(net myOutput
(joined
(portRef
myOutput)
(portRef O
(instanceRef
B1_i1))))
(net VDD
(joined ))
(net VSS
(joined ))))))
(design HALFGATE_P
(cellRef HALFGATE_P
(libraryRef
working))))

ASICs... THE COURSE

9.4 EDIF

9.4.3 An EDIF Schematic Icon

(0, 0)
cell
Pin_2

INV

Pin_1
Value
instance
(76, -32)

An EDIF view of an inverter icon

The coordinates shown are in EDIF units. The crosses that show the text location origins
and the dotted bounding box do not print as part of the icon.

21

22

SECTION 9

LOW-LEVEL DESIGN ENTRY

ASICS... THE COURSE

9.4.4 An EDIF Example

EDIF file for a standard-cell schematic icon
(edif pvsc370d
(edifVersion 2 0 0)
(edifLevel 0)
(keywordMap
(keywordLevel 0))
(status
(written
(timeStamp 1993 2 9 22
38 36)
(program "COMPASS"
(version "v8"))
(author "mikes")))
(library pvsc370d
(edifLevel 0)
(technology
(numberDefinition )
(figureGroup
connector_FG
(color 100 100 100)
(textHeight 30)
(visible
(true )))
(figureGroup icon_FG
(color 100 100 100)
(textHeight 30)
(visible
(true )))
(figureGroup
instance_FG
(color 100 100 100)
(textHeight 30)
(visible
(true )))
(figureGroup net_FG
(color 100 100 100)
(textHeight 30)
(visible
(true )))
(figureGroup bus_FG
(color 100 100 100)
(textHeight 30)
(visible
(true ))
(pathWidth 4)))
(cell an02d1

(cellType GENERIC)
(figure icon_FG
(view Icon_view
(path
(viewType SCHEMATIC)
(pointList
(interface
(pt 0 20)
(port A2
(pt 10 20)))
(direction INPUT))
(path
(port A1
(pointList
(direction INPUT))
(pt 0 0)
(port Z
(pt 10 0)))
(direction OUTPUT))
(path
(property label
(string ""))
(pointList
(symbol
(pt 10 -5)
(portImplementation
(pt 10 25)))
(name A2
(path
(display
(pointList
connector_FG
(pt 10 -5)
(origin
(pt 30 -5)))
(pt -5 1))))
(path
(connectLocation
(pointList
(figure
(pt 10 25)
connector_FG
(pt 30 25)))
(dot
(path
(pt 0 0)))))
(pointList
(portImplementation
(pt 45 10)
(name A1
(pt 60 10)))
(display
(openShape
connector_FG
(curve
(origin
(arc
(pt -5 21))))
(pt 30 -5)
(connectLocation
(pt 45 10)
(figure
connector_FG
(pt 30 25)))))
(dot
(boundingBox
(pt 0 20)))))
(rectangle
(portImplementation
(pt -15 -28)
(name Z
(pt 134 27)))
(display
(keywordDisplay
connector_FG
instance
(origin
(display icon_FG
(pt 60 15))))
(origin
(connectLocation
(pt 20 29))))
(figure
(propertyDisplay
connector_FG
label
(dot
(display icon_FG
(pt 60 10)))))
(origin

ASICs... THE COURSE

9.5 CFI Design Representation

23

Compass and corresponding Cadence figureGroup names

Compass name
connector_FG
icon_FG
instance_FG

Cadence name
pin
device
instance

[@instanceName]
a1
a2

1x

Compass name
net_FG
bus_FG

autoroute
I0
a1
a2

1x

[@cellname]

I1
z a1
a2

1x

an02d1

Cadence name
wire
not used

[@instanceName]
z

a1
a2

an02d1

1x

[@cellname]

bounding box
(a)

(b)

(c)

The bounding box problem

(a) The original bounding box for the an02d1 icon
(b) Problems in Cadence Composer due to overlapping bounding boxes
(c) A shrink-wrapped bounding box created using Cadence SKILL

9.5 CFI Design Representation

Key terms: CAD Framework Initiative (CFI) design representation (DR) information model
(IM) CFI started as an attempt to standardize schematic entry CFI ended up as an attempt
to close the stable door after the horse had bolted
9.5.1 CFI Connectivity Model
Key terms: EXPRESS language EXPRESS-G schema Base Connectivity Model (BCM)
five-box model an elegant method to represent complex notions

24

SECTION 9

LOW-LEVEL DESIGN ENTRY

days in
January

ASICS... THE COURSE

day
number

shopping
list

grocery
item

L[1:31]

S[0:?]

(a)

(b)
person

wife 1

man

woman

husband 1

father 1

child

mother 1

children S[0:?]

children S[0:?]
(c)

Examples of EXPRESS-G
(a) Each day in January has a number from 1 to 31
(b) A shopping list may contain a list of items
(c) An EXPRESS-G model for a family:
Men, women, and children are people.
A man can have one woman as a wife, but does not have to.
A wife can have one man as a husband, but does not have to.
A man or a woman can have several children.
A child has one father and one mother.

ASICs... THE COURSE

9.5 CFI Design Representation

25

Library

contains
S[0:?]
Cell

presents S[0:?]
contains
S[0:?]

has
describer
Cell Inst

contains
S[0:?]

Net

connects
connects
S[0:?]

presents S[0:?]

Port

has
describer
Port Inst

The original five-box model of electrical connectivity. (There are actually six boxes or types in
this figure; the Library type was added later.)
A library contains cells.
Cells have ports, contain nets, and can contain other cells.
Cell instances are copies of a cell and have port instances.
A port instance is a copy of the port in the library cell.
You connect to a port using a net.
Nets connect port instances together.

26

SECTION 9

LOW-LEVEL DESIGN ENTRY

SCHEMA family_model;
ENTITY person
ABSTRACT SUPERTYPE OF (ONEOF (man, woman, child));
name: STRING;
date of birth: STRING;
END_ENTITY;

ENTITY man
SUBTYPE OF (person);
wife: SET[0:1] OF woman;
children: SET[0:?] OF child;
END_ENTITY;

ENTITY woman
SUBTYPE OF (person);
husband: SET[0:1] OF man;
children: SET[0:?] OF child;
END_ENTITY;

ENTITY child
SUBTYPE OF (person);
father: man;
mother: woman;
END_ENTITY;
END_SCHEMA;

ASICS... THE COURSE

ASICs... THE COURSE

9.6 Summary
Key concepts:
Schematic entry using a cell library
Cells and cell instances, nets and ports
Bus naming, vectored instances in datapath
Hierarchy
Editing cells
PLD languages: ABEL, PALASM, and CUPL
Logic minimization
The functions of EDIF
CFI representation of design information

9.6 Summary

27

ASICs...THE COURSE (1 WEEK)

VHDL

10

Key terms and concepts: syntax and semantics identifiers (names) entity and architecture
package and library interface (ports) types sequential statements operators arithmetic
concurrent statements execution configuration and specification
History: U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) VHDL (VHSIC hardware description language)
VHSIC (very high-speed IC) program Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
IEEE Standard 1076-1987 and 1076-1993 MIL-STD-454 Language Reference Manual
(LRM)

10.1 A Counter
Key terms and concepts: VHDL keywords parallel programming language VHDL is a
hardware description language analysis (the VHDL word for compiled) logic description,
simulation, and synthesis

entity Counter_1 is end; -- declare a "black box" called Counter_1

library STD; use STD.TEXTIO.all; -- we need this library to print
architecture Behave_1 of Counter_1 is -- describe the "black box"
-- declare a signal for the clock, type BIT, initial value '0'
signal Clock : BIT := '0';
-- declare a signal for the count, type INTEGER, initial value 0
signal Count : INTEGER := 0;
begin
process begin -- process to generate the clock
wait for 10 ns; -- a delay of 10 ns is half the clock cycle
Clock <= not Clock;
if (now > 340 ns) then wait; end if; -- stop after 340 ns
end process;
-- process to do the counting, runs concurrently with other processes
process begin
-- wait here until the clock goes from 1 to 0
wait until (Clock = '0');
-- now handle the counting
1

SECTION 10

VHDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

if (Count = 7) then Count <= 0;

else Count <= Count + 1;
end if;
end process;
process (Count) variable L: LINE; begin -- process to print
write(L, now); write(L, STRING'(" Count="));
write(L, Count); writeline(output, L);
end process;
end;

> vlib work

> vcom Counter_1.vhd
Model Technology VCOM V-System VHDL/Verilog 4.5b
-- Loading package standard
-- Compiling entity counter_1
-- Loading package textio
-- Compiling architecture behave_1 of counter_1
> vsim -c counter_1
# Loading /../std.standard
# Loading /../std.textio(body)
# Loading work.counter_1(behave_1)
VSIM 1> run 500
# 0 ns Count=0
# 20 ns Count=1
(...15 lines omitted...)
# 340 ns Count=1
VSIM 2> quit
>

10.2 A 4-bit Multiplier

An example to motivate the study of the syntax and semantics of VHDL
We wil multiply two 4-bit numbers by shifting and adding
We need: two shift-registers, an 8-bit adder, and a state-machine for control
This is an inefficient algorithm, but will illustrate how VHDL is put together
We would not build/synthesize a real multiplier like this!

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.2 A 4-bit Multiplier

10.2.1 An 8-bit Adder

A full adder
entity Full_Adder is
generic (TS : TIME := 0.11 ns; TC : TIME := 0.1 ns);
port (X, Y, Cin: in BIT; Cout, Sum: out BIT);
end Full_Adder;
architecture Behave of Full_Adder is
begin
Sum <= X xor Y xor Cin after TS;
Cout <= (X and Y) or (X and Cin) or (Y and Cin) after TC;
end;

Cout
X
Y

Sum

Cin

Timing:
TS (Input to Sum) = 0.11
ns
TC (Input to Cout) = 0.1
ns

An 8-bit ripple-carry adder

entity Adder8 is
port (A, B: in BIT_VECTOR(7 downto 0);
Cin: in BIT; Cout: out BIT;
Sum: out BIT_VECTOR(7 downto 0));
end Adder8;
architecture Structure of Adder8 is
component Full_Adder
port (X, Y, Cin: in BIT; Cout, Sum: out BIT);
end component;
signal C: BIT_VECTOR(7 downto 0);
begin
Stages: for i in 7 downto 0 generate
LowBit: if i = 0 generate
FA:Full_Adder port map (A(0),B(0),Cin,C(0),Sum(0));
end generate;
OtherBits: if i /= 0 generate
FA:Full_Adder port map
(A(i),B(i),C(i-1),C(i),Sum(i));
end generate;
end generate;
Cout <= C(7);
end;

Cout
A(7)
B(7)
A(6)
B(6)
A(5)
B(5)
A(4)
B(4)
A(3)
B(3)
A(2)
B(2)
A(1)
B(1)
A(0)
B(0)

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

Sum(7)
Sum(6)
Sum(5)
Sum(4)
Sum(3)
Sum(2)
Sum(1)
Sum(0)

Cin

8
8

Cout
+
8

+
Cin

Sum

SECTION 10

VHDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

10.2.2 A Register Accumulator

Positive-edgetriggered D flip-flop with asynchronous clear
entity DFFClr is
generic(TRQ : TIME := 2 ns; TCQ : TIME := 2 ns);
port (CLR, CLK, D : in BIT; Q, QB : out BIT);
end;
architecture Behave of DFFClr is
signal Qi : BIT;
begin QB <= not Qi; Q <= Qi;
process (CLR, CLK) begin
if CLR = '1' then Qi <= '0' after TRQ;
elsif CLK'EVENT and CLK = '1'
then Qi <= D after TCQ;
end if;
end process;
end;

CLK

QN
CLR

Timing:
TRQ (CLR to Q/QN) = 2ns
TCQ (CLK to Q/QN) = 2ns

An 8-bit register
entity Register8 is
port (D : in BIT_VECTOR(7 downto 0);
Clk, Clr: in BIT ; Q : out BIT_VECTOR(7 downto 0));
end;
architecture Structure of Register8 is
component DFFClr
port (Clr, Clk, D : in BIT; Q, QB : out BIT);
end component;
begin
STAGES: for i in 7 downto 0 generate
FF: DFFClr port map (Clr, Clk, D(i), Q(i), open);
end generate;
end;

Clk
Clr

8-bit register. Uses

DFFClr positive edgetriggered flip-flop
model.

An 8-bit multiplexer
entity Mux8 is
generic (TPD : TIME := 1 ns);
port (A, B : in BIT_VECTOR (7 downto 0);
Sel : in BIT := '0'; Y : out BIT_VECTOR (7 downto 0));
end;
architecture Behave of Mux8 is
begin
Y <= A after TPD when Sel = '1' else B after TPD;
end;

A
8

1
B0

Sel
Y
8

Eight 2:1 MUXs with

single select input.
Timing:
TPD(input to Y)=1ns

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.2 A 4-bit Multiplier

10.2.3 Zero Detector

A zero detector
entity AllZero is
generic (TPD : TIME := 1 ns);
port (X : BIT_VECTOR; F : out BIT );
end;
architecture Behave of AllZero is
begin process (X) begin F <= '1' after TPD;
for j in X'RANGE loop
if X(j) = '1' then F <= '0' after TPD; end if;
end loop;
end process;
end;

n X
=0 F

Variable-width zero detector.

Timing:
TPD(X to F) =1ns

SECTION 10

VHDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

10.2.4 A Shift Register

A variable-width shift register
entity ShiftN is
generic (TCQ : TIME := 0.3 ns; TLQ : TIME := 0.5 ns;
TSQ : TIME := 0.7 ns);
port(CLK, CLR, LD, SH, DIR: in BIT;
D: in BIT_VECTOR; Q: out BIT_VECTOR);
begin assert (D'LENGTH <= Q'LENGTH)
report "D wider than output Q" severity Failure;
end ShiftN;
architecture Behave of ShiftN is
begin Shift: process (CLR, CLK)
subtype InB is NATURAL range D'LENGTH-1 downto 0;
subtype OutB is NATURAL range Q'LENGTH-1 downto 0;
variable St: BIT_VECTOR(OutB);
begin
if CLR = '1' then
St := (others => '0'); Q <= St after TCQ;
elsif CLK'EVENT and CLK='1' then
if LD = '1' then
St := (others => '0');
St(InB) := D;
Q <= St after TLQ;
elsif SH = '1' then
case DIR is
when '0' => St := '0' & St(St'LEFT downto 1);
when '1' => St := St(St'LEFT-1 downto 0) & '0';
end case;
Q <= St after TSQ;
end if;
end if;
end process;
end;

D
LD
SH
DIR
CLK

CLR

CLK

Clock

CLR

Clear, active high

LD

Load, active high

SH

Shift, active high

DIR

Direction, 1 = left

Data in

Data out

Variable-width shift register.

Input width must be less
than output width. Output is
left-shifted or right-shifted
under control of DIR.
Unused MSBs are
zero-padded during load.
Clear is asynchronous.
Loadis synchronous.

Timing:
TCQ (CLR to Q) = 0.3ns
TLQ (LD to Q) = 0.5ns
TSQ (SH to Q) = 0. 7ns

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.2 A 4-bit Multiplier

10.2.5 A State Machine

A Moore state machine for the multiplier
entity SM_1 is
generic (TPD : TIME := 1 ns);
port(Start, Clk, LSB, Stop, Reset: in BIT;
Init, Shift, Add, Done : out BIT);
end;
architecture Moore of SM_1 is
type STATETYPE is (I, C, A, S, E);
signal State: STATETYPE;
begin
Init <= '1' after TPD when State = I
else '0' after TPD;
Add <= '1' after TPD when State = A
else '0' after TPD;
Shift <= '1' after TPD when State = S
else '0' after TPD;
Done <= '1' after TPD when State = E
else '0' after TPD;
process (CLK, Reset) begin
if Reset = '1' then State <= E;
elsif CLK'EVENT and CLK = '1' then
case State is
when I => State <= C;
when C =>
if LSB = '1' then State <= A;
elsif Stop = '0' then State <= S;
else State <= E;
end if;
when A => State <= S;
when S => State <= C;
when E =>
if Start = '1' then State <= I; end if;
end case;
end if;
end process;
end;

S
Shift=1

A
Add=1

I
Init=1
1

LSB=1

Start=1
C

LSB/Stop= 00

01

Reset

E
Done=1

1
Start=0
others

inputs

outputs

Start
Stop
LSB
Clk

Shift
Add
Init
Done
Reset

State and function

E End of multiply cycle.

I Initialize: clear output register and

load input registers.

C Check if LSB of register A is zero.

A Add shift register B to accumulator.

S Shift input register A right and input

register B left.

SECTION 10

VHDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

10.2.6 A Multiplier
A 4-bit by 4-bit multiplier

Start
A
Init
Shift
'0'
CLK

D 4
LD
SH
DIR
CLK
ShiftN
SR1

B
Init
Shift
'1'

D 4
LD
SH
DIR
CLK
ShiftN
SR2

Reset

Mult8

F1
Q
8

SRA

Z1
X
F
=0

8
AllZero
SRA(0)

CLR

Start
Stop
LSB
CLK Clk

SM_1

Shift
Add
Init
Done

Shift
Add
Init
Done

Reset

Reset

OFL(not used)
A1
Adder8
Add
R1
Cout
8
Q SRB A
Register8
+ 8
ADDout A Sel
8
1 Y MUXout 8
8
DQ
B
B
+ Sum
0
CLK Clk
Cin
Mux8
CLR
Clr
M1
'0'
Reset
REGclr = Reset or Init
REGout
Reset

Result
8

entity Mult8 is
port (A, B: in BIT_VECTOR(3 downto 0); Start, CLK, Reset: in BIT;
Result: out BIT_VECTOR(7 downto 0); Done: out BIT); end Mult8;
architecture Structure of Mult8 is use work.Mult_Components.all;
signal SRA, SRB, ADDout, MUXout, REGout: BIT_VECTOR(7 downto 0);
signal Zero,Init,Shift,Add,Low:BIT := '0'; signal High:BIT := '1';
signal F, OFL, REGclr: BIT;
begin
REGclr <= Init or Reset; Result <= REGout;
SR1 : ShiftN port map
(CLK=>CLK,CLR=>Reset,LD=>Init,SH=>Shift,DIR=>Low ,D=>A,Q=>SRA);
SR2 : ShiftN port map
(CLK=>CLK,CLR=>Reset,LD=>Init,SH=>Shift,DIR=>High,D=>B,Q=>SRB);
Z1 : AllZero port map (X=>SRA,F=>Zero);
A1 : Adder8 port map (A=>SRB,B=>REGout,Cin=>Low,Cout=>OFL,Sum=>ADDout);
M1 : Mux8 port map (A=>ADDout,B=>REGout,Sel=>Add,Y=>MUXout);
R1 : Register8 port map (D=>MUXout,Q=>REGout,Clk=>CLK,Clr=>REGclr);
F1 : SM_1 port map (Start,CLK,SRA(0),Zero,Reset,Init,Shift,Add,Done);
end;

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.2 A 4-bit Multiplier

10.2.7 Packages and Testbench

package Mult_Components is
component Mux8 port (A,B:BIT_VECTOR(7 downto 0);
Sel:BIT;Y:out BIT_VECTOR(7 downto 0));end component;
component AllZero port (X : BIT_VECTOR;
F:out BIT );end component;
component Adder8 port (A,B:BIT_VECTOR(7 downto 0);Cin:BIT;
Cout:out BIT;Sum:out BIT_VECTOR(7 downto 0));end component;
component Register8 port (D:BIT_VECTOR(7 downto 0);
Clk,Clr:BIT; Q:out BIT_VECTOR(7 downto 0));end component;
component ShiftN port (CLK,CLR,LD,SH,DIR:BIT;D:BIT_VECTOR;
Q:out BIT_VECTOR);end component;
component SM_1 port (Start,CLK,LSB,Stop,Reset:BIT;
Init,Shift,Add,Done:out BIT);end component;
end;

--1
--2
--3
--4
--5
--6
--7
--8
--9
--10
--11
--12
--13
--14

Utility code to help test the multiplier:

package Clock_Utils is
procedure Clock (signal C: out Bit; HT, LT:TIME);
end Clock_Utils;
package body Clock_Utils is
procedure Clock (signal C: out Bit; HT, LT:TIME) is
begin
loop C<='1' after LT, '0' after LT + HT; wait for LT + HT;
end loop;
end;
end Clock_Utils;

--1
--2
--3
--4
--5
--6
--7
--8
--9
--10

Two functions for testingto convert an array of bits to a number and vice versa:
package Utils is
function Convert (N,L: NATURAL) return BIT_VECTOR;
function Convert (B: BIT_VECTOR) return NATURAL;
end Utils;
package body Utils is
function Convert (N,L: NATURAL) return BIT_VECTOR is
variable T:BIT_VECTOR(L-1 downto 0);
variable V:NATURAL:= N;
begin for i in T'RIGHT to T'LEFT loop
T(i) := BIT'VAL(V mod 2); V:= V/2;
end loop; return T;
end;
function Convert (B: BIT_VECTOR) return NATURAL is
variable T:BIT_VECTOR(B'LENGTH-1 downto 0) := B;

--1
--2
--3
--4
--5
--6
--7
--8
--9
--10
--11
--12
--13
--14

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variable V:NATURAL:= 0;
begin for i in T'RIGHT to T'LEFT loop
if T(i) = '1' then V:= V + (2**i); end if;
end loop; return V;
end;
end Utils;

--15
--16
--17
--18
--19
--20

The following testbench exercises the multiplier model:

entity Test_Mult8_1 is end; -- runs forever, use break!!
architecture Structure of Test_Mult8_1 is
use Work.Utils.all; use Work.Clock_Utils.all;
component Mult8 port
(A, B : BIT_VECTOR(3 downto 0); Start, CLK, Reset : BIT;
Result : out BIT_VECTOR(7 downto 0); Done : out BIT);
end component;
signal A, B : BIT_VECTOR(3 downto 0);
signal Start, Done : BIT := '0';
signal CLK, Reset : BIT;
signal Result : BIT_VECTOR(7 downto 0);
signal DA, DB, DR : INTEGER range 0 to 255;
begin
C: Clock(CLK, 10 ns, 10 ns);
UUT: Mult8 port map (A, B, Start, CLK, Reset, Result, Done);
DR <= Convert(Result);
Reset <= '1', '0' after 1 ns;
process begin
for i in 1 to 3 loop for j in 4 to 7 loop
DA <= i; DB <= j;
A<=Convert(i,A'Length);B<=Convert(j,B'Length);
wait until CLK'EVENT and CLK='1'; wait for 1 ns;
Start <= '1', '0' after 20 ns; wait until Done = '1';
wait until CLK'EVENT and CLK='1';
end loop; end loop;
for i in 0 to 1 loop for j in 0 to 15 loop
DA <= i; DB <= j;
A<=Convert(i,A'Length);B<=Convert(j,B'Length);
wait until CLK'EVENT and CLK='1'; wait for 1 ns;
Start <= '1', '0' after 20 ns; wait until Done = '1';
wait until CLK'EVENT and CLK='1';
end loop; end loop;
wait;
end process;
end;

--1
--2
--3
--4
--5
--6
--7
--8
--9
--10
--11
--12
--13
--14
--15
--16
--17
--18
--19
--20
--21
--22
--23
--24
--25
--26
--27
--28
--29
--30
--31
--32
--33
--34
--35

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.3 Syntax and Semanticsof VHDL

11

10.3 Syntax and Semanticsof VHDL

Key terms: syntax rules BackusNaur form (BNF) constructs semantic rules lexical rules

sentence
subject
object
article
noun
verb

::=
|
[]
{}

means
means
means
means

::=
::=
::=
::=
::=
::=

subject verb object.

The|A noun
[article] noun {, and article noun}
the|a
man|shark|house|food
eats|paints

"can be replaced by"

"or"
"contents optional"
"contents can be left out, used once, or repeated"

The following two sentences are correct according to the syntax rules:

A shark eats food.

The house paints the shark, and the house, and a man.

Semantic rules tell us that the second sentence does not make much sense.

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10.4 Identifiers and Literals

Key terms: nouns of VHDL identifiers literals VHDL is not case sensitive static (known at
analysis) abstract literals (decimal or based) decimal literals (integer or real) character
literals bit-string literals

identifier ::=
letter {[underline] letter_or_digit}
|\graphic_character{graphic_character}\

s -- A simple name.
S -- A simple name, the same as s. VHDL is notcase sensitive.
a_name -- Imbedded underscores are OK.
-- Successive underscores are illegal in names: Ill__egal
-- Names can't start with underscore: _Illegal
-- Names can't end with underscore: Illegal_
Too_Good -- Names must start with a letter.
-- Names can't start with a number: 2_Bad
\74LS00\ -- Extended identifier to break rules (VHDL-93 only).
VHDL \vhdl\ \VHDL\ -- Three different names (VHDL-93 only).
s_array(0) -- A static indexed name (known at analysis time).
s_array(i) -- A non-static indexed name, if i is a variable.

entity Literals_1 is end;

architecture Behave of Literals_1 is
begin process
variable I1 : integer; variable Rl : real;
variable C1 : CHARACTER; variable S16 : STRING(1 to 16);
variable BV4: BIT_VECTOR(0 to 3);
variable BV12 : BIT_VECTOR(0 to 11);
variable BV16 : BIT_VECTOR(0 to 15);
begin
-- Abstract literals are decimal or based literals.
-- Decimal literals are integer or real literals.
-- Integer literal examples (each of these is the same):
I1 := 120000; Int := 12e4; Int := 120_000;
-- Based literal examples (each of these is the same):
I1 := 2#1111_1111#; I1 := 16#FFFF#;
-- Base must be an integer from 2 to 16:
I1 := 16:FFFF:; -- you may use a : if you don't have #

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.5 Entities and Architectures

13

-- Real literal examples (each of these is the same):

Rl := 120000.0; Rl := 1.2e5; Rl := 12.0E4;
-- Character literal must be one of the 191 graphic characters.
-- 65 of the 256 ISO Latin-1 set are non-printing control characters
C1 := 'A'; C1 := 'a'; -- different from each other
-- String literal examples:
S16 := " string" & " literal"; -- concatenate long strings
S16 := """Hello,"" I said!";
-- doubled quotes
S16 := % string literal%;
-- can use % instead of "
S16 := %Sale: 50%% off!!!%;
-- doubled %
-- Bit-string literal examples:
BV4 := B"1100";
-- binary bit-string literal
BV12 := O"7777";
-- octal bit-string literal
BV16 := X"FFFF";
-- hex
bit-string literal
wait; end process; -- the wait prevents an endless loop
end;

10.5 Entities and Architectures

Key terms: design file (bookshelf) design units library units (book) library (collection of
bookshelves) primary units secondary units (c.f. Table of Contents) entity declaration
(black box) formal ports ( or formals) architecture body (contents of black box) visibility
component declaration structural model local ports (or locals) instance names actual ports
(or actuals) binding configuration declaration (a shopping list) design entity
(entityarchitecture pair)

design_file ::=
{library_clause|use_clause} library_unit
{{library_clause|use_clause} library_unit}

library_unit ::= primary_unit|secondary_unit

primary_unit ::=
entity_declaration|configuration_declaration|package_declaration

secondary_unit ::= architecture_body|package_body

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entity_declaration ::=
entity identifier is
[generic (formal_generic_interface_list);]
[port (formal_port_interface_list);]
{entity_declarative_item}
[begin
{[label:] [postponed] assertion ;
|[label:] [postponed] passive_procedure_call ;
|passive_process_statement}]
end [entity] [entity_identifier] ;

entity Half_Adder is
port (X, Y : in BIT := '0'; Sum, Cout : out BIT); -- formals
end;

architecture_body ::=
architecture identifier of entity_name is
{block_declarative_item}
begin
{concurrent_statement}
end [architecture] [architecture_identifier] ;

architecture Behave of Half_Adder is

begin Sum <= X xor Y; Cout <= X and Y;
end Behave;

Components:

component_declaration ::=
component identifier [is]
[generic (local_generic_interface_list);]
[port (local_port_interface_list);]
end component [component_identifier];

architecture Netlist of Half_Adder is

component MyXor port (A_Xor,B_Xor : in BIT; Z_Xor : out BIT);
end component; -- component with locals
component MyAnd port (A_And,B_And : in BIT; Z_And : out BIT);
end component; -- component with locals

ASICs... THE COURSE

begin
Xor1: MyXor port map (X, Y, Sum);
And1 : MyAnd port map (X, Y, Cout);
end;

10.5 Entities and Architectures

-- instance with actuals

-- instance with actuals

These design entities (entityarchitecture pairs) would be part of a technology library:

entity AndGate is
port (And_in_1, And_in_2 : in BIT; And_out : out BIT); -- formals
end;

architecture Simple of AndGate is

begin And_out <= And_in_1 and And_in_2;
end;

entity XorGate is
port (Xor_in_1, Xor_in_2 : in BIT; Xor_out : out BIT); -- formals
end;

architecture Simple of XorGate is

begin Xor_out <= Xor_in_1 xor Xor_in_2;
end;

configuration_declaration ::=
configuration identifier of entity_name is
{use_clause|attribute_specification
|group_declaration}
block_configuration
end [configuration] [configuration_identifier] ;

configuration Simplest of Half_Adder is

use work.all;
for Netlist
for And1 : MyAnd use entity AndGate(Simple)
port map -- association: formals => locals
(And_in_1 => A_And, And_in_2 => B_And, And_out => Z_And);
end for;
for Xor1 : MyXor use entity XorGate(Simple)
port map
(Xor_in_1 => A_Xor, Xor_in_2 => B_Xor, Xor_out => Z_Xor);

15

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end for;
end for;
end;

architecture Netlist of Half_Adder

entity Half_Adder
X

Cout

Sum

X A
Y A

And1

A Cout

Xor1

A Sum

ports
A actual
Xor1: MyXor port map (X, Y, Sum);
F formal
L local

component
A_Xor
B_Xor

L
L

L Z_Xor
MyXor

port (A_Xor,B_Xor : in BIT; Z_Xor : out BIT)

for Xor1:MyXor use entity XorGate(Simple) port map
(Xor_in_1 => A_Xor, Xor_in_2 => B_Xor, Xor_out => Z_Xor);
configuration Simplest
of Half_Adder
Xor_in_1 F

F Xor_out

Xor_out <= Xor_in_1 xor Xor_in_2;

Xor_in_2 F
entity
XorGate

architecture Simple
of XorGate

Entities, architectures, components, ports, port maps, and configurations

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.6 Packages and Libraries

17

10.6 Packages and Libraries

Key terms: design library (the current working library or a resource library) working library
(work) package package body package visibility library clause use clause

package_declaration ::=
package identifier is
{subprogram_declaration | type_declaration | subtype_declaration
| constant_declaration | signal_declaration | file_declaration
| alias_declaration
| component_declaration
| attribute_declaration | attribute_specification
| disconnection_specification | use_clause
| shared_variable_declaration | group_declaration
| group_template_declaration}
end [package] [package_identifier] ;

package_body ::=
package body package_identifier is
{subprogram_declaration | subprogram_body
| type_declaration
| subtype_declaration
| constant_declaration | file_declaration | alias_declaration
| use_clause
| shared_variable_declaration | group_declaration
| group_template_declaration}
end [package body] [package_identifier] ;

library MyLib; -- library clause

use MyLib.MyPackage.all; -- use clause
-- design unit (entity + architecture, etc.) follows:

10.6.1 Standard Package

Key terms: STANDARD package (defined in the LRM ) TIME INTEGER REAL STRING
CHARACTER I use uppercase for standard types ISO 646-1983 ASCII character set
character codes graphic symbol (glyph) ISO 8859-1:1987(E) ISO Latin-1

package Part_STANDARD is
type BOOLEAN is (FALSE, TRUE); type BIT is ('0', '1');

18

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type SEVERITY_LEVEL is (NOTE, WARNING, ERROR, FAILURE);

subtype NATURAL is INTEGER range 0 to INTEGER'HIGH;
subtype POSITIVE is INTEGER range 1 to INTEGER'HIGH;
type BIT_VECTOR is array (NATURAL range <>) of BIT;
type STRING is array (POSITIVE range <>) of CHARACTER;
-- the following declarations are VHDL-93 only:
attribute FOREIGN: STRING; -- for links to other languages
subtype DELAY_LENGTH is TIME range 0 fs to TIME'HIGH;
type FILE_OPEN_KIND is (READ_MODE,WRITE_MODE,APPEND_MODE);
type FILE_OPEN_STATUS is
(OPEN_OK,STATUS_ERROR,NAME_ERROR,MODE_ERROR);
end Part_STANDARD;

type TIME is range implementation_defined -- and varies with software

units fs; ps = 1000 fs; ns = 1000 ps; us = 1000 ns; ms = 1000 us;
sec = 1000 ms; min = 60 sec; hr = 60 min;end units;

type
NUL,
BS,
DLE,
CAN,
' ',
'(',
'0',
'8',
'@',
'H',
'P',
'X',
'`',
'h',
'p',
'x',

Part_CHARACTER
SOH, STX, ETX,
HT, LF, VT,
DC1, DC2, DC3,
EM, SUB, ESC,
'!', '"', '#',
')', '*', '+',
'1', '2', '3',
'9', ':', ';',
'A', 'B', 'C',
'I', 'J', 'K',
'Q', 'R', 'S',
'Y', 'Z', '[',
'a', 'b', 'c',
'i', 'j', 'k',
'q', 'r', 's',
'y', 'z', '{',

is (
EOT,
FF,
DC4,
FSP,
'$',
',',
'4',
'<',
'D',
'L',
'T',
'\',
'd',
'l',
't',
'|',

-- 128 ASCII characters in VHDL-87

ENQ, ACK, BEL, -- 33 control characters
CR, SO, SI, -- including:
NAK, SYN, ETB, -- format effectors:
GSP, RSP, USP, -- horizontal tab = HT
'%', '&', ''', -- line feed = LF
'-', '.', '/', -- vertical tab = VT
'5', '6', '7', -- form feed = FF
'=', '>', '?', -- carriage return = CR
'E', 'F', 'G', -- and others:
'M', 'N', 'O', -- FSP, GSP, RSP, USP use P
'U', 'V', 'W', -- suffix to avoid conflict
']', '^', '_', -- with TIME units
'e', 'f', 'g',
'm', 'n', 'o',
'u', 'v', 'w',
'}', '~', DEL -- delete = DEL

-- VHDL-93 includes 96 more Latin-1 characters, like (Yen) and

-- 32 more control characters, better not to use any of them.
);

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.6 Packages and Libraries

19

10.6.2 Std_logic_1164 Package

Key terms: logic-value system BIT '0' and '1' 'X' (unknown) 'Z' (high-impedance)
metalogical value (simbits) Std_logic_1164 package MVL9multivalued logic nine driver
resolve resolution function resolved subtype STD_LOGIC unresolved type STD_ULOGIC
subtypes

are

compatible

with

types

overloading

STD_LOGIC_VECTOR

STD_ULOGIC_VECTOR dont care logic value '-' (hyphen)

type MVL4 is ('X', '0', '1', 'Z'); -- example of a four-value logic
system
library IEEE; use IEEE.std_logic_1164.all; -- to use the IEEE package
package Part_STD_LOGIC_1164 is
type STD_ULOGIC is
( 'U', -- Uninitialized
'X', -- Forcing Unknown
'0', -- Forcing 0
'1', -- Forcing 1
'Z', -- High Impedance
'W', -- Weak Unknown
'L', -- Weak 0
'H', -- Weak 1
'-' -- Don't Care);
type STD_ULOGIC_VECTOR is array (NATURAL range <>) of STD_ULOGIC;
function resolved (s : STD_ULOGIC_VECTOR) return STD_ULOGIC;
subtype STD_LOGIC is resolved STD_ULOGIC;
type STD_LOGIC_VECTOR is array (NATURAL range <>) of STD_LOGIC;
subtype X01
is resolved STD_ULOGIC range 'X' to '1';
subtype X01Z is resolved STD_ULOGIC range 'X' to 'Z';
subtype UX01 is resolved STD_ULOGIC range 'U' to '1';
subtype UX01Z is resolved STD_ULOGIC range 'U' to 'Z';

--1
--2
--3
--4
--5
--6
--7
--8
--9
--10
--11
--12
--13
--14
--15
--16
--17
--18
--19

-- Vectorized overloaded logical operators:

--20
function "and" (L : STD_ULOGIC; R : STD_ULOGIC)return UX01;
--21
-- Logical operators not, and, nand, or, nor, xor, xnor (VHDL-93),--22
-- overloaded for STD_ULOGIC STD_ULOGIC_VECTOR STD_LOGIC_VECTOR. --23
------

Strength strippers and type conversion functions:

function To_T (X : F) return T;
defined for types, T and F, where
F=BIT BIT_VECTOR STD_ULOGIC STD_ULOGIC_VECTOR STD_LOGIC_VECTOR
T=types F plus types X01 X01Z UX01 (but not type UX01Z)

-- Exclude _'s in T in name: TO_STDULOGIC not TO_STD_ULOGIC

-- To_XO1 : L->0, H->1 others->X

--24
--25
--26
--27
--28
--29
--30

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-- To_XO1Z: Z->Z, others as To_X01

-- To_UX01: U->U, others as To_X01

--31
--32

-- Edge detection functions:

function rising_edge (signal s: STD_ULOGIC) return BOOLEAN;
function falling_edge (signal s: STD_ULOGIC) return BOOLEAN;

--33
--34
--35

-- Unknown detection (returns true if s = U, X, Z, W):

--36
-- function Is_X (s : T) return BOOLEAN;
--37
-- defined for T = STD_ULOGIC STD_ULOGIC_VECTOR STD_LOGIC_VECTOR. --38
end Part_STD_LOGIC_1164;

--39

10.6.3 Textio Package

package Part_TEXTIO is
-- VHDL-93 version.
type LINE is access STRING; -- LINE is a pointer to a STRING value.
type TEXT is file of STRING; -- File of ASCII records.
type SIDE is (RIGHT, LEFT); -- for justifying output data.
subtype WIDTH is NATURAL;
-- for specifying widths of output
fields.
file INPUT : TEXT open READ_MODE is "STD_INPUT"; -- Default input
file.
file OUTPUT : TEXT open WRITE_MODE is "STD_OUTPUT"; -- Default
output.

-- The following procedures are defined for types, T, where

-- T = BIT BIT_VECTOR BOOLEAN CHARACTER INTEGER REAL TIME STRING
-procedure READLINE(file F : TEXT; L : out LINE);
-procedure READ(L : inout LINE; VALUE : out T);
-procedure READ(L : inout LINE; VALUE : out T; GOOD: out
BOOLEAN);
-procedure WRITELINE(F : out TEXT; L : inout LINE);
-procedure WRITE(
-L : inout LINE;
-VALUE : in T;
-JUSTIFIED : in SIDE:= RIGHT;
-FIELD:in WIDTH := 0;
-DIGITS:in NATURAL := 0; -- for T = REAL only

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.6 Packages and Libraries

21

-UNIT:in TIME:= ns);

-- for T = TIME only
-- function ENDFILE(F : in TEXT) return BOOLEAN;

end Part_TEXTIO;

Example:

library std; use std.textio.all; entity Text is end;

architecture Behave of Text is signal count : INTEGER := 0;
begin count <= 1 after 10 ns, 2 after 20 ns, 3 after 30 ns;
process (count) variable L: LINE; begin
if (count > 0) then
write(L, now);
-- Write time.
write(L, STRING'(" count=")); -- STRING' is a type qualification.
write(L, count); writeline(output, L);
end if; end process; end;

10 ns count=1
20 ns count=2
30 ns count=3

10.6.4 Other Packages

Key terms: arithmetic packages Synopsys std_arith (mis)use of IEEE library math
packages [IEEE 1076.2, 1996] synthesis packages component packages
10.6.5 Creating Packages
Key terms: packaged constants linking the VHDL world and the real world

package Adder_Pkg is -- a package declaration

constant BUSWIDTH : INTEGER := 16;
end Adder_Pkg;

use work.Adder_Pkg.all; -- a use clause

entity Adder is end Adder;
architecture Flexible of Adder is -- work.Adder_Pkg is visible here
begin process begin

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MyLoop : for j in 0 to BUSWIDTH loop -- adder code goes here

end loop; wait; -- the wait prevents an endless cycle
end process;
end Flexible;

package GLOBALS is
constant HI : BIT := '1'; constant LO: BIT := '0';
end GLOBALS;

library MyLib; -- use MyLib.Add_Pkg.all; -- use all the package

use MyLib.Add_Pkg_Fn.add; -- just function 'add' from the package

entity Lib_1 is port (s : out BIT_VECTOR(3 downto 0) := "0000"); end;

architecture Behave of Lib_1 is begin process
begin s <= add ("0001", "0010", "1000");wait; end process; end;

There are three common methods to create the links between the file and directory names:
Use a UNIX environment variable (SETENV MyLib ~/MyDirectory/MyLibFile
, for
example).
Create a separate file that establishes the links between the filename known to the
operating system and the library name known to the VHDL software.
Include the links in an initialization file (often with an '.ini' suffix).

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.7 Interface Declarations

23

10.7 Interface Declarations

Key terms: interface declaration formals locals actuals interface objects (constants,
signals, variables, or files) interface constants (generics of a design entity, a component, or a
block, or parameters of subprograms) interface signals (ports of a design entity, component, or
block, and parameters of subprograms) interface variables and interface files (parameters of
subprograms) interface object mode (in,the default, out, inout, buffer, linkage) read
update interface object rules (i before e), there are also mode rules (except after c)
Modes of interface objects and their properties
entity E1 is port (Inside : in BIT); end; architecture Behave of E1 is begin end;
entity E2 is port (Outside : inout BIT := '1'); end; architecture Behave of E2 is
component E1 port (Inside: in BIT); end component; signal UpdateMe : BIT; begin
I1 : E1 port map (Inside => Outside); -- formal/local (mode in) => actual (mode
inout)
UpdateMe <= Outside;
-- OK to read Outside (mode inout)
Outside <= '0' after 10 ns;
-- and OK to update Outside (mode inout)
end;

Possible modes of interface object, Outside

Can you read Outside (RHS of assignment)?
Can you update Outside (LHS of assignment)?
Modes of Inside that Outside may connect to
(see below)

inout
mode X
A
Outside

E2
7

in
(default)
Yes
No
in

1
in

inout

buffer

No
Yes
out

Yes
Yes
any

Yes
Yes
any

in

out

E1

mode Y
F
Inside

interface object:
signal, variable,
constant, or file

out

9
3

buffer

inout

10

F formal
A actual
X

means "legal to associate interface

object (Outside) of mode X with
formal (Inside) of mode Y"

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10.7.1 Port Declaration

Key terms: ports (connectors) port interface declaration formals locals actuals implicit
signal declaration port mode signal kind default value default expression open port map
positional association named association default binding
Properties of ports
Example entity declaration:
entity E is port (F_1:BIT; F_2:out BIT; F_3:inout BIT; F_4:buffer BIT); end;
formals

--

Example component declaration:

component C port (L_1:BIT; L_2:out BIT; L_3:inout BIT; L_4:buffer BIT); -- locals
end component;

Example component instantiation:

I1 : C port map
(L_1 => A_1,L_2 => A_2,L_3 => A_3,L_4 => A_4); -- locals => actuals

Example configuration:
for I1 : C use entity E(Behave) port map
(F_1 => L_1,F_2 => L_2,F_3 => L_3,F_4 => L_4); -- formals => locals

Interface object, port F

Mode of F
Can you read attributes of
F?

F_1
in (default)
Yes, but not the
attributes:

F_2
out
Yes, but not the
attributes:

F_3
inout
Yes, but not the
attributes:

[VHDL LRM4.3.2]

'STABLE

'STABLE
'QUIET

'STABLE

'QUIET
'DELAYED
'TRANSACTION

'DELAYED
'TRANSACTION
'EVENT
'ACTIVE
'LAST_EVENT
'LAST_ACTIVE
'LAST_VALUE

'QUIET
'DELAYED
'TRANSACTION

F_4
buffer
Yes

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.7 Interface Declarations

25

Connection rules for port modes

entity E1 is
entity E2 is
component E1
I1 : E1 port
inout)
end;

port (Inside : in BIT); end; architecture Behave of E1 is begin end;

port (Outside : inout BIT := '1'); end; architecture Behave of E2 is
port (Inside : in BIT); end component; begin
map (Inside => Outside); -- formal/local (mode in) => actual (mode

Possible modes of interface object, Inside

in
(default)
in
inout
buffer

Modes of Outside that Inside may connect to

(see below)

inout
mode X
A
Outside

E2
7

in
mode Y
F
Inside

buffer

out
inout

inout1

buffer2

5
3

ports

inout

in

E1

out

F formal
A actual
X

out
7

buffer

6
inout

means "legal to associate formal port

(Inside) of mode Y with actual port
(Outside) of mode X"

1A

signal of mode inout can be updated by any number of sources.

2A

signal of mode buffer can be updated by at most one source.

port (port_interface_list)

interface_list ::=
port_interface_declaration {; port_interface_declaration}

interface_declaration ::=
[signal]
identifier {, identifier}:[
in|out|inout|buffer|linkage]
subtype_indication [bus] [:= static_expression]

entity Association_1 is
port (signal X, Y : in BIT := '0'; Z1, Z2, Z3 : out BIT);
end;

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use work.all; -- makes analyzed design entity AndGate(Simple)

visible.
architecture Netlist of Association_1 is
-- The formal port clause for entity AndGate looks like this:
-- port (And_in_1, And_in_2: in BIT; And_out : out BIT); -- Formals.
component AndGate port
(And_in_1, And_in_2 : in BIT; And_out : out BIT); -- Locals.
end component;
begin
-- The component and entity have the same names: AndGate.
-- The port names are also the same: And_in_1, And_in_2, And_out,
-- so we can use default binding without a configuration.
-- The last (and only) architecture for AndGate will be used: Simple.
A1:AndGate port map (X, Y, Z1); -- positional association
A2:AndGate port map (And_in_2=>Y, And_out=>Z2, And_in_1=>X);-- named
A3:AndGate port map (X, And_out => Z3, And_in_2 => Y);-- both
end;

entity ClockGen_1 is port (Clock : out BIT); end;

architecture Behave of ClockGen_1 is
begin process variable Temp : BIT := '1';
begin
-- Clock <= not Clock; -- Illegal, you cannot read Clock (mode out),
Temp := not Temp;
-- use a temporary variable instead.
Clock <= Temp after 10 ns; wait for 10 ns;
if (now > 100 ns) then wait; end if; end process;
end;

10.7.2 Generics
Key terms: generic (similar to a port) ports (signals) carry changing information between
entities generics carry constant, static information generic interface list

entity AndT is
generic (TPD : TIME := 1 ns);
port (a, b : BIT := '0'; q: out BIT);
end;
architecture Behave of AndT is
begin q <= a and b after TPD;
end;

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.7 Interface Declarations

entity AndT_Test_1 is end;

architecture Netlist_1 of AndT_Test_1 is
component MyAnd
port (a, b : BIT; q : out BIT);
end component;
signal a1, b1, q1 : BIT := '1';
begin
And1 : MyAnd port map (a1, b1, q1);
end Netlist_1;

configuration Simplest_1 of AndT_Test_1 is use work.all;

for Netlist_1 for And1 : MyAnd
use entity AndT(Behave) generic map (2 ns);
end for; end for;
end Simplest_1;

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10.8 Type Declarations

Key terms and concepts: type of an object VHDL is strongly typed you cannot add a
temperature of type Centigrade to a temperature of type Fahrenheit type declaration range
precision subtype subtype declaration composite type (array type) aggregate notation
record type
There are four type classes: scalar types, composite types, access types, file types
1. Scalar types: integer type, floating-point type, physical type, enumeration type
(integer and enumeration types are discrete types)
(integer, floating-point, and physical types are numeric types)
(physical types correspond to time, voltage, current, and so on and have dimensions)
2. Composite types include array types (and record types)
3. Access types are pointers, good for abstract data structures, less so in ASIC design
4. File types are used for file I/O, not ASIC design

type_declaration ::=
type identifier ;
| type identifier is
(identifier|'graphic_character' {, identifier|'graphic_character'}) ;
| range_constraint ;
| physical_type_definition ;
| record_type_definition ; | access subtype_indication ;
| file of type_name ;
| file of subtype_name ;
| array index_constraint of element_subtype_indication ;
| array
(type_name|subtype_name range <>
{, type_name|subtype_name range <>}) of
element_subtype_indication ;

entity Declaration_1 is end; architecture Behave of Declaration_1 is

type F is range 32 to 212; -- Integer type, ascending range.
type C is range 0 to 100; -- Range 0 to 100 is the range constraint.
subtype G is INTEGER range 9 to 0; -- Base type INTEGER, descending.
-- This is illegal: type Bad100 is INTEGER range 0 to 100;
-- don't use INTEGER in declaration of type (but OK in subtype).
type Rainbow is (R, O, Y, G, B, I, V); -- An enumeration type.
-- Enumeration types always have an ascending range.
type MVL4 is ('X', '0', '1', 'Z');

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.8 Type Declarations

-- Note that 'X' and 'x' are different character literals.

-- The default initial value is MVL4'LEFT = 'X'.
-- We say '0' and '1' (already enumeration literals
-- for predefined type BIT) are overloaded.
-- Illegal enumeration type: type Bad4 is ("X", "0", "1", "Z");
-- Enumeration literals must be character literals or identifiers.
begin end;

entity Arrays_1 is end; architecture Behave of Arrays_1 is

type Word is array (0 to 31) of BIT; -- a 32-bit array, ascending
type Byte is array (NATURAL range 7 downto 0) of BIT; -- descending
type BigBit is array (NATURAL range <>) of BIT;
-- We call <> a box, it means the range is undefined for now.
-- We call BigBit an unconstrained array.
-- This is OK, we constrain the range of an object that uses
-- type BigBit when we declare the object, like this:
subtype Nibble is BigBit(3 downto 0);
type T1 is array (POSITIVE range 1 to 32) of BIT;
-- T1, a constrained array declaration, is equivalent to a type T2
-- with the following three declarations:
subtype index_subtype is POSITIVE range 1 to 32;
type array_type is array (index_subtype range <>) of BIT;
subtype T2 is array_type (index_subtype);
-- We refer to index_subtype and array_type as being
-- anonymous subtypes of T1 (since they don't really exist).
begin end;

entity Aggregate_1 is end; architecture Behave of Aggregate_1 is

type D is array (0 to 3) of BIT; type Mask is array (1 to 2) of BIT;
signal MyData : D := ('0', others => '1'); -- positional aggregate
signal MyMask : Mask := (2 => '0', 1 => '1'); --named aggregate
begin end;

entity Record_2 is end; architecture Behave of Record_2 is

type Complex is record real : INTEGER; imag : INTEGER; end record;
signal s1 : Complex := (0, others => 1); signal s2: Complex;
begin s2 <= (imag => 2, real => 1); end;

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10.9 Other Declarations

Key concepts: (we already covered entity, configuration, component, package, interface, type,
and subtype declarations)
objects: constant, variable, signal, file
alias (user-defined monikers)
attributes (user-defined and tool-vendor defined)
subprograms: functions and procedures
groups and group templates are new to VHDL-93 and hardly used in ASIC design

declaration ::=
type_declaration
| subtype_declaration | object_declaration
| interface_declaration | alias_declaration | attribute_declaration
| component_declaration | entity_declaration
| configuration_declaration | subprogram_declaration
| package_declaration
| group_template_declaration | group_declaration

10.9.1 Object Declarations

Key terms and concepts: class of an object declarative region (before the first begin) declare
a type with (explicit) initial value (implicit) default initial value is T'LEFT explicit signal declarations shared variable
There are four object classes: constant, variable, signal, file
You use a constant declaration, signal declaration, variable declaration, or file declaration
together with a type
Signals represent real wires in hardware
Variables are memory locations in a computer

entity Initial_1 is end; architecture Behave of Initial_1 is

type Fahrenheit is range 32 to 212; -- Default initial value is 32.
type Rainbow is (R, O, Y, G, B, I, V); -- Default initial value is R.
type MVL4 is ('X', '0', '1', 'Z'); -- MVL4'LEFT = 'X'.
begin end;

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.9 Other Declarations

constant_declaration ::= constant

identifier {, identifier}:subtype_indication [:= expression] ;

signal_declaration ::= signal

identifier {, identifier}:subtype_indication register|bus]
[
[:=expression];

entity Constant_2 is end;

library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all;
architecture Behave of Constant_2 is
constant Pi : REAL := 3.14159;
-- A constant declaration.
signal B : BOOLEAN; signal s1, s2: BIT;
signal sum : INTEGER range 0 to 15; -- Not a new type.
signal SmallBus : BIT_VECTOR(15 downto 0);
-- 16-bit bus.
signal GBus : STD_LOGIC_VECTOR(31 downto 0) bus; -- A guarded signal.
begin end;

variable_declaration ::= [shared] variable

identifier {, identifier}:subtype_indication [:= expression] ;

library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all; entity Variables_1 is end;

architecture Behave of Variables_1 is begin process
variable i : INTEGER range 1 to 10 := 10; -- Initial value = 10.
variable v : STD_LOGIC_VECTOR (0 to 31) := (others => '0');
begin wait; end process; -- The wait stops an endless cycle.
end;

31

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10.9.2 Subprogram Declarations

Key terms and concepts: subprogram function procedure subprogram declaration: a
function declaration or a procedure declaration formal parameters (or formals) subprogram
invocation actual parameters (or actuals) impure function (now) pure function (default)
subprogram specification subprogram body conform private
Properties of subprogram parameters
Example subprogram declarations:
function my_function(Ff) return BIT is -- Formal function parameter, Ff.
procedure my_procedure(Fp);
-- Formal procedure parameter, Fp.

Example subprogram calls:

my_result := my_function(Af); -- Calling a function with an actual parameter, Af.
MY_LABEL:my_procedure(Ap);
-- Using a procedure with an actual parameter, Ap.

Mode of Ff or Fp (formals) in

out

inout

Permissible classes for Af constant

(default)
(function actual parameter)
signal
Permissible classes for Ap constant
(default)
(procedure actual parameter)
variable

Not allowed

Not allowed

No
mode
file

constant

constant

file

variable
(default)

variable
(default)

signal
Yes, except:

signal
Yes, except:

Can you read attributes of

Ff or Fp (formals)?

signal
Yes, except:
'STABLE
'QUIET
'DELAYED
'TRANSACTION

of a signal

'STABLE

'QUIE

T
'DELAYED
'TRANSACTION
'EVENT 'ACTIV
E

'STABLE
'QUIET
'DELAYED
'TRANSACTION

of a signal

'LAST_EVENT
'LAST_ACTIVE
'LAST_VALUE

of a signal

subprogram_declaration ::= subprogram_specification ; ::=

procedure
identifier|string_literal [(parameter_interface_list)]

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.9 Other Declarations

| [pure|impure] function
identifier|string_literal [(parameter_interface_list)]
return type_name|subtype_name;

function add(a, b, c : BIT_VECTOR(3 downto 0)) return BIT_VECTOR is

-- A function declaration, a function can't modify a, b, or c.

procedure Is_A_Eq_B (signal A, B : BIT; signal Y : out BIT);

-- A procedure declaration, a procedure can change Y.

subprogram_body ::=
subprogram_specification is
{subprogram_declaration|subprogram_body
|type_declaration|subtype_declaration
|constant_declaration|variable_declaration|file_declaration
|alias_declaration|attribute_declaration|attribute_specification
|use_clause|group_template_declaration|group_declaration}
begin
{sequential_statement}
end [procedure|function] [identifier|string_literal] ;

function subset0(sout0 : in BIT) return BIT_VECTOR -- declaration

-- Declaration can be separate from the body.
function subset0(sout0 : in BIT) return BIT_VECTOR is -- body
variable y : BIT_VECTOR(2 downto 0);
begin
if (sout0 = '0') then y := "000"; else y := "100"; end if;
return result;
end;

procedure clockGen (clk : out BIT) -- Declaration

procedure clockGen (clk : out BIT) is -- Specification
begin -- Careful this process runs forever:
process begin wait for 10 ns; clk <= not clk; end process;
end;

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entity F_1 is port (s : out BIT_VECTOR(3 downto 0) := "0000"); end;

architecture Behave of F_1 is begin process
function add(a, b, c : BIT_VECTOR(3 downto 0)) return BIT_VECTOR is
begin return a xor b xor c; end;
begin s <= add("0001", "0010", "1000");wait; end process; end;

package And_Pkg is
procedure V_And(a, b : BIT; signal c : out BIT);
function V_And(a, b : BIT) return BIT;
end;

package body And_Pkg is

procedure V_And(a,b : BIT;signal c : out BIT) is
begin c <= a and b; end;
function V_And(a,b : BIT) return BIT is
begin return a and b; end;
end And_Pkg;

entity F_2 is port (s: out BIT := '0'); end;

use work.And_Pkg.all; -- use package already analyzed
architecture Behave of F_2 is begin process begin
s <= V_And('1', '1'); wait; end process; end;

10.9.3 Alias and Attribute Declarations

alias_declaration ::=
alias
identifier|character_literal|operator_symbol [ :subtype_indication]
is name [signature];

entity Alias_1 is end; architecture Behave of Alias_1 is

begin process variable Nmbr: BIT_VECTOR (31 downto 0);
-- alias declarations to split Nmbr into 3 pieces :
alias Sign :
BIT is Nmbr(31);
alias Mantissa : BIT_VECTOR (23 downto 0) is Nmbr (30 downto 7);
alias Exponent : BIT_VECTOR ( 6 downto 0) is Nmbr ( 6 downto 0);
begin wait; end process; end; -- the wait prevents an endless cycle

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.9 Other Declarations

attribute_declaration ::=
attribute identifier:type_name ; | attribute identifier:subtype_name
;

entity Attribute_1 is end; architecture Behave of Attribute_1 is

begin process type COORD is record X, Y : INTEGER; end record;
attribute LOCATION : COORD; -- the attribute declaration
begin wait ; -- the wait prevents an endless cycle
end process; end;

You define the attribute properties in an attribute specification:

attribute LOCATION of adder1 : label is (10,15);
positionOfComponent := adder1'LOCATION;

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10.9.4 Predefined Attributes

Predefined attributes for signals

S'LAST_VALUE

Result
type3
base(S)
BOOLEAN
BOOLEAN
BIT
BOOLEAN
BOOLEAN
TIME
TIME
base(S)

S'DRIVING

BOOLEAN

Attribute
S'DELAYED [(T)]
S'STABLE [(T)]
S'QUIET [(T)]
S'TRANSACTION
S'EVENT
S'ACTIVE
S'LAST_EVENT
S'LAST_ACTIVE

S'DRIVING_VALUE

Kind Parameter
1
T2
S
TIME
S
TIME
S
TIME
S
F
F
F
F

base(S)

Result/restrictions
S delayed by time T
TRUE if no event on S for time T
TRUE if S is quiet for time T
Toggles each cycle if S becomes active
TRUE when event occurs on S
TRUE if S is active
Elapsed time since the last event on S
Elapsed time since S was active
Previous value of S, before last event4
TRUE if every element of S is driven5
Value of the driver for S in the current
process5

F=function, S=signal.

2Time

T0 ns. The default, if T is not present, is T=0 ns.

3base(S)=base
4

type of S.

VHDL-93 returns last value of each signal in array separately as an aggregate, VHDL-87
returns the last value of the composite signal.

VHDL-93 only.

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.9 Other Declarations

37

Predefined attributes for scalar and array types

Parameter X or
N3

Kind
1

Prefix
T, A, E2

any

base(T)

T'LOW

V
V
V
V

scalar
scalar
scalar
scalar

T
T
T
T

T'ASCENDING

scalar

T'IMAGE(X)

scalar

base(T)

T'VALUE(X)

scalar

STRING

discrete

base(T)

A'LOW[(N)]

F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F

discrete
discrete
discrete
discrete
discrete
array
array
array
array

UI
base(T)
base(T)
base(T)
base(T)
UI
UI
UI
UI

A'RANGE[(N)]

array

UI

A'REVERSE_RANGE[
(N)]

array

UI

array

UI

A'ASCENDING[(N)]

array

UI

E'SIMPLE_NAME

name

STRING Simple name of E4

E'INSTANCE_NAME

name

STRING Path includes instantiated entities4

E'PATH_NAME

name

STRING Path excludes instantiated entities4

Attribute
T'BASE
T'LEFT
T'RIGHT
T'HIGH

T'POS(X)
T'VAL(X)
T'SUCC(X)
T'PRED(X)
T'LEFTOF(X)
T'RIGHTOF(X)
A'LEFT[(N)]
A'RIGHT[(N)]
A'HIGH[(N)]

A'LENGTH[(N)]

1T=Type,

Result
type4

Result
base(T), use only with other
attribute
Left bound of T
Right bound of T
Upper bound of T
Lower bound of T

BOOLEAN True if range of T is ascending5

F=Function, V=Value, R=Range.

STRING String representation of X in T4

base(T) Value in T with representation X4
Position number of X in T (starts at
UI
0)
base(T) Value of position X in T
base(T) Value of position X in T plus one
base(T) Value of position X in T minus one
base(T) Value to the left of X in T
base(T) Value to the right of X in T
T(Result) Left bound of index N of array A
T(Result) Right bound of index N of array A
T(Result) Upper bound of index N of array A
T(Result) Lower bound of index N of array A
T(Result) Range A'LEFT(N) to A'RIGHT(N)6
T(Result) Opposite range to A'RANGE[(N)]
UI

Number of values in index N of array

A

BOOLEAN True if index N of A is ascending4

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2any=any

type or subtype, scalar=scalar type or subtype, discrete=discrete or physical type or

subtype, name=entity name=identifier, character literal, or operator symbol.

base(T)=base type of T, T=type of T, UI= universal_integer,T(Result)=type of object

described in result column.

4base(T)=base

type of T, T=type of T, UI= universal_integer,T(Result)=type of object

described in result column.

5Only
6Or

available in VHDL-93. For 'ASCENDING all enumeration types are ascending.

reverse for descending ranges.

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.10 Sequential Statements

39

10.10 Sequential Statements

sequential_statement ::=
wait_statement | assertion_statement
| signal_assignment_statement
| variable_assignment_statement
| procedure_call_statement
| if_statement
| case_statement | loop_statement
| next_statement
| exit_statement
| return_statement | null_statement| report_statement

10.10.1 Wait Statement

Key terms and concepts: suspending (stopping) a process or procedure sensitivity to events
(changes) on static signals sensitivity clause contains sensitivity list after on process
resumes at event on signal in the sensitivity set condition clause after until timeout
(after for)
wait on light
makes you wait until a traffic light changes (any change)
wait until light = green
makes you wait (even at a green light) until the traffic signal changes to green
if light = (red or yellow) then wait until light = green; end if;
describes the basic rules at a traffic intersection

wait_statement ::= [label:] wait [sensitivity_clause]

[condition_clause] [timeout_clause] ;
sensitivity_clause ::= on sensitivity_list
sensitivity_list ::= signal_name { , signal_name }
condition_clause ::= until condition
condition ::= boolean_expression
timeout_clause ::= for time_expression

wait_statement ::= [label:] wait

[on signal_name {, signal_name}]
[until boolean_expression]
[for time_expression] ;

entity DFF is port (CLK, D : BIT; Q : out BIT); end;

architecture Behave of DFF is

--1
--2

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process begin wait until Clk = '1'; Q <= D ; end process;

end;

--3
--4

entity Wait_1 is port (Clk, s1, s2 :in BIT); end;

architecture Behave of Wait_1 is
signal x : BIT_VECTOR (0 to 15);
begin process variable v : BIT; begin
wait;
-- Wait forever, stops simulation.
wait on s1 until s2 = '1'; -- Legal, but s1, s2 are signals so
-- s1 is in sensitivity list, and s2 is not in the sensitivity set.
-- Sensitivity set is s1 and process will not resume at event on
s2.
wait on s1, s2;
-- resumes at event on signal s1 or s2.
wait on s1 for 10 ns;
-- resumes at event on s1 or after 10
ns.
wait on x;
-- resumes when any element of array x
-- has an event.
-- wait on x(1 to v); -- Illegal, nonstatic name, since v is a
variable.
end process;
end;

entity Wait_2 is port (Clk, s1, s2:in BIT); end;

architecture Behave of Wait_2 is
begin process variable v : BIT; begin
wait on Clk; -- resumes when Clk has an event: rising or falling.
wait until Clk = '1';
-- resumes on rising edge.
wait on Clk until Clk = '1';
-- equivalent to the last statement.
wait on Clk until v = '1';
-- The above is legal, but v is a variable so
-- Clk is in sensitivity list, v is not in the sensitivity set.
-- Sensitivity set is Clk and process will not resume at event on
v.
wait on Clk until s1 = '1';
-- The above is legal, but s1 is a signal so
-- Clk is in sensitivity list, s1 is not in the sensitivity set.
-- Sensitivity set is Clk, process will not resume at event on s1.
end process;
end;

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.10 Sequential Statements

41

10.10.2 Assertion and Report Statements

assertion_statement ::= [label:] assert
boolean_expression [report expression] [severity expression] ;

report_statement
::= [label:] report expression [severity expression] ;

entity Assert_1 is port (I:INTEGER:=0); end;

architecture Behave of Assert_1 is
begin process begin
assert (I > 0) report "I is negative or zero"; wait;
end process;
end;

10.10.3 Assignment Statements

Key terms and concepts: A variable assignment statement updates immediately A signal
assignment statement schedules a future assignment simulation cycle delta cycle delta
time delta, event delay models: transport and inertial delay (the default) pulse rejection
limit

variable_assignment_statement ::=
[label:] name|aggregate := expression ;

entity Var_Assignment is end;

architecture Behave of Var_Assignment is
signal s1 : INTEGER := 0;
begin process variable v1,v2 : INTEGER := 0; begin
assert (v1/=0) report "v1 is 0" severity note ; -- this prints
v1 := v1 + 1; -- after this statement v1 is 1
assert (v1=0) report "v1 isn't 0" severity note ; -- this prints
v2 := v2 + s1; -- signal and variable types must match
wait;
end process;
end;

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signal_assignment_statement::=
[label:] target <=
[transport | [ reject time_expression ] inertial] waveform ;

entity Sig_Assignment_1 is end;

architecture Behave of Sig_Assignment_1 is
signal s1,s2,s3 : INTEGER := 0;
begin process variable v1 : INTEGER := 1; begin
assert (s1 /= 0) report "s1 is 0" severity note ; -- this prints.
s1 <= s1 + 1; -- after this statement s1 is still 0.
assert (s1 /= 0) report "s1 still 0" severity note ; -- this
prints.
wait;
end process;
end;

entity Sig_Assignment_2 is end;

architecture Behave of Sig_Assignment_2 is
signal s1, s2, s3 : INTEGER := 0;
begin process variable v1 : INTEGER := 1; begin
-- s1, s2, s3 are initially 0; now consider the following:
s1 <= 1 ; -- schedules updates to s1 at end of 0 ns cycle.
s2 <= s1; -- s2 is 0, not 1.
wait for 1 ns;
s3 <= s1; -- now s3 will be 1 at 1 ns.
wait;
end process;
end;

entity Transport_1 is end;

architecture Behave of Transport_1 is
signal s1, SLOW, FAST, WIRE : BIT := '0';
begin process begin
s1 <= '1' after 1 ns, '0' after 2 ns, '1' after 3 ns ;
-- schedules s1 to be '1' at t+1 ns, '0' at t+2 ns,'1' at t+3 ns
wait; end process;
-- inertial delay: SLOW rejects pulsewidths less than 5ns:
process (s1) begin SLOW <= s1 after 5 ns ; end process;
-- inertial delay: FAST rejects pulsewidths less than 0.5ns:
process (s1) begin FAST <= s1 after 0.5 ns ; end process;
-- transport delay: WIRE passes all pulsewidths...

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.10 Sequential Statements

process (s1) begin WIRE <= transport s1 after 5 ns ; end process;

end;

process (s1) begin RJCT <= reject 2 ns s1 after 5 ns ; end process;

10.10.4 Procedure Call
procedure_call_statement ::=
[label:] procedure_name [(parameter_association_list)];

package And_Pkg is
procedure V_And(a, b : BIT; signal c : out BIT);
function V_And(a, b : BIT) return BIT;
end;

package body And_Pkg is

procedure V_And(a, b : BIT; signal c: out BIT) is
begin c <= a and b; end;
function V_And(a, b: BIT) return BIT is
begin return a and b; end;
end And_Pkg;

use work.And_Pkg.all; entity Proc_Call_1 is end;

architecture Behave of Proc_Call_1 is signal A, B, Y: BIT := '0';
begin process begin V_And (A, B, Y); wait; end process;
end;

10.10.5 If Statement
if_statement ::=
[if_label:] if boolean_expression then {sequential_statement}
{elsif boolean_expression then {sequential_statement}}
[else {sequential_statement}]
end if [if_label];

entity If_Then_Else_1 is end;

architecture Behave of If_Then_Else_1 is signal a, b, c: BIT :='1';

43

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begin process begin

if c = '1' then c <= a ; else c <= b; end if; wait;
end process;
end;

entity If_Then_1 is end;

architecture Behave of If_Then_1 is signal A, B, Y : BIT :='1';
begin process begin
if A = B then Y <= A; end if; wait;
end process;
end;

10.10.6 Case Statement

case_statement ::=
[case_label:] case expression is
when choice {| choice} => {sequential_statement}
{when choice {| choice} => {sequential_statement}}
end case [case_label];

library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all;

entity sm_mealy is
port (reset, clock, i1, i2 : STD_LOGIC; o1, o2 :out STD_LOGIC);
end sm_mealy;
architecture Behave of sm_mealy is
type STATES is (s0, s1, s2, s3); signal current, new : STATES;
begin
synchronous : process (clock, reset) begin
if To_X01(reset) = '0' then current <= s0;
elsif rising_edge(clock) then current <= new; end if;
end process;
combinational : process (current, i1, i2) begin
case current is
when s0 =>
if To_X01(i1) = '1' then o2 <='0'; o1 <='0'; new <= s2;
else o2 <= '1'; o1 <= '1'; new <= s1; end if;
when s1 =>
if To_X01(i2) = '1' then o2 <='1'; o1 <='0'; new <= s1;
else o2 <='0'; o1 <='1'; new <= s3; end if;
when s2 =>
if To_X01(i2) = '1' then o2 <='0'; o1 <='1'; new <= s2;

--1
--2
--3
--4
--5
--6
--7
--8
--9
--10
--11
--12
--13
--14
--15
--16
--17
--18
--19
--20
--21

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.10 Sequential Statements

else o2 <= '1'; o1 <= '0'; new <= s0; end if;
when s3 => o2 <= '0'; o1 <= '0'; new <= s0;
when others => o2 <= '0'; o1 <= '0'; new <= s0;
end case;
end process;
end Behave;

45

--22
--23
--24
--25
--26
--27

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10.10.7 Other Sequential Control Statements

loop_statement ::=
[loop_label:]
[while boolean_expression|for identifier in discrete_range]
loop
{sequential_statement}
end loop [loop_label];

package And_Pkg is function V_And(a, b : BIT) return BIT; end;

package body And_Pkg is function V_And(a, b : BIT) return BIT is

begin return a and b; end; end And_Pkg;

entity Loop_1 is port (x, y : in BIT := '1'; s : out BIT := '0');

end;
use work.And_Pkg.all;
architecture Behave of Loop_1 is
begin loop
s <= V_And(x, y); wait on x, y;
end loop;
end;

The next statement [VHDL LRM8.10] forces completion of current loop iteration:

next_statement ::=
[label:] next [loop_label] [when boolean_expression];

An exit statement [VHDL LRM8.11] forces an exit from a loop.

exit_statement ::=
[label:] exit [loop_label] [when condition] ;

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.10 Sequential Statements

loop wait on Clk; exit when Clk = '0'; end loop;

-- equivalent to: wait until Clk = '0';

The return statement [VHDL LRM8.12] completes execution of a procedure or function:

return_statement ::= [label:] return [expression];
A null statement [VHDL LRM8.13] does nothing:
null_statement ::= [label:] null;

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10.11 Operators
VHDL predefined operators (listed by increasing order of precedence)
logical_operator ::=
relational_operator ::=
shift_operator::=
adding_operator ::=
sign ::=
multiplying_operator ::=
miscellaneous_operator ::=

and | or | nand | nor | xor | xnor

= | /= | < | <= | > | >=
sll | srl | sla | sra | rol | ror
+ | | &
+ |
* | / | mod | rem
** | abs | not

entity Operator_1 is end; architecture Behave of Operator_1 is

--1
begin process
--2
variable b : BOOLEAN; variable bt : BIT := '1'; variable i : INTEGER;--3
variable pi : REAL := 3.14; variable epsilon : REAL := 0.01;
--4
variable bv4 : BIT_VECTOR (3 downto 0) := "0001";
--5
variable bv8 : BIT_VECTOR (0 to 7);
--6
begin
--7
b
b
bt
bv4
i
i
i
i
i

:=
:=
:=
:=
:=
:=
:=
:=

"0000" < bv4; -- b is TRUE, "0000" treated as BIT_VECTOR.

'f' > 'g';
-- b is FALSE, 'dictionary' comparison.
'0' and bt; -- bt is '0', analyzer knows '0' is BIT.
not bv4;
-- bv4 is now "1110".
1 + 2;
-- Addition, must be compatible types.
2 ** 3;
-- Exponentiation, exponent must be integer.
7/3;
-- Division, L/R rounded towards zero, i=2.
12 rem 7;
-- Remainder, i=5. In general:
-- L rem R = L-((L/R)*R).
:= 12 mod 7;
-- modulus, i=5. In general:
-- L mod R = L-(R*N) for an integer N.

--8
--9
--10
--11
--12
--13
--14
--15
--16
--17
--18

-- shift := sll | srl | sla | sra | rol | ror (VHDL-93 only)

--19
bv4 := "1001" srl 2; -- Shift right logical, now bv4="0100".
--20
-- Logical shift fills with T'LEFT.
--21
bv4 := "1001" sra 2; -- Shift right arithmetic, now bv4="0111".
--22
-- Arithmetic shift fills with element at end being vacated.
--23
bv4 := "1001" ror 2; -- Rotate right, now bv4="0110".
--24
-- Rotate wraps around.
--25
-- Integer argument to any shift operator may be negative or zero.--26

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.12 Arithmetic

49

if (pi*2.718)/2.718 = 3.14 then wait; end if; -- This is unreliable.--27

if (abs(((pi*2.718)/2.718)-3.14)<epsilon)then wait; end if; -Better.
--28
bv8 := bv8(1 to 7) & bv8(0); -- Concatenation, a left rotation.

--29

wait; end process;

end;

--30
--31

10.12 Arithmetic
Key terms and concepts: type checking range checking type conversion between closely
related types type_mark(expression) type qualification and disambiguation (to persuade
the analyzer) type_mark'(expression)
entity Arithmetic_1 is end; architecture Behave of Arithmetic_1 is
begin process
variable i : INTEGER := 1; variable r : REAL := 3.33;
variable b : BIT := '1';
variable bv4 : BIT_VECTOR (3 downto 0) := "0001";
variable bv8 : BIT_VECTOR (7 downto 0) := B"1000_0000";
begin
-----

i
bv4
bv4
bv8

:=
:=
:=
:=

r;
bv4 + 2;
'1';
bv4;

-----

r
:= REAL(i);
-i
:= INTEGER(r);
-bv4 := "001" & '1'; -bv8 := "0001" & bv4; -wait; end process; end;

you can't
you can't
you can't
an error,

t1
t1

:= t2;
:= st1;

--2
--3
--4
--5
--6

assign REAL to INTEGER.

--7
add BIT_VECTOR and INTEGER.
--8
assign BIT to BIT_VECTOR.
--9
the arrays are different sizes. --10

OK, uses a type conversion.

OK (0.5 rounds up or down).
OK, you can mix an array and a scalar.
OK, if arguments are correct lengths.

entity Arithmetic_2 is end; architecture Behave of Arithmetic_2 is

type TC is range 0 to 100; -- Type INTEGER.
type TF is range 32 to 212; -- Type INTEGER.
subtype STC is INTEGER range 0 to 100; -- Subtype of type INTEGER.
subtype STF is INTEGER range 32 to 212; -- Base type is INTEGER.
begin process
variable t1 : TC := 25;
variable t2 : TF := 32;
variable st1 : STC := 25; variable st2 : STF := 32;
begin
---

--1

-- Illegal, different types.

-- Illegal, different types and subtypes.

--11
--12
--13
--14
--15
--1
--2
--3
--4
--5
--6
--7
--8
--9
--10
--11

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st2
:= st1;
-st2
:= st1 + 1;
--- st2
:= 213;
--- st2
:= 212 + 1;
-st1
:= st1 + 100; -wait; end process; end;

ASICS... THE COURSE

OK to use same base types.

OK to use subtype and base type.
Error, outside range at analysis time.
Error, outside range at analysis time.
Error, outside range at initialization.

--12
--13
--14
--15
--16

entity Arithmetic_3 is end; architecture Behave of Arithmetic_3 is --1

type TYPE_1 is array (INTEGER range 3 downto 0) of BIT;
--2
type TYPE_2 is array (INTEGER range 3 downto 0) of BIT;
--3
subtype SUBTYPE_1 is BIT_VECTOR (3 downto 0);
--4
subtype SUBTYPE_2 is BIT_VECTOR (3 downto 0);
--5
begin process
--6
variable bv4 : BIT_VECTOR (3 downto 0) := "0001";
--7
variable st1 : SUBTYPE_1 := "0001"; variable t1 : TYPE_1 := "0001"; --8
variable st2 : SUBTYPE_2 := "0001"; variable t2 : TYPE_2 := "0001"; --9
begin
--10
bv4 := st1;
-- OK, compatible type and subtype.
--11
-- bv4 := t1;
-- Illegal, different types.
--12
bv4 := BIT_VECTOR(t1); -- OK, type conversion.
--13
st1 := bv4;
-- OK, compatible subtype & base type.
--14
-- st1 := t1;
-- Illegal, different types.
--15
st1 := SUBTYPE_1(t1); -- OK, type conversion.
--16
-- t1 := st1;
-- Illegal, different types.
--17
-- t1 := bv4;
-- Illegal, different types.
--18
t1 := TYPE_1(bv4);
-- OK, type conversion.
--19
-- t1 := t2;
-- Illegal, different types.
--20
t1 := TYPE_1(t2);
-- OK, type conversion.
--21
st1 := st2;
-- OK, compatible subtypes.
--22
wait; end process; end;
--23
10.12.1 IEEE Synthesis Packages
package Part_NUMERIC_BIT is
type UNSIGNED is array (NATURAL range <> ) of BIT;
type SIGNED is array (NATURAL range <> ) of BIT;
function "+" (L, R : UNSIGNED) return UNSIGNED;
-- other function definitions that overload +, -, = , >, and so on.
end Part_NUMERIC_BIT;

package body Part_NUMERIC_BIT is

constant NAU : UNSIGNED(0 downto 1) := (others =>'0'); -- Null array.

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10.12 Arithmetic

51

constant NAS : SIGNED(0 downto 1):=(others => '0'); -- Null array.

constant NO_WARNING : BOOLEAN := FALSE; -- Default to emit warnings.

function MAX (LEFT, RIGHT : INTEGER) return INTEGER is

begin -- Internal function used to find longest of two inputs.
if LEFT > RIGHT then return LEFT; else return RIGHT; end if; end MAX;

function ADD_UNSIGNED (L, R : UNSIGNED; C: BIT)return UNSIGNED is

constant L_LEFT : INTEGER := L'LENGTH-1; -- L, R must be same length.
alias XL : UNSIGNED(L_LEFT downto 0) is L; -- Descending alias,
alias XR : UNSIGNED(L_LEFT downto 0) is R; -- aligns left ends.
variable RESULT : UNSIGNED(L_LEFT downto 0); variable CBIT : BIT :=
C;
begin for I in 0 to L_LEFT loop -- Descending alias allows loop.
RESULT(I) := CBIT xor XL(I) xor XR(I); -- CBIT = carry, initially =
C.
CBIT := (CBIT and XL(I)) or (CBIT and XR(I)) or (XL(I) and XR(I));
end loop; return RESULT; end ADD_UNSIGNED;

function RESIZE (ARG : UNSIGNED; NEW_SIZE : NATURAL)return UNSIGNED

is
constant ARG_LEFT : INTEGER := ARG'LENGTH-1;
alias XARG : UNSIGNED(ARG_LEFT downto 0) is ARG; -- Descending range.
variable RESULT : UNSIGNED(NEW_SIZE-1 downto 0) := (others => '0');
begin -- resize the input ARG to length NEW_SIZE
if (NEW_SIZE < 1) then return NAU; end if; -- Return null array.
if XARG'LENGTH = 0 then return RESULT; end if; -- Null to empty.
if (RESULT'LENGTH < ARG'LENGTH) then -- Check lengths.
RESULT(RESULT'LEFT downto 0) := XARG(RESULT'LEFT downto 0);
else -- Need to pad the result with some '0's.
RESULT(RESULT'LEFT downto XARG'LEFT + 1) := (others => '0');
RESULT(XARG'LEFT downto 0) := XARG;
end if; return RESULT;
end RESIZE;

function "+" (L, R : UNSIGNED) return UNSIGNED is -- Overloaded '+'.

constant SIZE : NATURAL := MAX(L'LENGTH, R'LENGTH);
begin -- If length of L or R < 1 return a null array.
if ((L'LENGTH < 1) or (R'LENGTH < 1)) then return NAU; end if;
return ADD_UNSIGNED(RESIZE(L, SIZE), RESIZE(R, SIZE), '0');end "+";
end Part_NUMERIC_BIT;

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function TO_INTEGER (ARG : UNSIGNED) return NATURAL;

function TO_INTEGER (ARG : SIGNED) return INTEGER;
function TO_UNSIGNED (ARG, SIZE : NATURAL)return UNSIGNED;
function TO_SIGNED (ARG : INTEGER; SIZE : NATURAL)return SIGNED;
function RESIZE (ARG : SIGNED; NEW_SIZE : NATURAL)return SIGNED;
function RESIZE (ARG : UNSIGNED; NEW_SIZE : NATURAL)return UNSIGNED;
-- set XMAP to convert unknown values, default is 'X'->'0'
function TO_01(S : UNSIGNED; XMAP : STD_LOGIC := '0')return
UNSIGNED;
function TO_01(S : SIGNED; XMAP : STD_LOGIC := '0')return SIGNED;

library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all;

package Part_NUMERIC_STD is
type UNSIGNED is array (NATURAL range <>) of STD_LOGIC;
type SIGNED is array (NATURAL range <>) of STD_LOGIC;
end Part_NUMERIC_STD;

-- function STD_MATCH (L, R: T) return BOOLEAN;

-- T = STD_ULOGIC UNSIGNED SIGNED STD_LOGIC_VECTOR STD_ULOGIC_VECTOR

type BOOLEAN_TABLE is array(STD_ULOGIC, STD_ULOGIC) of BOOLEAN;

constant MATCH_TABLE : BOOLEAN_TABLE := (
---------------------------------------------------------------------- U
X
0
1
Z
W
L
H
--------------------------------------------------------------------(FALSE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE, TRUE), -- | U |
(FALSE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE, TRUE), -- | X |
(FALSE,FALSE, TRUE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE, TRUE,FALSE, TRUE), -- | 0 |
(FALSE,FALSE,FALSE, TRUE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE, TRUE, TRUE), -- | 1 |
(FALSE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE, TRUE), -- | Z |
(FALSE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE, TRUE), -- | W |
(FALSE,FALSE, TRUE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE, TRUE,FALSE, TRUE), -- | L |
(FALSE,FALSE,FALSE, TRUE,FALSE,FALSE,FALSE, TRUE, TRUE), -- | H |
( TRUE, TRUE, TRUE, TRUE, TRUE, TRUE, TRUE, TRUE, TRUE));-- | - |

IM_TRUE = STD_MATCH(STD_LOGIC_VECTOR ("10HLXWZ-"),

STD_LOGIC_VECTOR
("HL10----")) -- is TRUE

entity Counter_1 is end;

library STD; use STD.TEXTIO.all;

--1
--2

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.12 Arithmetic

library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all;

use work.NUMERIC_STD.all;
architecture Behave_2 of Counter_1 is
signal Clock : STD_LOGIC := '0';
signal Count : UNSIGNED (2 downto 0) := "000";
begin
process begin
wait for 10 ns; Clock <= not Clock;
if (now > 340 ns) then wait;
end if;
end process;
process begin
wait until (Clock = '0');
if (Count = 7)
then Count <= "000";
else Count <= Count + 1;
end if;
end process;
process (Count) variable L: LINE; begin write(L, now);
write(L, STRING'(" Count=")); write(L, TO_INTEGER(Count));
writeline(output, L);
end process;
end;

53

--3
--4
--5
--6
--7
--8
--9
--10
--11
--12
--13
--14
--15
--16
--17
--18
--19
--20
--21
--22
--23
--24
--25

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10.13 Concurrent Statements

concurrent_statement ::=
block_statement
| process_statement
| [ label : ] [ postponed ] procedure_call ;
| [ label : ] [ postponed ] assertion ;
| [ label : ] [ postponed ] conditional_signal_assignment
| [ label : ] [ postponed ] selected_signal_assignment
| component_instantiation_statement
| generate_statement

10.13.1 Block Statement

Key terms and concepts: guard expression GUARD guarded signals (register and bus)
driver disconnected disconnect statement

block_statement ::=
block_label: block [(guard_expression)] [is]
[generic (generic_interface_list);
[generic map (generic_association_list);]]
[port (port_interface_list);
[port map (port_association_list);]]
{block_declarative_item}
begin
{concurrent_statement}
end block [block_label] ;

library ieee; use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;

entity bus_drivers is end;

architecture Structure_1 of bus_drivers is

signal TSTATE: STD_LOGIC bus; signal A, B, OEA, OEB : STD_LOGIC:=
'0';
begin
process begin OEA <= '1' after 100 ns, '0' after 200 ns;
OEB <= '1' after 300 ns; wait; end process;
B1 : block (OEA = '1')
disconnect all : STD_LOGIC after 5 ns; -- Only needed for float time.

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.13 Concurrent Statements

55

begin TSTATE <= guarded not A after 3 ns; end block;

B2 : block (OEB = '1')
disconnect all : STD_LOGIC after 5 ns; -- Float time = 5 ns.
begin TSTATE <= guarded not B after 3 ns; end block;
end;

architecture Structure_2 of bus_drivers is

signal TSTATE : STD_LOGIC; signal A, B, OEA, OEB : STD_LOGIC := '0';
begin
process begin
OEA <= '1' after 100 ns, '0' after 200 ns; OEB <= '1' after 300 ns;
wait; end process;
process(OEA, OEB, A, B) begin
if
(OEA = '1') then TSTATE <= not A after 3 ns;
elsif (OEB = '1') then TSTATE <= not B after 3 ns;
else TSTATE <= 'Z' after 5 ns;
end if;
end process;
end;

10.13.2 Process Statement

Key terms and concepts: process sensitivity set process execution occurs during a
simulation cyclemade up of delta cycles

process_statement ::=
[process_label:]
[postponed] process [(signal_name {, signal_name})]
[is] {subprogram_declaration | subprogram_body
| type_declaration
| subtype_declaration
| constant_declaration
| variable_declaration
| file_declaration
| alias_declaration
| attribute_declaration | attribute_specification
| use_clause
| group_declaration | group_template_declaration}
begin
{sequential_statement}
end [postponed] process [process_label];

56

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ASICS... THE COURSE

entity Mux_1 is port (i0, i1, sel : in BIT := '0'; y : out BIT); end;
architecture Behave of Mux_1 is
begin process (i0, i1, sel) begin -- i0, i1, sel = sensitivity set
case sel is when '0' => y <= i0; when '1' => y <= i1; end case;
end process; end;

entity And_1 is port (a, b : in BIT := '0'; y : out BIT); end;

architecture Behave of And_1 is
begin process (a, b) begin y <= a and b; end process; end;

entity FF_1 is port (clk, d: in BIT := '0'; q : out BIT); end;

architecture Behave of FF_1 is
begin process (clk) begin
if clk'EVENT and clk = '1' then q <= d; end if;
end process; end;

entity FF_2 is port (clk, d: in BIT := '0'; q : out BIT); end;

architecture Behave of FF_2 is
begin process begin -- The equivalent process has a wait at the end:
if clk'event and clk = '1' then q <= d; end if; wait on clk;
end process; end;

entity FF_3 is port (clk, d: in BIT := '0'; q : out BIT); end;

architecture Behave of FF_3 is
begin process begin -- No sensitivity set with a wait statement.
wait until clk = '1'; q <= d;
end process; end;

10.13.3 Concurrent Procedure Call

package And_Pkg is procedure V_And(a,b:BIT; signal c:out BIT); end;

package body And_Pkg is procedure V_And(a,b:BIT; signal c:out BIT) is

begin c <= a and b; end; end And_Pkg;

use work.And_Pkg.all; entity Proc_Call_2 is end;

architecture Behave of Proc_Call_2 is signal A, B, Y : BIT := '0';

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10.13 Concurrent Statements

57

begin V_And (A, B, Y); -- Concurrent procedure call.

process begin wait; end process; -- Extra process to stop.
end;

10.13.4 Concurrent Signal Assignment

Key terms and concepts:
There are two forms of concurrent signal assignment statement:
A selected signal assignment statement is equivalent to a case statement inside a
process statement [VHDL LRM9.5.2].
A conditional signal assignment statement is, in its most general form, equivalent to an if
statement inside a process statement [VHDL LRM9.5.1].

selected_signal_assignment ::=
with expression select
name|aggregate <= [guarded]
[transport|[reject time_expression] inertial]
waveform when choice {| choice}
{, waveform when choice {| choice} } ;

entity Selected_1 is end; architecture Behave of Selected_1 is

signal y,i1,i2 : INTEGER; signal sel : INTEGER range 0 to 1;
begin with sel select y <= i1 when 0, i2 when 1; end;

entity Selected_2 is end; architecture Behave of Selected_2 is

signal i1,i2,y : INTEGER; signal sel : INTEGER range 0 to 1;
begin process begin
case sel is when 0 => y <= i1; when 1 => y <= i2; end case;
wait on i1, i2;
end process; end;

conditional_signal_assignment ::=
name|aggregate <= [guarded]
[transport|[reject time_expression] inertial]
{waveform when boolean_expression else}
waveform [when boolean_expression];

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entity Conditional_1 is end; architecture Behave of Conditional_1 is

signal y,i,j : INTEGER; signal clk : BIT;
begin y <= i when clk = '1' else j; -- conditional signal assignment
end;

entity Conditional_2 is end; architecture Behave of Conditional_2 is

signal y,i : INTEGER; signal clk : BIT;
begin process begin
if clk = '1' then y <= i; else y <= y ; end if; wait on clk;
end process; end;

A concurrent signal assignment statement can look like a sequential signal assignment
statement:

entity Assign_1 is end; architecture Behave of Assign_1 is

signal Target, Source : INTEGER;
begin Target <= Source after 1 ns; -- looks like signal assignment
end;

Here is the equivalent process:

entity Assign_2 is end; architecture Behave of Assign_2 is

signal Target, Source : INTEGER;
begin process begin
Target <= Source after 1 ns; wait on Source;
end process; end;

entity Assign_3 is end; architecture Behave of Assign_3 is

signal Target, Source : INTEGER; begin process begin
wait on Source; Target <= Source after 1 ns;
end process; end;

10.13.5 Concurrent Assertion Statement

A concurrent assertion statement is equivalent to a passive process statement (without
a sensitivity list) that contains an assertion statement followed by a wait statement.

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.13 Concurrent Statements

59

concurrent_assertion_statement
::= [ label : ] [ postponed ] assertion ;

If the assertion condition contains a signal, then the equivalent process statement will
include a final wait statement with a sensitivity clause.
A concurrent assertion statement with a condition that is static expression is equivalent to a
process statement that ends in a wait statement that has no sensitivity clause.
The equivalent process will execute once, at the beginning of simulation, and then wait
indefinitely.
10.13.6 Component Instantiation
component_instantiation_statement ::=
instantiation_label:
[component] component_name
|entity entity_name [(architecture_identifier)]
|configuration configuration_name
[generic map (generic_association_list)]
[port map (port_association_list)] ;

entity And_2
architecture
entity Xor_2
architecture

is port (i1, i2
Behave of And_2
is port (i1, i2
Behave of Xor_2

: in BIT; y :
is begin y <=
: in BIT; y :
is begin y <=

out BIT); end;

i1 and i2; end;
out BIT); end;
i1 xor i2; end;

entity Half_Adder_2 is port (a,b : BIT := '0'; sum, cry : out BIT);
end;
architecture Netlist_2 of Half_Adder_2 is
use work.all; -- need this to see the entities Xor_2 and And_2
begin
X1 : entity Xor_2(Behave) port map (a, b, sum); -- VHDL-93 only
A1 : entity And_2(Behave) port map (a, b, cry); -- VHDL-93 only
end;

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10.13.7 Generate Statement

generate_statement ::=
generate_label: for generate_parameter_specification
|if boolean_expression
generate [{block_declarative_item} begin]
{concurrent_statement}
end generate [generate_label] ;

entity Full_Adder is port (X, Y, Cin : BIT; Cout, Sum: out BIT); end;
architecture Behave of Full_Adder is begin Sum <= X xor Y xor Cin;
Cout <= (X and Y) or (X and Cin) or (Y and Cin); end;

entity Adder_1 is
port (A, B : in BIT_VECTOR (7 downto 0) := (others => '0');
Cin : in BIT := '0'; Sum : out BIT_VECTOR (7 downto 0);
Cout : out BIT);
end;

architecture Structure of Adder_1 is use work.all;

component Full_Adder port (X, Y, Cin: BIT; Cout, Sum: out BIT);
end component;
signal C : BIT_VECTOR(7 downto 0);
begin AllBits : for i in 7 downto 0 generate
LowBit : if i = 0 generate
FA : Full_Adder port map (A(0), B(0), Cin, C(0), Sum(0));
end generate;
OtherBits : if i /= 0 generate
FA : Full_Adder port map (A(i), B(i), C(i-1), C(i), Sum(i));
end generate;
end generate;
Cout <= C(7);
end;

For i=6, FA'INSTANCE_NAMEis

:adder_1(structure):allbits(6):otherbits:fa:

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.14 Execution

61

10.14 Execution
Key terms and concepts: sequential execution concurrent execution difference between
update for signals and variables
Variables and signals in VHDL
Variables

Signals

entity Execute_1 is end;

architecture Behave of Execute_1 is
begin
process
variable v1 : INTEGER := 1;
variable v2 : INTEGER := 2;
begin
v1 := v2; -- before: v1 = 1, v2 =
2
v2 := v1; -- after: v1 = 2, v2
= 2
wait;
end process;
end;

entity Execute_2 is end;

architecture Behave of Execute_2 is
signal s1 : INTEGER := 1;
signal s2 : INTEGER := 2;
begin
process
begin
s1 <= s2; -- before: s1 = 1, s2 =
2
s2 <= s1; -- after: s1 = 2, s2 =
1
wait;
end process;
end;

Concurrent and sequential statements in VHDL

Concurrent [VHDL LRM9]
block

Sequential [VHDL LRM8]

case

wait

process

assertion

loop

concurrent_procedure_call

signal_assignment

next

concurrent_assertion

variable_assignment

exit

concurrent_signal_assignment

procedure_call

return

component_instantiation

if

null

generate

entity Sequential_1 is end; architecture Behave of Sequential_1 is

signal s1, s2 : INTEGER := 0;
begin
process begin
s1 <= 1;
-- sequential signal assignment 1
s2 <= s1 + 1; -- sequential signal assignment 2
wait on s1, s2 ;

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end process;
end;

entity
signal
L1 :
L2 :
end;

Concurrent_1 is end; architecture Behave of Concurrent_1 is

s1, s2 : INTEGER := 0; begin
s1 <= 1;
-- concurrent signal assignment 1
s2 <= s1 + 1; -- concurrent signal assignment 2

entity
signal
P1 :
P2 :
end;

Concurrent_2 is end; architecture Behave of Concurrent_2 is

s1, s2 : INTEGER := 0; begin
process begin s1 <= 1;
wait on s2 ; end process;
process begin s2 <= s1 + 1; wait on s1 ; end process;

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.15 Configurations and Specifications

63

10.15 Configurations and Specifications

Key terms and concepts:
A configuration declaration defines a configurationit is a library unit and is one of the basic
units of VHDL code.
A block configuration defines the configuration of a block statement or a design entity. A
block configuration appears inside a configuration declaration, a component configuration, or
nested in another block configuration.
A configuration specification may appear in the declarative region of a generate statement,
block statement, or architecture body.
A component declaration may appear in the declarative region of a generate statement, block
statement, architecture body, or package.
A component configuration defines the configuration of a component and appears in a block

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configuration.
VHDL binding examples
entity AD2 is port (A1, A2: in
architecture B of AD2 is begin
entity XR2 is port (X1, X2: in
architecture B of XR2 is begin

component
declaration
configuration
specification
configuration
declaration
block
configuration
component
configuration

BIT;
Y <=
BIT;
Y <=

Y:
A1
Y:
X1

out
and
out
xor

BIT); end;
A2; end;
BIT); end;
X2; end;

entity Half_Adder is port (X, Y: BIT; Sum, Cout: out BIT);

end;
architecture Netlist of Half_Adder is use work.all;
component MX port (A, B: BIT; Z :out BIT);end component;
component MA port (A, B: BIT; Z :out BIT);end component;
for G1:MX use entity XR2(B) port map(X1 => A,X2 => B,Y =>
Z);
begin
G1:MX port map(X, Y, Sum); G2:MA port map(X, Y, Cout);
end;

configuration C1 of Half_Adder is
use work.all;
for Netlist
for G2:MA
use entity AD2(B) port map(A1 => A,A2 => B,Y => Z);
end for;
end for;
end;

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.15 Configurations and Specifications

VHDL binding
configuration
declaration
block
configuration

configuration
specification

component
declaration
component
configuration

configuration identifier of entity_name is

{use_clause|attribute_specification|group_declaration}
block_configuration
end [configuration] [configuration_identifier];
for architecture_name
|block_statement_label
|generate_statement_label [(index_specification)]
{use selected_name {, selected_name};}
{block_configuration|component_configuration}
end for ;
for
instantiation_label{,instantiation_label}:component_name
|others:component_name
|all:component_name
[use
entity entity_name [(architecture_identifier)]
|configuration configuration_name
|open]
[generic map (generic_association_list)]
[port map (port_association_list)];
component identifier [is]
[generic (local_generic_interface_list);]
[port (local_port_interface_list);]
end component [component_identifier];
for
instantiation_label {, instantiation_label}:component_name
|others:component_name
|all:component_name
[[use
entity entity_name [(architecture_identifier)]
|configuration configuration_name
|open]
[generic map (generic_association_list)]
[port map (port_association_list)];]
[block_configuration]
end for;

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10.16 An Engine Controller

A temperature converter
library IEEE;
use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all; -- type STD_LOGIC,
rising_edge
use IEEE.NUMERIC_STD.all ; -- type UNSIGNED, "+", "/"
entity tconv is generic TPD : TIME:= 1 ns;
port (T_in : in UNSIGNED(11 downto 0);
clk, rst : in STD_LOGIC; T_out : out UNSIGNED(11
downto 0));
end;
architecture rtl of tconv is
signal T : UNSIGNED(7 downto 0);
constant T2 : UNSIGNED(1 downto 0) := "10" ;
constant T4 : UNSIGNED(2 downto 0) := "100" ;
constant T32 : UNSIGNED(5 downto 0) := "100000" ;
begin
process(T) begin T_out <= T + T/T2 + T/T4 + T32 after
TPD;
end process;
end rtl;

T_in = temperature in C
T_out = temperature in F
The conversion formula
from Centigrade to Fahrenheit is:
T(F) = (9/5)T(C)+ 32

This converter uses the

approximation:
9/5 1.75=1+0.5+0.25

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10.16 An Engine Controller

67

A digital filter
library IEEE;
use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all; -- STD_LOGIC type,
rising_edge
use IEEE.NUMERIC_STD.all; -- UNSIGNED type, "+" and "/"
entity filter is
generic TPD : TIME := 1 ns;
port (T_in : in UNSIGNED(11 downto 0);
rst, clk : in STD_LOGIC;
T_out: out UNSIGNED(11 downto 0));
end;
architecture rtl of filter is
type arr is array (0 to 3) of UNSIGNED(11 downto 0);
signal i : arr ;
constant T4 : UNSIGNED(2 downto 0) := "100";
begin
process(rst, clk) begin
if (rst = '1') then
for n in 0 to 3 loop i(n) <= (others =>'0') after
TPD;
end loop;
else
if(rising_edge(clk)) then
i(0) <= T_in after TPD;i(1) <= i(0) after TPD;
i(2) <= i(1) after TPD;i(3) <= i(2) after TPD;
end if;
end if;
end process;
process(i) begin
T_out <= ( i(0) + i(1) + i(2) + i(3) )/T4 after
TPD;
end process;
end rtl;

The filter computes a moving average over four successive samples in time.

Notice
i(0) i(1) i(2) i(3)
are each 12 bits wide.

Then the sum

i(0) + i(1) + i(2) + i(3)
is 14 bits wide, and the
average

( i(0) + i(1) + i(2) + i(3) )/T4

is 12 bits wide.

All delays are generic TPD.

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The input register

library IEEE;
use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all; -- type STD_LOGIC, rising_edge
use IEEE.NUMERIC_STD.all ; -- type UNSIGNED
entity register_in is
generic ( TPD : TIME := 1 ns);
port (T_in : in UNSIGNED(11 downto 0);
clk, rst : in STD_LOGIC; T_out : out UNSIGNED(11 downto 0));
end;
architecture rtl of register_in is
begin
process(clk, rst) begin
if (rst = '1') then T_out <= (others => '0') after TPD;
else
if (rising_edge(clk)) then T_out <= T_in after TPD; end
if;
end if;
end process;
end rtl ;

12-bit-wide register for

the temperature input
signals.

If the input is asynchronous (from an A/D

converter with a separate clock, for example),
we would need to worry
about metastability.

All delays are generic

TPD.

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.16 An Engine Controller

69

A first-in, first-out stack (FIFO)

library IEEE; use IEEE.NUMERIC_STD.all ; -- UNSIGNED type
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all; -- STD_LOGIC type, rising_edge
entity fifo is
generic (width : INTEGER := 12; depth : INTEGER := 16);
port (clk, rst, push, pop : STD_LOGIC;
Di : in UNSIGNED (width-1 downto 0);
Do : out UNSIGNED (width-1 downto 0);
empty, full : out STD_LOGIC);
end fifo;
architecture rtl of fifo is
subtype ptype is INTEGER range 0 to (depth-1);
signal diff, Ai, Ao : ptype; signal f, e : STD_LOGIC;
type a is array (ptype) of UNSIGNED(width-1 downto 0);
signal mem : a ;
function bump(signal ptr : INTEGER range 0 to (depth-1))
return INTEGER is begin
if (ptr = (depth-1)) then return 0;
else return (ptr + 1);
end if;
end;
begin
process(f,e) begin full <= f ; empty <= e; end process;
process(diff) begin
if (diff = depth -1) then f <= '1'; else f <= '0'; end if;
if (diff = 0) then e <= '1'; else e <= '0'; end if;
end process;
process(clk, Ai, Ao, Di, mem, push, pop, e, f) begin
if(rising_edge(clk)) then
if(push='0')and(pop='1')and(e = '0') then Do <= mem(Ao);
end if;
if(push='1')and(pop='0')and(f = '0') then mem(Ai) <= Di;
end if;
end if ;
end process;
process(rst, clk) begin
if(rst = '1') then Ai <= 0; Ao <= 0; diff <= 0;
else if(rising_edge(clk)) then
if (push = '1') and (f = '0') and (pop = '0') then
Ai <= bump(Ai); diff <= diff + 1;
elsif (pop = '1') and (e = '0') and (push = '0') then
Ao <= bump(Ao); diff <= diff - 1;
end if;
end if;
end if;
end process;
end;

FIFO (first-in, first-out)

register

Reads (pop = 1) and

writes (push = 1) are
synchronous to the rising edge of the clock.
Read and write should
not occur at the same
time. The width (number of bits in each
word) and depth (number of words) are
generics.

External signals:
clk, clock
rst, reset active-high
push, write to FIFO
pop, read from FIFO
Di, data in
Do, data out
empty, FIFO flag
full, FIFO flag

Internal signals:
diff, difference
pointer
Ai, input address
Ao, output address
f, full flag
e, empty flag

No delays in this
model.

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A FIFO controller
library IEEE;use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all;use
IEEE.NUMERIC_STD.all;
entity fifo_control is generic TPD : TIME := 1 ns;
port(D_1, D_2 : in UNSIGNED(11 downto 0);
sel : in UNSIGNED(1 downto 0) ;
read , f1, f2, e1, e2 : in STD_LOGIC;
r1, r2, w12 : out STD_LOGIC; D : out UNSIGNED(11 downto
0)) ;
end;
architecture rtl of fifo_control is
begin process
(read, sel, D_1, D_2, f1, f2, e1, e2)
begin
r1 <= '0' after TPD; r2 <= '0' after TPD;
if (read = '1') then
w12 <= '0' after TPD;
case sel is
when "01" => D <= D_1 after TPD; r1 <= '1' after TPD;
when "10" => D <= D_2 after TPD; r2 <= '1' after TPD;
when "00" => D(3) <= f1 after TPD; D(2) <= f2 after
TPD;
D(1) <= e1 after TPD; D(0) <= e2 after
TPD;
when others => D <= "ZZZZZZZZZZZZ" after TPD;
end case;
elsif (read = '0') then
D <= "ZZZZZZZZZZZZ" after TPD; w12 <= '1' after TPD;
else D <= "ZZZZZZZZZZZZ" after TPD;
end if;
end process;
end rtl;

This handles the reading and writing to the

FIFOs under control of
the processor (mpu).
The mpu can ask for
data from either FIFO
or for status flags to be
placed on the bus.

Inputs:
D_1
data in from FIFO1
D_2
data in from FIFO2
sel
FIFO select from mpu
read
FIFO read from mpu
f1,f2,e1,e2
flags from FIFOs

Outputs:
r1, r2
read enables for FIFOs
w12
write enable for FIFOs
D
data out to mpu bus

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.16 An Engine Controller

Top level of temperature controller

library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all; use IEEE.NUMERIC_STD.all;
entity T_Control is port (T_in1, T_in2 : in UNSIGNED (11 downto 0);
sensor: in UNSIGNED(1 downto 0);
clk, RD, rst : in STD_LOGIC; D : out UNSIGNED(11 downto 0));
end;
architecture structure of T_Control is use work.TC_Components.all;
signal F, E : UNSIGNED (2 downto 1);
signal T_out1, T_out2, R_out1, R_out2, F1, F2, FIFO1, FIFO2 : UNSIGNED(11 downto
0);
signal RD1, RD2, WR: STD_LOGIC ;
begin
RG1 : register_in generic map (1ns) port map (T_in1,clk,rst,R_out1);
RG2 : register_in generic map (1ns) port map (T_in2,clk,rst,R_out2);
TC1 : tconv generic map (1ns) port map (R_out1, T_out1);
TC2 : tconv generic map (1ns) port map (R_out2, T_out2);
TF1 : filter generic map (1ns) port map (T_out1, rst, clk, F1);
TF2 : filter generic map (1ns) port map (T_out2, rst, clk, F2);
FI1 : fifo generic map (12,16) port map (clk, rst, WR, RD1, F1, FIFO1, E(1),
F(1));
FI2 : fifo generic map (12,16) port map (clk, rst, WR, RD2, F2, FIFO2, E(2),
F(2));
FC1 : fifo_control port map
(FIFO1, FIFO2, sensor, RD, F(1), F(2), E(1), E(2), RD1, RD2, WR, D);
end structure;

package TC_Components is
component register_in generic (TPD : TIME := 1 ns);
port (T_in : in UNSIGNED(11 downto 0);
clk, rst : in STD_LOGIC; T_out : out UNSIGNED(11 downto 0));
end component;

component tconv generic (TPD : TIME := 1 ns);

port (T_in : in UNSIGNED (7 downto 0);
clk, rst : in STD_LOGIC; T_out : out UNSIGNED(7 downto 0));
end component;

component filter generic (TPD : TIME := 1 ns);

port (T_in : in UNSIGNED (7 downto 0);
rst, clk : in STD_LOGIC; T_out : out UNSIGNED(7 downto 0));
end component;

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component fifo generic (width:INTEGER := 12; depth : INTEGER := 16);

port (clk, rst, push, pop : STD_LOGIC;
Di : UNSIGNED (width-1 downto 0);
Do : out UNSIGNED (width-1 downto 0);
empty, full : out STD_LOGIC);
end component;

component fifo_control generic (TPD:TIME := 1 ns);

port (D_1, D_2 : in UNSIGNED(7 downto 0);
select : in UNSIGNED(1 downto 0); read, f1, f2, e1, e2 : in
STD_LOGIC;
r1, r2, w12 : out STD_LOGIC; D : out UNSIGNED(7 downto 0)) ;
end component;
end;

library IEEE;
use IEEE.std_logic_1164.all; -- type STD_LOGIC
use IEEE.numeric_std.all; -- type UNSIGNED
entity test_TC is end;

architecture testbench of test_TC is

component T_Control port (T_1, T_2 : in UNSIGNED(11 downto 0);
clk : in STD_LOGIC; sensor: in UNSIGNED( 1 downto 0) ;
read : in STD_LOGIC; rst : in STD_LOGIC;
D :
out UNSIGNED(7 downto 0)); end component;
signal T_1, T_2 : UNSIGNED(11 downto 0);
signal clk, read, rst : STD_LOGIC;
signal sensor : UNSIGNED(1 downto 0);
signal D : UNSIGNED(7 downto 0);
begin TT1 : T_Control port map (T_1, T_2, clk, sensor, read, rst, D);
process begin
rst <= '0'; clk <= '0';
wait for 5 ns; rst <= '1'; wait for 5 ns; rst <= '0';
T_in1 <= "000000000011"; T_in2 <= "000000000111"; read <= '0';
for i in 0 to 15 loop -- fill the FIFOs
clk <= '0'; wait for 5ns; clk <= '1'; wait for 5 ns;
end loop;
assert (false) report "FIFOs full" severity NOTE;
clk <= '0'; wait for 5ns; clk <= '1'; wait for 5 ns;
read <= '1'; sensor <= "01";
for i in 0 to 15 loop -- empty the FIFOs
clk <= '0'; wait for 5ns; clk <= '1'; wait for 5 ns;

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.16 An Engine Controller

end loop;
assert (false) report "FIFOs empty" severity NOTE;
clk <= '0'; wait for 5ns; clk <= '1'; wait;
end process;
end;

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10.17 Summary
Key terms and concepts:
The use of an entity and an architecture
The use of a configuration to bind entities and their architectures
The compile, elaboration, initialization, and simulation steps
Types, subtypes, and their use in expressions
The logic systems based on BIT and Std_Logic_1164 types
The use of the IEEE synthesis packages for BIT arithmetic
Ports and port modes
Initial values and the difference between simulation and hardware
The difference between a signal and a variable
The different assignment statements and the timing of updates
The process and wait statements

ASICS... THE COURSE

ASICs... THE COURSE

10.17 Summary

75

VHDL summary
VHDL feature
Comments
Literals (fixed-value items)

Example
-- this is a comment

93LRM
13.8

12
1.0E6
'1'
"110"
'Z'
2#1111_1111#
"Hello world"
STRING'("110")

13.4

Identifiers (case-insensitive, start

with letter)
Several basic units of code
Connections made through ports
Default expression

a_good_name
2_Bad
bad_

13.3

No built-in logic-value system. BIT

and BIT_VECTOR (STD).
Arrays
Two basic types of logic signals

type BIT is ('0', '1'); -- predefined

signal myArray: BIT_VECTOR (7 downto 0);

Types and explicit initial/default

value
Implicit initial/default value
Predefined attributes
Sequential statements inside processes model things that happen
one after another and repeat

entity

Same
_bad

same
very__bad

architecture

configuration

port (signal in i : BIT; out o : BIT);

port (i : BIT := '1');
-- i='1' if left open

myArray(1 downto 0) <= ('0', '1');

a signal corresponds to a real wire
a variable is a memory location in RAM
signal ONE : BIT := '1' ;
BIT'LEFT = '0'
clk'EVENT, clk'STABLE
process begin
wait until alarm = ring;
eat; work; sleep;
end process;

1.11.3
4.3
4.3
14.2
3.2.1
4.3.1.2
4.3.1.3
4.3.2
4.3.2
14.1
8

Timing with wait statement

wait for 1 ns; -- not wait 1 ns

wait on light until light = green;

8.1

Update to signals occurs at the end

of a simulation cycle
Update to variables is immediate
Processes and concurrent statements model things that happen at
the same time
IEEE Std_Logic_1164 (defines
logic operators on 1164 types)

signal <= 1; -- delta time delay

signal <= variable1 after 2 ns;

8.3

variable := 1; -- immediate update

8.4

IEEE Numeric_Bit and

Numeric_Std (defines arithmetic
operators on BIT and 1164 types)

process begin
process begin
process begin

rain; end process;

sing; end process;
dance; end process;

9.2

STD_ULOGIC, STD_LOGIC,
STD_ULOGIC_VECTOR, STD_LOGIC_VECTOR
type STD_ULOGIC is
('U','X','0','1','Z','W','L','H','-');

UNSIGNED and SIGNED

X <= "10" * "01"
-- OK with numeric pkgs.

76

SECTION 10

VHDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

ASICs...THE COURSE (1 WEEK)

VERILOG HDL

11

Key terms and concepts: syntax and semantics operators hierarchy procedures and assignments timing controls and delay tasks and functions control statements logic-gate modeling
modeling delay altering parameters other Verilog features: PLI
History: Gateway Design Automation developed Verilog as a simulation language Cadence
purchased Gateway in 1989 Open Verilog International (OVI) was created to develop the
Verilog language as an IEEE standard Verilog LRM, IEEE Std 1364-1995 problems with a
normative LRM

11.1 A Counter
Key terms and concepts: Verilog keywords simulation language compilation interpreted,
compiled, and native code simulators
`timescale 1ns/1ns // Set the units of time to be nanoseconds.
//1
module counter;
//2
reg clock; // Declare a reg data type for the clock.
//3
integer count; // Declare an integer data type for the count.
//4
initial // Initialize things; this executes once at t=0.
//5
begin
//6
clock = 0; count = 0; // Initialize signals.
//7
#340 $finish; // Finish after 340 time ticks.
//8
end
//9
/* An always statement to generate the clock; only one statement
follows the always so we don't need a begin and an end. */
//10
always
//11
#10 clock = ~ clock; // Delay (10ns) is set to half the clock
cycle.
//12
/* An always statement to do the counting; this executes at the same
time (concurrently) as the preceding always statement. */
//13
always
//14
begin
//15
1

SECTION 11

VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

// Wait here until the clock goes from 1 to 0.

@ (negedge clock);
// Now handle the counting.
if (count == 7)
count = 0;
else
count = count + 1;
$display("time = ",$time," count = ", count);
end
endmodule

//16
//17
//18
//19
//20
//21
//22
//23
//24
//25

11.2 Basics of the Verilog Language

Key terms and concepts: identifier Verilog is case-sensitive system tasks and functions
begin with a dollar sign '$'
identifier ::= simple_identifier | escaped_identifier
simple_identifier ::= [a-zA-Z][a-zA-Z_$]

escaped_identifier ::=
\ {Any_ASCII_character_except_white_space} white_space
white_space ::= space | tab | newline

module identifiers;
/* Multiline comments in Verilog
look like C comments and // is OK in here. */
// Single-line comment in Verilog.
reg legal_identifier,two__underscores;
reg _OK,OK_,OK_$,OK_123,CASE_SENSITIVE, case_sensitive;
reg \/clock ,\a*b ; // Add white_space after escaped identifier.
//reg $_BAD,123_BAD; // Bad names even if we declare them!
initial begin
legal_identifier = 0; // Embedded underscores are OK,
two__underscores = 0; // even two underscores in a row.
_OK = 0; // Identifiers can start with underscore
OK_ = 0; // and end with underscore.
OK$ = 0; // $ sign is OK, but beware foreign keyboards.
OK_123 =0; // Embedded digits are OK.
CASE_SENSITIVE = 0; // Verilog is case-sensitive (unlike VHDL).

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11
//12
//13
//14
//15
//16

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.2 Basics of the Verilog Language

case_sensitive = 1;
\/clock = 0; // An escaped identifier with \ breaks rules,
\a*b = 0; // but be careful to watch the spaces!
$display("Variable CASE_SENSITIVE= %d",CASE_SENSITIVE);
$display("Variable case_sensitive= %d",case_sensitive);
$display("Variable \/clock = %d",\/clock );
$display("Variable \\a*b = %d",\a*b );
end
endmodule

//17
//18
//19
//20
//21
//22
//23
//24
//25

11.2.1 Verilog Logic Values

Key terms and concepts: predefined logic-value system or value set four logic values: '0',
'1', 'x', and 'z' (lowercase) uninitialized or an unknown logic value (either '1', '0', 'z',
or in a state of change) high-impedance value (usually treated as an 'x' value) internal logicvalue system resolves conflicts between drivers on the same node
11.2.2 Verilog Data Types
Key terms and concepts: data types nets wire and tri (identical) supply1 and supply0
(positive and negative power) default initial value for a wire is 'z' integer, time, event, and
real data types register data type (keyword reg) default initial value for a reg is 'x' a reg
is not always equivalent to a register, flip-flop, or latch scalar vector range access (or
expand) bits in a vector using a bit-select, or as a contiguous subgroup of bits using a partselect no multidimensional arrays memory data type is an array of registers integer arrays
time arrays no real arrays
module declarations_1;
wire pwr_good, pwr_on, pwr_stable; // Explicitly declare wires.
integer i; // 32-bit, signed (2's complement).
time t; // 64-bit, unsigned, behaves like a 64-bit reg.
event e; // Declare an event data type.
real r; // Real data type of implementation defined size.
// An assign statement continuously drives a wire:
assign pwr_stable = 1'b1; assign pwr_on = 1; // 1 or 1'b1
assign pwr_good = pwr_on & pwr_stable;
initial begin
i = 123.456;
// There must be a digit on either side
r = 123456e-3; // of the decimal point if it is present.
t = 123456e-3; // Time is rounded to 1 second by default.

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11
//12
//13

SECTION 11

VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

$display("i=%0g",i," t=%6.2f",t," r=%f",r);

#2 $display("TIME=%0d",$time," ON=",pwr_on,
" STABLE=",pwr_stable," GOOD=",pwr_good);
$finish; end
endmodule

//14
//15
//16
//17
//18

module declarations_2;
reg Q, Clk; wire D;
// Drive the wire (D):
assign D = 1;
// At a +ve clock edge assign the value of wire D to the reg Q:
always @(posedge Clk) Q = D;
initial Clk = 0; always #10 Clk = ~ Clk;
initial begin #50; $finish; end
always begin
$display("T=%2g", $time," D=",D," Clk=",Clk," Q=",Q); #10;end
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11

module declarations_3;
reg a,b,c,d,e;
initial begin
#10; a = 0;b = 0;c = 0;d = 0; #10; a = 0;b = 1;c = 1;d = 0;
#10; a = 0;b = 0;c = 1;d = 1; #10; $stop;
end
always begin
@(a or b or c or d) e = (a|b)&(c|d);
$display("T=%0g",$time," e=",e);
end
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11

module declarations_4;
wire Data; // A scalar net of type wire.
wire [31:0] ABus, DBus; // Two 32-bit-wide vector wires:
// DBus[31] = leftmost = most-significant bit = msb
// DBus[0] = rightmost = least-significant bit = lsb
// Notice the size declaration precedes the names.
// wire [31:0] TheBus, [15:0] BigBus; // This is illegal.
reg [3:0] vector; // A 4-bit vector register.
reg [4:7] nibble; // msb index < lsb index is OK.
integer i;
initial begin
i = 1;
vector = 'b1010; // Vector without an index.
nibble = vector; // This is OK too.

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11
//12
//13
//14

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.2 Basics of the Verilog Language

#1; $display("T=%0g",$time," vector=", vector," nibble=", nibble);//15

#2; $display("T=%0g",$time," Bus=%b",DBus[15:0]);
//16
end
//17
assign DBus [1] = 1; // This is a bit-select.
//18
assign DBus [3:0] = 'b1111; // This is a part-select.
//19
// assign DBus [0:3] = 'b1111; // Illegal : wrong direction.
//20
endmodule
//21
module declarations_5;
//1
reg [31:0] VideoRam [7:0]; // An 8-word by 32-bit wide memory.
//2
initial begin
//3
VideoRam[1] = 'bxz; // We must specify an index for a memory.
//4
VideoRam[2] = 1;
//5
VideoRam[7] = VideoRam[VideoRam[2]]; // Need 2 clock cycles for this.
//6
VideoRam[8] = 1; // Careful! the compiler won't complain about this!
//7
// Verify what we entered:
//8
$display("VideoRam[0] is %b",VideoRam[0]);
//9
$display("VideoRam[1] is %b",VideoRam[1]);
//10
$display("VideoRam[2] is %b",VideoRam[2]);
//11
$display("VideoRam[7] is %b",VideoRam[7]);
//12
end
//13
endmodule
//14
module declarations_6;
integer Number [1:100]; // Notice that size follows name
time Time_Log [1:1000]; // - as in an array of reg.
// real Illegal [1:10]; // Illegal. There are no real arrays.
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5

11.2.3 Other Wire Types

Key terms and concepts: wand, wor, triand, and trior model wired logic ECL or EPROM,
one area in which the logic values 'z' and 'x' are treated differently tri0 and tri1 model
resistive connections to VSS or VDD trireg is like a wire but associates some capacitance
with the net and models charge storage scalared and vectored are properties of vectors
small, medium, and large model the charge strength of trireg
11.2.4 Numbers
Key terms and concepts: constant numbers are integer or real constants integer constants
are written as width'radix value radix (or base): decimal (d or D), hex (h or H), octal (o
or O), or binary (b or B) sized or unsized (implementation dependent) 1'bx and 1'bz for 'x'

SECTION 11

VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

and 'z' parameter (local scope) real constants 100.0 or 1e2 (IEEE Std 754-1985) reals
round to the nearest integer, ties away from zero
module constants;
//1
parameter H12_UNSIZED = 'h 12; // Unsized hex 12 = decimal 18.
//2
parameter H12_SIZED = 6'h 12; // Sized hex 12 = decimal 18.
//3
// Note: a space between base and value is OK.
//4
// Note: (single apostrophes) are not the same as the ' character.
//5
parameter D42 = 8'B0010_1010; // bin 101010 = dec 42
//6
// OK to use underscores to increase readability.
//7
parameter D123 = 123; // Unsized decimal (the default).
//8
parameter D63 = 8'o 77; // Sized octal, decimal 63.
//9
// parameter ILLEGAL = 1'o9; // No 9's in octal numbers!
//10
// A = 'hx and B = 'ox assume a 32 bit width.
//11
parameter A = 'h x, B = 'o x, C = 8'b x, D = 'h z, E = 16'h ????; //12
// Note the use of ? instead of z, 16'h ???? is the same as 16'h
zzzz.
//13
// Also note the automatic extension to a width of 16 bits.
//14
reg [3:0] B0011,Bxxx1,Bzzz1; real R1,R2,R3; integer I1,I3,I_3;
//15
parameter BXZ = 8'b1x0x1z0z;
//16
initial begin
//17
B0011 = 4'b11; Bxxx1 = 4'bx1; Bzzz1 = 4'bz1;// Left padded.
//18
R1 = 0.1e1; R2 = 2.0; R3 = 30E-01; // Real numbers.
//19
I1 = 1.1; I3 = 2.5; I_3 = -2.5; // IEEE rounds away from 0.
//20
end
//21
initial begin #1;
//22
$display
//23
("H12_UNSIZED, H12_SIZED (hex) = %h, %h",H12_UNSIZED, H12_SIZED); //24
$display("D42 (bin) = %b",D42," (dec) = %d",D42);
//25
$display("D123 (hex) = %h",D123," (dec) = %d",D123);
//26
$display("D63 (oct) = %o",D63);
//27
$display("A (hex) = %h",A," B (hex) = %h",B);
//28
$display("C (hex) = %h",C," D (hex) = %h",D," E (hex) = %h",E);
//29
$display("BXZ (bin) = %b",BXZ," (hex) = %h",BXZ);
//30
$display("B0011, Bxxx1, Bzzz1 (bin) = %b, %b, %b",B0011,Bxxx1,Bzzz1);
//31
$display("R1, R2, R3 (e, f, g) = %e, %f, %g", R1, R2, R3);
//32
$display("I1, I3, I_3 (d) = %d, %d, %d", I1, I3, I_3);
//33
end
//34
endmodule
//35

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.2 Basics of the Verilog Language

11.2.5 Negative Numbers

Key terms and concepts: Integers are signed (twos complement) or unsigned Verilog only
keeps track of the sign of a negative constant if it is (1) assigned to an integer or (2) assigned
to a parameter without using a base (essentially the same thing) in other cases a negative
constant is treated as an unsigned number once Verilog loses a sign, keeping track of signed
numbers is your responsibility
module negative_numbers;
parameter PA = -12, PB = -'d12, PC = -32'd12, PD = -4'd12;
integer IA , IB , IC , ID ; reg [31:0] RA , RB , RC , RD ;
initial begin #1;
IA = -12; IB = -'d12; IC = -32'd12; ID = -4'd12;
RA = -12; RB = -'d12; RC = -32'd12; RD = -4'd12; #1;
$display("
parameter
integer
reg[31:0]");
$display ("-12
=",PA,IA,,,RA);
$displayh("
",,,,PA,,,,IA,,,,,RA);
$display ("-'d12
=",,PB,IB,,,RB);
$displayh("
",,,,PB,,,,IB,,,,,RB);
$display ("-32'd12 =",,PC,IC,,,RC);
$displayh("
",,,,PC,,,,IC,,,,,RC);
$display ("-4'd12 =",,,,,,,,,,PD,ID,,,RD);
$displayh("
",,,,,,,,,,,PD,,,,ID,,,,,RD);
end
endmodule
parameter
-12
fffffff4
-'d12
= 4294967284
fffffff4
-32'd12 = 4294967284
fffffff4
-4'd12 =
4
4
-12

integer
-12
fffffff4
-12
fffffff4
-12
fffffff4
-12
fffffff4

reg[31:0]
4294967284
fffffff4
4294967284
fffffff4
4294967284
fffffff4
4294967284
fffffff4

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11
//12
//13
//14
//15
//16
//17

SECTION 11

VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

11.2.6 Strings
Key terms and concepts: ISO/ANSI defines characters, but not their appearance problem
characters are quotes and accents string constants define directive is a compiler directive
(global scope)
module characters; /*
//1
" is ASCII 34 (hex 22), double quote.
//2
' is ASCII 39 (hex 27), tick or apostrophe.
//3
/ is ASCII 47 (hex 2F), forward slash.
//4
\ is ASCII 92 (hex 5C), back slash.
//5
` is ASCII 96 (hex 60), accent grave.
//6
| is ASCII 124 (hex 7C), vertical bar.
//7
There are no standards for the graphic symbols for codes above 128.//8
is 171 (hex AB), accent acute in almost all fonts.
//9
is 210 (hex D2), open double quote, like 66 (in some fonts).
//10
is 211 (hex D3), close double quote, like 99 (in some fonts).
//11
is 212 (hex D4), open single quote, like 6 (in some fonts).
//12
is 213 (hex D5), close single quote, like 9 (in some fonts).
//13
*/ endmodule
//14
module text;
//1
parameter A_String = "abc"; // string constant, must be on one line//2
parameter Say = "Say \"Hey!\"";
//3
// use escape quote \" for an embedded quote
//4
parameter Tab = "\t";
// tab character
//5
parameter NewLine = "\n"; // newline character
//6
parameter BackSlash = "\\"; // back slash
//7
parameter Tick = "\047"; // ASCII code for tick in octal
//8
// parameter Illegal = "\500"; // illegal - no such ASCII code
//9
initial begin
//10
$display("A_String(str) = %s ",A_String," (hex) = %h ",A_String); //11
$display("Say = %s ",Say," Say \"Hey!\"");
//12
$display("NewLine(str) = %s ",NewLine," (hex) = %h ",NewLine);
//13
$display("\\(str) = %s ",BackSlash," (hex) = %h ",BackSlash);
//14
$display("Tab(str) = %s ",Tab," (hex) = %h ",Tab,"1 newline..."); //15
$display("\n");
//16
$display("Tick(str) = %s ",Tick," (hex) = %h ",Tick);
//17
#1.23; $display("Time is %t", $time);
//18

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.3 Operators

end
endmodule

//19
//20

module define;
//1
`define G_BUSWIDTH 32 // Bus width parameter (G_ for global).
//2
/* Note: there is no semicolon at end of a compiler directive. The
character ` is ASCII 96 (hex 60), accent grave, it slopes down from
left to right. It is not the tick or apostrophe character ' (ASCII 39
or hex 27)*/
//3
wire [`G_BUSWIDTH:0]MyBus; // A 32-bit bus.
//4
endmodule
//5

11.3 Operators
Key terms and concepts: three types of operators: unary, binary, or a single ternary operator
similar to C programming language (but no ++ or --)
Verilog unary operators
Operator
!
~
&
~&
|
~|
^
~^ ^~
+
-

Name
logical negation
bitwise unary negation
unary reduction and
unary reduction nand
unary reduction or
unary reduction nor
unary reduction xor
unary reduction xnor
unary plus
unary minus

Examples
!123 is 'b0 [0, 1, or x for ambiguous; legal for real]
~1'b10xz is 1'b01xx
& 4'b1111 is 1'b1, & 2'bx1 is 1'bx, & 2'bz1 is 1'bx
~& 4'b1111 is 1'b0, ~& 2'bx1 is 1'bx
Note:
Reduction is performed left (first bit) to right
Beware of the non-associative reduction operators
z is treated as x for all unary operators
+2'bxz is +2'bxz [+m is the same as m; legal for real]
-2'bxz is x [-m is unary minus m; legal for real]

module operators;
//1
parameter A10xz = {1'b1,1'b0,1'bx,1'bz}; // Concatenation and
//2
parameter A01010101 = {4{2'b01}}; // replication, illegal for real.//3
// Arithmetic operators: +, -, *, /, and modulus %
//4
parameter A1 = (3+2) %2; // The sign of a % b is the same as sign of
a.
//5
// Logical shift operators: << (left), >> (right)
//6
parameter A2 = 4 >> 1; parameter A4 = 1 << 2; // Note: zero fill. //7

10

SECTION 11

VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

Verilog operators (in increasing order of precedence)

?: (conditional) [legal for real; associates right to left (others associate left to right)]
|| (logical or) [A smaller operand is zero-filled from its msb (0-fill); legal for real]
&& (logical and)[0-fill, legal for real]
| (bitwise or) ~| (bitwise nor) [0-fill]
^ (bitwise xor) ^~ ~^ (bitwise xnor, equivalence) [0-fill]
& (bitwise and) ~& (bitwise nand) [0-fill]
== (logical) != (logical) === (case) !== (case) [0-fill, logical versions are legal for real]
< (lt) <= (lt or equal) > (gt) >= (gt or equal) [0-fill, all arelegal for real]
<< (shift left) >> (shift right) [zero fill; no -ve shifts; shift by x or z results in unknown]
+ (addition) - (subtraction) [if any bit is x or z for + - * / % then entire result is unknown]
* (multiply) / (divide) % (modulus) [integer divide truncates fraction; + - * / legal for real]
Unary operators: ! ~ & ~& | ~| ^ ~^ ^~ + // Relational operators: <, <=, >, >=
//8
initial if (1 > 2) $stop;
//9
// Logical operators: ! (negation), && (and), || (or)
//10
parameter B0 = !12; parameter B1 = 1 && 2;
//11
reg [2:0] A00x; initial begin A00x = 'b111; A00x = !2'bx1; end
//12
parameter C1 = 1 || (1/0); /* This may or may not cause an
//13
error: the short-circuit behavior of && and || is undefined. An
//14
evaluation including && or || may stop when an expression is known//15
to be true or false. */
//16
// == (logical equality), != (logical inequality)
//17
parameter Ax = (1==1'bx); parameter Bx = (1'bx!=1'bz);
//18
parameter D0 = (1==0); parameter D1 = (1==1);
//19
// === case equality, !== (case inequality)
//20
// The case operators only return true (1) or false (0).
//21
parameter E0 = (1===1'bx); parameter E1 = 4'b01xz === 4'b01xz;
//22
parameter F1 = (4'bxxxx === 4'bxxxx);
//23
// Bitwise logical operators:
//24
// ~ (negation), & (and), | (inclusive or),
//25
// ^ (exclusive or), ~^ or ^~ (equivalence)
//26
parameter A00 = 2'b01 & 2'b10;
//27
// Unary logical reduction operators:
//28
// & (and), ~& (nand), | (or), ~| (nor),
//29
// ^ (xor), ~^ or ^~ (xnor)
//30
parameter G1= & 4'b1111;
//31
// Conditional expression f = a ? b : c [if (a) then f=b else f=c]//32

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.3 Operators

11

// if a=(x or z), then (bitwise) f=0 if b=c=0, f=1 if b=c=1, else f=x
//33
reg H0, a, b, c; initial begin a=1; b=0; c=1; H0=a?b:c; end
//34
reg[2:0] J01x, Jxxx, J01z, J011;
//35
initial begin Jxxx = 3'bxxx; J01z = 3'b01z; J011 = 3'b011;
//36
J01x = Jxxx ? J01z : J011; end // A bitwise result.
//37
initial begin #1;
//38
$display("A10xz=%b",A10xz," A01010101=%b",A01010101);
//39
$display("A1=%0d",A1," A2=%0d",A2," A4=%0d",A4);
//40
$display("B1=%b",B1," B0=%b",B0," A00x=%b",A00x);
//41
$display("C1=%b",C1," Ax=%b",Ax," Bx=%b",Bx);
//42
$display("D0=%b",D0," D1=%b",D1);
//43
$display("E0=%b",E0," E1=%b",E1," F1=%b",F1);
//44
$display("A00=%b",A00," G1=%b",G1," H0=%b",H0);
//45
$display("J01x=%b",J01x); end
//46
endmodule
//47
11.3.1 Arithmetic
Key terms and concepts: arithmetic on n-bit objects is performed modulo 2n arithmetic on
vectors (reg or wire) are predefined once Verilog loses a sign, it cannot get it back
module modulo; reg [2:0] Seven;
initial begin
#1 Seven = 7; #1 $display("Before=", Seven);
#1 Seven = Seven + 1; #1 $display("After =", Seven);
end
endmodule
module LRM_arithmetic;
integer IA, IB, IC, ID, IE; reg [15:0] RA, RB, RC;
initial begin
IA = -4'd12; RA = IA / 3; // reg is treated as unsigned.
RB = -4'd12; IB = RB / 3; //
IC = -4'd12 / 3; RC = -12 / 3; // real is treated as signed
ID =
-12 / 3; IE = IA / 3; // (twos complement).
end
initial begin #1;
$display("
hex
default");
$display("IA = -4'd12
= %h%d",IA,IA);
$display("RA = IA / 3
=
%h
%d",RA,RA);
$display("RB = -4'd12
=
%h
%d",RB,RB);
$display("IB = RB / 3
= %h%d",IB,IB);
$display("IC = -4'd12 / 3 = %h%d",IC,IC);

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11
//12
//13
//14
//15

12

SECTION 11

VERILOG HDL

$display("RC = -12 / 3
$display("ID = -12 / 3
$display("IE = IA / 3
end
endmodule
IA
RA
RB
IB
IC
RC
ID
IE

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

-4'd12
=
IA / 3
=
-4'd12
=
RB / 3
=
-4'd12 / 3 =
-12 / 3
=
-12 / 3
=
IA / 3
=

ASICS... THE COURSE

=
%h
%d",RC,RC);
= %h%d",ID,ID);
= %h%d",IE,IE);

//16
//17
//18
//19
//20

hex
default
fffffff4
-12
fffc
65532
fff4
65524
00005551
21841
55555551 1431655761
fffc
65532
fffffffc
-4
fffffffc
-4

11.4 Hierarchy
Key terms and concepts: module the module interface interconnects two Verilog modules
using ports ports must be explicitly declared as input, output, or inout a reg cannot be
input or inout port (to connection of a reg to another reg) instantiation ports are linked
using named association or positional association hierarchical name ( m1.weekend)
The compiler will first search downward (or inward) then upward (outward)
Verilog ports.
Verilog port
Characteristics

input
wire (or other
net)

output
reg or wire (or other net)
We can read an output port inside a
module

inout
wire (or other
net)

module holiday_1(sat, sun, weekend);

input sat, sun; output weekend;
assign weekend = sat | sun;
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4

`timescale 100s/1s // Units are 100 seconds with precision of 1s.

module life; wire [3:0] n; integer days;
wire wake_7am, wake_8am; // Wake at 7 on weekdays else at 8.
assign n = 1 + (days % 7); // n is day of the week (1-7)
always@(wake_8am or wake_7am)

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.5 Procedures and Assignments

$display("Day=",n," hours=%0d ",($time/36)%24," 8am = ",

wake_8am," 7am = ",wake_7am," m2.weekday = ", m2.weekday);
initial days = 0;
initial begin #(24*36*10);$finish; end // Run for 10 days.
always #(24*36) days = days + 1; // Bump day every 24hrs.
rest m1(n, wake_8am); // Module instantiation.
// Creates a copy of module rest with instance name m1,
// ports are linked using positional notation.
work m2(.weekday(wake_7am), .day(n));
// Creates a copy of module work with instance name m2,
// Ports are linked using named association.
endmodule

13

//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11
//12
//13
//14
//15
//16
//17

module rest(day, weekend); // Module definition.

// Notice the port names are different from the parent.
input [3:0] day; output weekend; reg weekend;
always begin #36 weekend = day > 5; end // Need a delay here.
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5

module work(day, weekday);

input [3:0] day; output weekday; reg weekday;
always begin #36 weekday = day < 6; end // Need a delay here.
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4

11.5 Procedures and Assignments

Key terms and concepts: a procedure is an always or initial statement, a task, or a
function) statements within a sequential block (between a begin and an end) that is part
of a procedure execute sequentially, but the procedure executes concurrently with other procedures continuous assignments appear outside procedures procedural assignments
appear inside procedures
module holiday_1(sat, sun, weekend);
input sat, sun; output weekend;
assign weekend = sat | sun; // Assignment outside a procedure.
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4

module holiday_2(sat, sun, weekend);

input sat, sun; output weekend; reg weekend;

//1
//2

14

SECTION 11

VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

always #1 weekend = sat | sun; // Assignment inside a procedure. //3

endmodule
//4
module assignments
//... Continuous assignments go here.
always // beginning of a procedure
begin // beginning of sequential block
//... Procedural assignments go here.
end
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7

11.5.1 Continuous Assignment Statement

Key terms and concepts: a continuous assignment statement assigns to a wire like a real
logic gate drives a real wire,
module assignment_1();
//1
wire pwr_good, pwr_on, pwr_stable; reg Ok, Fire;
//2
assign pwr_stable = Ok & (!Fire);
//3
assign pwr_on = 1;
//4
assign pwr_good = pwr_on & pwr_stable;
//5
initial begin Ok = 0; Fire = 0; #1 Ok = 1; #5 Fire = 1;end
//6
initial begin $monitor("TIME=%0d",$time," ON=",pwr_on, " STABLE=", //7
pwr_stable," OK=",Ok," FIRE=",Fire," GOOD=",pwr_good);
//8
#10 $finish; end
//9
endmodule
//10
module assignment_2; reg Enable; wire [31:0] Data;
//1
/* The following single statement is equivalent to a declaration and
continuous assignment. */
//2
wire [31:0] DataBus = Enable ? Data : 32'bz;
//3
assign Data = 32'b10101101101011101111000010100001;
//4
initial begin
//5
$monitor("Enable=%b DataBus=%b ", Enable, DataBus);
//6
Enable = 0; #1; Enable = 1; #1; end
//7
endmodule
//8
11.5.2 Sequential Block
Key terms and concepts: a sequential block is a group of statements between a begin and an
end to declare new variables within a sequential block we must name the block a sequential
block is a statement, so that we may nest sequential blocks a sequential block in an always

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.5 Procedures and Assignments

15

statement executes repeatedly an initial statement executes only once, so a sequential block
in an initial statement only executes once at the beginning of a simulation
module always_1; reg Y, Clk;
always // Statements in an always statement execute repeatedly:
begin: my_block // Start of sequential block.
@(posedge Clk) #5 Y = 1; // At +ve edge set Y=1,
@(posedge Clk) #5 Y = 0; // at the NEXT +ve edge set Y=0.
end // End of sequential block.
always #10 Clk = ~ Clk; // We need a clock.
initial Y = 0; // These initial statements execute
initial Clk = 0; // only once, but first.
initial $monitor("T=%2g",$time," Clk=",Clk," Y=",Y);
initial #70 $finish;
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11
//12

11.5.3 Procedural Assignments

Key terms and concepts: the value of an expression on the RHS of an assignment within a
procedure (a procedural assignment) updates a reg (or memory element) immediately a reg
holds its value until changed by another procedural assignment a blocking assignment is one
type of procedural assignment
blocking_assignment ::= reg-lvalue = [delay_or_event_control]
expression
module procedural_assign; reg Y, A;
always @(A)
Y = A; // Procedural assignment.
initial begin A=0; #5; A=1; #5; A=0; #5; $finish;end
initial $monitor("T=%2g",$time,,"A=",A,,,"Y=",Y);
endmodule

T= 0 A=0
T= 5 A=1
T=10 A=0

Y=0
Y=1
Y=0

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6

16

SECTION 11

VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

11.6 Timing Controls and Delay

Key terms and concepts: statements in a sequential block are executed, in the absence of any
delay, at the same simulation timethe current time step delays are modeled using a timing
control
11.6.1 Timing Control
Key terms and concepts: a timing control is a delay control or an event control a delay control
delays an assignment by a specified amount of time timescale compiler directive is used to
specify the units of time and precision `timescale 1ns/10ps (s, ns, ps, or fs and the
multiplier must be 1, 10, or 100) intra-assignment delay delayed assignment an event
control delays an assignment until a specified event occurs posedge is a transition from '0'
to '1' or 'x', or a transition from 'x' to '1' (transitions to or from 'z' dont count) events
can be declared (as named events), triggered, and detected
x = #1 y; // intra-assignment delay
#1 x = y; // delayed assignment

begin // Equivalent to intra-assignment delay.

hold = y; // Sample and hold y immediately.
#1; // Delay.
x = hold; // Assignment to x. Overall same as x = #1 y.
end

begin // Equivalent to delayed assignment.

#1; // Delay.
x = y; // Assign y to x. Overall same as #1 x = y.
end

event_control ::= @ event_identifier | @ (event_expression)

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.6 Timing Controls and Delay

17

event_expression ::= expression | event_identifier

| posedge expression | negedge expression
| event_expression or event_expression

module delay_controls; reg X, Y, Clk, Dummy;

always #1 Dummy=!Dummy; // Dummy clock, just for graphics.
// Examples of delay controls:
always begin #25 X=1;#10 X=0;#5; end
// An event control:
always @(posedge Clk) Y=X; // Wait for +ve clock edge.
always #10 Clk = !Clk; // The real clock.
initial begin Clk = 0;
$display("T
Clk X Y");
$monitor("%2g",$time,,,Clk,,,,X,,Y);
$dumpvars;#100 $finish; end
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11
//12

module show_event;
reg clock;
event event_1, event_2; // Declare two named events.
always @(posedge clock) -> event_1; // Trigger event_1.
always @ event_1
begin $display("Strike 1!!"); -> event_2;end // Trigger event_2.
always @ event_2 begin $display("Strike 2!!");
$finish; end // Stop on detection of event_2.
always #10 clock = ~ clock; // We need a clock.
initial clock = 0;
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11

11.6.2 Data Slip

module data_slip_1 (); reg Clk, D, Q1, Q2;
/************* bad sequential logic below ***************/
always @(posedge Clk) Q1 = D;
always @(posedge Clk) Q2 = Q1; // Data slips here!
/************* bad sequential logic above ***************/
initial begin Clk = 0; D = 1; end always #50 Clk = ~Clk;
initial begin $display("t
Clk D Q1 Q2");
$monitor("%3g",$time,,Clk,,,,D,,Q1,,,Q2);end
initial #400 $finish; // Run for 8 cycles.

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9

18

SECTION 11

VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

initial $dumpvars;
endmodule
always @(posedge Clk)
always @(posedge Clk)

//10
//11
Q1 = #1 D; // The delays in the assignments //1
Q2 = #1 Q1; // fix the data slip.
//2

11.6.3 Wait Statement

Key terms and concepts: wait statement suspends a procedure until a condition is true beware
infinite hold level-sensitive
wait (Done) $stop; // Wait until Done = 1 then stop.
module test_dff_wait;
reg D, Clock, Reset; dff_wait u1(D, Q, Clock, Reset);
initial begin D=1; Clock=0;Reset=1'b1; #15 Reset=1'b0; #20 D=0;end
always #10 Clock = !Clock;
initial begin $display("T Clk D Q Reset");
$monitor("%2g",$time,,Clock,,,,D,,Q,,Reset); #50 $finish;end
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7

module dff_wait(D, Q, Clock, Reset);

output Q; input D, Clock, Reset; reg Q; wire D;
always @(posedge Clock) if (Reset !== 1) Q = D;
always begin wait (Reset == 1) Q = 0; wait (Reset !== 1); end
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5

module dff_wait(D,Q,Clock,Reset);
output Q; input D,Clock,Reset; reg Q; wire D;
always @(posedge Clock) if (Reset !== 1) Q = D;
// We need another wait statement here or we shall spin forever.
always begin wait (Reset == 1) Q = 0; end
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6

11.6.4 Blocking and Nonblocking Assignments

Key terms and concepts: a procedural assignment (blocking procedural assignment
statement) with a timing control delays or blocks execution nonblocking procedural
assignment statement allows execution to continue registers are updated at end of current
time step synthesis tools dont allow blocking and nonblocking procedural assignments to the
same reg within a sequential block
module delay;
reg a,b,c,d,e,f,g,bds,bsd;
initial begin

//1
//2
//3

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.6 Timing Controls and Delay

a = 1; b = 0; // No delay control.
#1 b = 1;
// Delayed assignment.
c = #1 1;
// Intra-assignment delay.
#1;
// Delay control.
d = 1;
//
e <= #1 1;
// Intra-assignment delay, nonblocking assignment
#1 f <= 1;
// Delayed nonblocking assignment.
g <= 1;
// Nonblocking assignment.
end
initial begin #1 bds = b; end // Delay then sample (ds).
initial begin bsd = #1 b; end // Sample then delay (sd).
initial begin $display("t a b c d e f g bds bsd");
$monitor("%g",$time,,a,,b,,c,,d,,e,,f,,g,,bds,,,,bsd); end
endmodule

t
0
1
2
3
4

a
1
1
1
1
1

b
0
1
1
1
1

c
x
x
1
1
1

d
x
x
x
1
1

e
x
x
x
x
1

f
x
x
x
x
1

g
x
x
x
x
1

bds
x
1
1
1
1

bsd
x
0
0
0
0

19

//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11
//12
//13
//14
//15
//16
//17

20

SECTION 11

VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

11.6.5 Procedural Continuous Assignment

Key terms and concepts: procedural continuous assignment statement (or quasicontinuous
assignment statement) is a special form assign within a sequential block
Verilog assignment statements.
Type of
Verilog
assignment

Continuous
assignment
statement

Nonblocking
procedural
assignment
statement
inside an always inside an always
or initial state- or initial statement, task, or
ment, task, or
function
function
Procedural
assignment
statement

Procedural
continuous
assignment
statement
always or
initial statement, task, or
function

Where it can
occur

outside an
always or
initial statement, task, or
function

Example

wire [31:0]
reg Y;
DataBus;
always
assign DataBus = @(posedge
Enable ? Data : clock) Y = 1;
32'bz

reg Y;
always
Y <= 1;

always @(Enable)
if(Enable)
assign Q = D;
else deassign Q;

Valid LHS of
assignment
Valid RHS of
assignment

net

register or memory element

<expression>
net, reg or memory element
11.6.4
9.2.2

net

Book
Verilog LRM

<expression>
net, reg or memory element
11.5.1
6.1

register or memory element

<expression>
net, reg or memory element
11.5.3
9.2

<expression>
net, reg or memory element
11.6.5
9.3

module dff_procedural_assign;
//1
reg d,clr_,pre_,clk; wire q; dff_clr_pre dff_1(q,d,clr_,pre_,clk); //2
always #10 clk = ~clk;
//3
initial begin clk = 0; clr_ = 1; pre_ = 1; d = 1;
//4
#20; d = 0; #20; pre_ = 0; #20; pre_ = 1; #20; clr_ = 0;
//5
#20; clr_ = 1; #20; d = 1; #20; $finish;end
//6
initial begin
//7
$display("T CLK PRE_ CLR_ D Q");
//8
$monitor("%3g",$time,,,clk,,,,pre_,,,,clr_,,,,d,,q);end
//9
endmodule
//10
module dff_clr_pre(q,d,clear_,preset_,clock);
output q; input d,clear_,preset_,clock; reg q;
always @(clear_ or preset_)

//1
//2
//3

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.7 Tasks and Functions

21

if (!clear_) assign q = 0; // active-low clear

else if(!preset_) assign q = 1; // active-low preset
else deassign q;
always @(posedge clock) q = d;
endmodule

//4
//5
//6
//7
//8

module all_assignments
//... continuous assignments.
always // beginning of procedure
begin // beginning of sequential block
//... blocking procedural assignments.
//... nonblocking procedural assignments.
//... procedural continuous assignments.
end
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9

11.7 Tasks and Functions

Key terms and concepts: a task is a procedure called from another procedure a task may call
other tasks and functions a function is a procedure used in an expression a function may not
call a task tasks may contain timing controls but functions may not

Call_A_Task_And_Wait (Input1, Input2, Output);

Result_Immediate = Call_A_Function (All_Inputs);

module F_subset_decode; reg [2:0]A, B, C, D, E, F;

initial begin A = 1; B = 0; D = 2; E = 3;
C = subset_decode(A, B); F = subset_decode(D,E);
$display("A B C D E F"); $display(A,,B,,C,,D,,E,,F);end
function [2:0] subset_decode; input [2:0] a, b;
begin if (a <= b) subset_decode = a; else subset_decode = b; end
endfunction
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8

11.8 Control Statements

Key terms and concepts: if, case, loop, disable, fork, and join statements control
execution

22

SECTION 11

VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

11.8.1 Case and If Statement

Key terms and concepts: an if statement represents a two-way branch a case statement
represents a multiway branch a controlling expression is matched with case expressions
in each of the case items (or arms) to determine a match the case statement must be inside
a sequential block (inside an always statement) and needs some delay a casex statement
handles both 'z' and 'x' as dont care the casez statement handles only 'z' bits as dont
care bits in case expressions may be set to '?' representing dont care values
if(switch) Y = 1; else Y = 0;
module test_mux; reg a, b, select; wire out;
mux mux_1(a, b, out, select);
initial begin #2; select = 0; a = 0; b = 1;
#2; select = 1'bx; #2; select = 1'bz; #2; select = 1;end
initial $monitor("T=%2g",$time," Select=",select," Out=",out);
initial #10 $finish;
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7

module mux(a, b, mux_output, mux_select);input a, b, mux_select;

output mux_output; reg mux_output;
always begin
case(mux_select)
0: mux_output = a;
1: mux_output = b;
default mux_output = 1'bx; // If select = x or z set output to
x.
endcase
#1; // Need some delay, otherwise we'll spin forever.
end
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6

casex (instruction_register[31:29])
3b'??1 : add;
3b'?1? : subtract;
3b'1?? : branch;
endcase

//7
//8
//9
//10
//11

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.8 Control Statements

23

11.8.2 Loop Statement

Key terms and concepts: A loop statement is a for, while, repeat, or forever statement
module loop_1;
//1
integer i; reg [31:0] DataBus; initial DataBus = 0;
//2
initial begin
//3
/************** Insert loop code after here. ******************/
/* for(Execute this assignment once before starting loop; exit loop
if this expression is false; execute this assignment at end of loop
before the check for end of loop.) */
for(i = 0; i <= 15; i = i+1) DataBus[i] = 1;
//4
/*************** Insert loop code before here. ****************/
end
//5
initial begin
//6
$display("DataBus = %b",DataBus);
//7
#2; $display("DataBus = %b",DataBus); $finish;
//8
end
//9
endmodule
//10

i = 0;
/* while(Execute next statement while this expression is true.) */
while(i <= 15) begin DataBus[i] = 1; i = i+1; end

i = 0;
/* repeat(Execute next statement the number of times corresponding to
the evaluation of this expression at the beginning of the loop.) */
repeat(16) begin DataBus[i] = 1; i = i+1; end

i = 0;
/* A forever statement loops continuously. */
forever begin : my_loop
DataBus[i] = 1;
if (i == 15) #1 disable my_loop; // Need to let time advance to
exit.
i = i+1;
end

24

SECTION 11

VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

11.8.3 Disable
Key terms and concepts: The disable statement stops the execution of a labeled sequential
block and skips to the end of the block difficult to implement in hardware

forever
begin: microprocessor_block // Labeled sequential block.
@(posedge clock)
if (reset) disable microprocessor_block; // Skip to end of block.
else Execute_code;
end

11.8.4 Fork and Join

Key terms and concepts: The fork statement and join statement allows the execution of two or
more parallel threads in a parallel block difficult to implement in hardware
module fork_1
event eat_breakfast, read_paper;
initial begin
fork
@eat_breakfast; @read_paper;
join
end
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8

11.9 Logic-Gate Modeling

Key terms and concepts: Verilog has a set of built-in logic models and you may also define
your own models.

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.9 Logic-Gate Modeling

25

11.9.1 Built-in Logic Models

Key terms and concepts: primitives: and, nand, nor, or, xor, xnor strong drive
strength is the default the first port of a primitive gate is always the output port remaining
ports are the input ports
Definition of the Verilog primitive 'and' gate
'and'
0
1
x
z

0
0
0
0
0

module primitive;
nand (strong0, strong1) #2.2
Nand_1(n001, n004, n005),
Nand_2(n003, n001, n005, n002);
nand (n006, n005, n002);
endmodule

1
0
1
x
x

x
0
x
x
x

z
0
x
x
x
//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6

11.9.2 User-Defined Primitives

Key terms and concepts: a user-defined primitive (UDP) uses a truth-table specification the
first port of a UDP must be an output port (no vector or inout ports) inputs in a UDP truth
table are '0', '1', and 'x' any 'z' input is treated as an 'x' default output is 'x' any
next state goes between an input and an output in UDP table shorthand notation for levels
(ab) represents a change from a to b (01) represents a rising edge shorthand notations for
edges
primitive Adder(Sum, InA, InB);
output Sum; input Ina, InB;
table
// inputs : output
00 : 0;
01 : 1;
10 : 1;
11 : 0;

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8

26

SECTION 11

VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

endtable
endprimitive

//9
//10

primitive DLatch(Q, Clock, Data);

//1
output Q; reg Q; input Clock, Data;
//2
table
//3
//inputs : present state : output (next state)
//4
1 0 : ? : 0; // ? represents 0,1, or x (input or present state).
//5
1 1 : b : 1; // b represents 0 or 1 (input or present state).
//6
1 1 : x : 1; // Could have combined this with previous line.
//7
0 ? : ? : -; // - represents no change in an output.
//8
endtable
//9
endprimitive
//10
primitive DFlipFlop(Q, Clock, Data);
output Q; reg Q; input Clock, Data;
table
//inputs : present state : output (next state)
r
0 : ? : 0 ; // rising edge, next state = output =
r
1 : ? : 1 ; // rising edge, next state = output =
(0x) 0 : 0 : 0 ; // rising edge, next state = output =
(0x) 1 : 1 : 1 ; // rising edge, next state = output =
(?0) ? : ? : - ; // falling edge, no change in output
? (??) : ? : - ; // no clock edge, no change in output
endtable
endprimitive

0
1
0
1

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11
//12

11.10 Modeling Delay

Key terms and concepts: built-in delays ASIC cell library models include logic delays as a
function of fanout and estimated wiring loads after layout, we can back-annotate delay calculator calculates the net delays in Standard Delay Format, SDF sign-off quality ASIC cell
libraries
11.10.1 Net and Gate Delay
Key terms and concepts: minimum, typical, and maximum delays first triplet specifies the
min/typ/max rising delay ('0' or 'x' or 'z' to '1') and the second triplet specifies the falling

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.10 Modeling Delay

27

delay (to '0') for a high-impedance output, we specify a triplet for rising, falling, and the delay
to transition to 'z' (from '0' or '1'), the delay for a three-state driver to turn off or float
#(1.1:1.3:1.7) assign delay_a = a; // min:typ:max
wire #(1.1:1.3:1.7) a_delay; // min:typ:max
wire #(1.1:1.3:1.7) a_delay = a; // min:typ:max

nand #3.0 nd01(c, a, b);

nand #(2.6:3.0:3.4) nd02(d, a, b); // min:typ:max
nand #(2.8:3.2:3.4, 2.6:2.8:2.9) nd03(e, a, b);
// #(rising, falling) delay

wire #(0.5,0.6,0.7) a_z = a; // rise/fall/float delays

11.10.2 Pin-to-Pin Delay
Key terms and concepts: A specify block allows pin-to-pin delays across a module x => y
specifies a parallel connection (or parallel path) x and y must have the same number of bits
x *> y specifies a full connection (or full path) every bit in x is connected to y x and y may
be different sizes state-dependent path delay
module DFF_Spec; reg D, clk;
DFF_Part DFF1 (Q, clk, D, pre, clr);
initial begin D = 0; clk = 0; #1; clk = 1; end
initial $monitor("T=%2g", $time," clk=", clk," Q=", Q);
endmodule
module DFF_Part(Q, clk, D, pre, clr);
input clk, D, pre, clr; output Q;
DFlipFlop(Q, clk, D); // No preset or clear in this UDP.
specify
specparam
tPLH_clk_Q = 3, tPHL_clk_Q = 2.9,
tPLH_set_Q = 1.2, tPHL_set_Q = 1.1;
(clk => Q) = (tPLH_clk_Q, tPHL_clk_Q);
(pre, clr *> Q) = (tPLH_set_Q, tPHL_set_Q);
endspecify
endmodule
`timescale 1 ns / 100 fs
module M_Spec; reg A1, A2, B; M M1 (Z, A1, A2, B);

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11
//1
//2

28

SECTION 11

VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

initial begin A1=0;A2=1;B=1;#5;B=0;#5;A1=1;A2=0;B=1;#5;B=0;end

initial
$monitor("T=%4g",$realtime," A1=",A1," A2=",A2," B=",B," Z=",Z);
endmodule
`timescale 100 ps / 10 fs
module M(Z, A1, A2, B); input A1, A2, B; output Z;
or (Z1, A1, A2); nand (Z, Z1, B); // OAI21
/*A1 A2 B Z Delay=10*100 ps unless indicated in the table below.
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 B:0->1 Z:1->0 delay=t2
0 1 1 0 B:1->0 Z:0->1 delay=t1
1 0 0 1 B:0->1 Z:1->0 delay=t4
1 0 1 0 B:1->0 Z:0->1 delay=t3
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0 */
specify specparam t1 = 11, t2 = 12; specparam t3 = 13, t4 = 14;
(A1 => Z) = 10; (A2 => Z) = 10;
if (~A1) (B => Z) = (t1, t2); if (A1) (B => Z) = (t3, t4);
endspecify
endmodule

//3
//4
//5
//6

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11
//12
//13
//14
//15
//16
//17

11.11 Altering Parameters

Key terms and concepts: parameter override in instantiated module parameters have local
scope defparam statement and hierarchical name
module Vector_And(Z, A, B);
parameter CARDINALITY = 1;
input [CARDINALITY-1:0] A, B;
output [CARDINALITY-1:0] Z;
wire [CARDINALITY-1:0] Z = A & B;
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6

module Four_And_Gates(OutBus, InBusA, InBusB);

input [3:0] InBusA, InBusB; output [3:0] OutBus;
Vector_And #(4) My_AND(OutBus, InBusA, InBusB); // 4 AND gates
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4

module And_Gates(OutBus, InBusA, InBusB);

parameter WIDTH = 1;
input [WIDTH-1:0] InBusA, InBusB; output [WIDTH-1:0] OutBus;

//1
//2
//3

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.12 A Viterbi Decoder

29

Vector_And #(WIDTH) My_And(OutBus, InBusA, InBusB);

endmodule

//4
//5

module Super_Size; defparam And_Gates.WIDTH = 4; endmodule

//1

11.12 A Viterbi Decoder

11.12.1 Viterbi Encoder
/******************************************************/
/* module viterbi_encode
*/
/******************************************************/
/* This is the encoder. X2N (msb) and X1N form the 2-bit input
message, XN. Example: if X2N=1, X1N=0, then XN=2. Y2N (msb), Y1N, and
Y0N form the 3-bit encoded signal, YN (for a total constellation of 8
PSK signals that will be transmitted). The encoder uses a state
machine with four states to generate the 3-bit output, YN, from the
2-bit input, XN. Example: the repeated input sequence XN = (X2N, X1N)
= 0, 1, 2, 3 produces the repeated output sequence YN = (Y2N, Y1N,
Y0N) = 1, 0, 5, 4. */
module viterbi_encode(X2N,X1N,Y2N,Y1N,Y0N,clk,res);
input X2N,X1N,clk,res; output Y2N,Y1N,Y0N;
wire X1N_1,X1N_2,Y2N,Y1N,Y0N;
dff dff_1(X1N,X1N_1,clk,res); dff dff_2(X1N_1,X1N_2,clk,res);
assign Y2N=X2N; assign Y1N=X1N ^ X1N_2; assign Y0N=X1N_1;
endmodule

11.12.2 The Received Signal

/******************************************************/
/* module viterbi_distances
*/
/******************************************************/
/* This module simulates the front end of a receiver. Normally the
received analog signal (with noise) is converted into a series of
distance measures from the known eight possible transmitted PSK
signals: s0,...,s7. We are not simulating the analog part or noise in
this version, so we just take the digitally encoded 3-bit signal, Y,
from the encoder and convert it directly to the distance measures.
d[N] is the distance from signal = N to signal = 0
d[N] = (2*sin(N*PI/8))**2 in 3-bit binary (on the scale 2=100)
Example: d[3] = 1.85**2 = 3.41 = 110
inN is the distance from signal = N to encoder signal.

30

SECTION 11

VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

Example: in3 is the distance from signal = 3 to encoder signal.

d[N] is the distance from signal = N to encoder signal = 0.
If encoder signal = J, shift the distances by 8-J positions.
Example: if signal = 2, in0 is d[6], in1 is D[7], in2 is D[0], etc.
*/
module viterbi_distances
(Y2N,Y1N,Y0N,clk,res,in0,in1,in2,in3,in4,in5,in6,in7);
input clk,res,Y2N,Y1N,Y0N; output in0,in1,in2,in3,in4,in5,in6,in7;
reg [2:0] J,in0,in1,in2,in3,in4,in5,in6,in7;reg [2:0] d [7:0];
initial begin d[0]='b000;d[1]='b001;d[2]='b100;d[3]='b110;
d[4]='b111;d[5]='b110;d[6]='b100;d[7]='b001;end
always @(Y2N or Y1N or Y0N) begin
J[0]=Y0N;J[1]=Y1N;J[2]=Y2N;
J=8-J;in0=d[J];J=J+1;in1=d[J];J=J+1;in2=d[J];J=J+1;in3=d[J];
J=J+1;in4=d[J];J=J+1;in5=d[J];J=J+1;in6=d[J];J=J+1;in7=d[J];
end endmodule

11.12.3 Testing the System

/*****************************************************/
/* module viterbi_test_CDD
*/
/*****************************************************/
/* This is the top-level module, viterbi_test_CDD, that models the
communications link. It contains three modules: viterbi_encode,
viterbi_distances, and viterbi. There is no analog and no noise in
this version. The 2-bit message, X, is encoded to a 3-bit signal, Y.
In this module the message X is generated using a simple counter.
The digital 3-bit signal Y is transmitted, received with noise as an
analog signal (not modeled here), and converted to a set of eight
3-bit distance measures, in0, ..., in7. The distance measures form
the input to the Viterbi decoder that reconstructs the transmitted
signal Y, with an error signal if the measures are inconsistent.
CDD = counter input, digital transmission, digital reception */
module viterbi_test_CDD;
wire Error; // decoder out
wire [2:0] Y, Out; // encoder out, decoder out
reg [1:0] X; // encoder inputs
reg Clk, Res; // clock and reset
wire [2:0] in0,in1,in2,in3,in4,in5,in6,in7;
always #500 $display("t
Clk X Y Out Error");
initial $monitor("%4g",$time,,Clk,,,,X,,Y,,Out,,,,Error);
initial $dumpvars; initial #3000 $finish;
always #50 Clk = ~Clk; initial begin Clk = 0;

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.12 A Viterbi Decoder

31

X = 3; // No special reason to start at 3.

#60 Res = 1;#10 Res = 0;end // Hit reset after inputs are stable.
always @(posedge Clk) #1 X = X + 1; // Drive the input with a
counter.
viterbi_encode v_1
(X[1],X[0],Y[2],Y[1],Y[0],Clk,Res);
viterbi_distances v_2
(Y[2],Y[1],Y[0],Clk,Res,in0,in1,in2,in3,in4,in5,in6,in7);
viterbi v_3
(in0,in1,in2,in3,in4,in5,in6,in7,Out,Clk,Res,Error);
endmodule

11.12.4 Verilog Decoder Model

/******************************************************/
/*
module dff
*/
/******************************************************/
/* A D flip-flop module. */

module dff(D,Q,Clock,Reset); // N.B. reset is active-low.

output Q; input D,Clock,Reset;
parameter CARDINALITY = 1; reg [CARDINALITY-1:0] Q;
wire [CARDINALITY-1:0] D;
always @(posedge Clock) if (Reset !== 0) #1 Q = D;
always begin wait (Reset == 0); Q = 0; wait (Reset == 1); end
endmodule

/* Verilog code for a Viterbi decoder. The decoder assumes a rate

2/3 encoder, 8 PSK modulation, and trellis coding. The viterbi module
contains eight submodules: subset_decode, metric, compute_metric,
compare_select, reduce, pathin, path_memory, and output_decision.
The decoder accepts eight 3-bit measures of ||r-si||**2 and, after
an initial delay of thirteen clock cycles, the output is the best
estimate of the signal transmitted. The distance measures are the
Euclidean distances between the received signal r (with noise) and
each of the (in this case eight) possible transmitted signals s0 to
s7.
Original by Christeen Gray, University of Hawaii. Heavily modified
by MJSS; any errors are mine. Use freely. */
/******************************************************/
/*
module viterbi
*/

32

SECTION 11

VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

/******************************************************/
/* This is the top level of the Viterbi decoder. The eight input
signals {in0,...,in7} represent the distance measures, ||r-si||**2.
The other input signals are clk and reset. The output signals are
out and error. */

module viterbi
(in0,in1,in2,in3,in4,in5,in6,in7,
out,clk,reset,error);
input [2:0] in0,in1,in2,in3,in4,in5,in6,in7;
output [2:0] out; input clk,reset; output error;
wire sout0,sout1,sout2,sout3;
wire [2:0] s0,s1,s2,s3;
wire [4:0] m_in0,m_in1,m_in2,m_in3;
wire [4:0] m_out0,m_out1,m_out2,m_out3;
wire [4:0] p0_0,p2_0,p0_1,p2_1,p1_2,p3_2,p1_3,p3_3;
wire ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3;
wire [4:0] out0,out1,out2,out3;
wire [1:0] control;
wire [2:0] p0,p1,p2,p3;
wire [11:0] path0;

subset_decode u1(in0,in1,in2,in3,in4,in5,in6,in7,
s0,s1,s2,s3,sout0,sout1,sout2,sout3,clk,reset);
metric u2(m_in0,m_in1,m_in2,m_in3,m_out0,
m_out1,m_out2,m_out3,clk,reset);
compute_metric u3(m_out0,m_out1,m_out2,m_out3,s0,s1,s2,s3,
p0_0,p2_0,p0_1,p2_1,p1_2,p3_2,p1_3,p3_3,error);
compare_select u4(p0_0,p2_0,p0_1,p2_1,p1_2,p3_2,p1_3,p3_3,
out0,out1,out2,out3,ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3);
reduce u5(out0,out1,out2,out3,
m_in0,m_in1,m_in2,m_in3,control);
pathin u6(sout0,sout1,sout2,sout3,
ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3,path0,clk,reset);
path_memory u7(p0,p1,p2,p3,path0,clk,reset,
ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3);
output_decision u8(p0,p1,p2,p3,control,out);
endmodule

/******************************************************/
/* module subset_decode
*/
/******************************************************/

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.12 A Viterbi Decoder

33

/* This module chooses the signal corresponding to the smallest of

each set {||r-s0||**2,||r-s4||**2}, {||r-s1||**2, ||r-s5||**2},
{||r-s2||**2,||r-s6||**2}, {||r-s3||**2,||r-s7||**2}. Therefore
there are eight input signals and four output signals for the
distance measures. The signals sout0, ..., sout3 are used to control
the path memory. The statement dff #(3) instantiates a vector array
of 3 D flip-flops. */
module subset_decode
(in0,in1,in2,in3,in4,in5,in6,in7,
s0,s1,s2,s3,
sout0,sout1,sout2,sout3,
clk,reset);
input [2:0] in0,in1,in2,in3,in4,in5,in6,in7;
output [2:0] s0,s1,s2,s3;
output sout0,sout1,sout2,sout3;
input clk,reset;
wire [2:0] sub0,sub1,sub2,sub3,sub4,sub5,sub6,sub7;

dff
dff
dff
dff
dff
dff
dff
dff

#(3)
#(3)
#(3)
#(3)
#(3)
#(3)
#(3)
#(3)

subout0(in0,
subout1(in1,
subout2(in2,
subout3(in3,
subout4(in4,
subout5(in5,
subout6(in6,
subout7(in7,

sub0,
sub1,
sub2,
sub3,
sub4,
sub5,
sub6,
sub7,

clk,
clk,
clk,
clk,
clk,
clk,
clk,
clk,

reset);
reset);
reset);
reset);
reset);
reset);
reset);
reset);

function [2:0] subset_decode; input [2:0] a,b;

begin
subset_decode = 0;
if (a<=b) subset_decode = a; else subset_decode = b;
end
endfunction

function set_control; input [2:0] a,b;

begin
if (a<=b) set_control = 0; else set_control = 1;
end
endfunction

assign s0 = subset_decode (sub0,sub4);

34

SECTION 11

VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

assign s1 = subset_decode (sub1,sub5);

assign s2 = subset_decode (sub2,sub6);
assign s3 = subset_decode (sub3,sub7);
assign sout0 = set_control(sub0,sub4);
assign sout1 = set_control(sub1,sub5);
assign sout2 = set_control(sub2,sub6);
assign sout3 = set_control(sub3,sub7);
endmodule

/******************************************************/
/*
module compute_metric
*/
/******************************************************/
/* This module computes the sum of path memory and the distance for
each path entering a state of the trellis. For the four states,
there are two paths entering it; therefore eight sums are computed
in this module. The path metrics and output sums are 5 bits wide.
The output sum is bounded and should never be greater than 5 bits
for a valid input signal. The overflow from the sum is the error
output and indicates an invalid input signal.*/
module compute_metric
(m_out0,m_out1,m_out2,m_out3,
s0,s1,s2,s3,p0_0,p2_0,
p0_1,p2_1,p1_2,p3_2,p1_3,p3_3,
error);
input [4:0] m_out0,m_out1,m_out2,m_out3;
input [2:0] s0,s1,s2,s3;
output [4:0] p0_0,p2_0,p0_1,p2_1,p1_2,p3_2,p1_3,p3_3;
output error;

assign
p0_0
p2_0
p0_1
p2_1
p1_2
p3_2
p1_3
p3_3

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

m_out0
m_out2
m_out0
m_out2
m_out1
m_out3
m_out1
m_out3

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

s0,
s2,
s2,
s0,
s1,
s3,
s3,
s1;

function is_error; input x1,x2,x3,x4,x5,x6,x7,x8;

begin
if (x1||x2||x3||x4||x5||x6||x7||x8) is_error = 1;

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.12 A Viterbi Decoder

35

else is_error = 0;
end
endfunction

assign error = is_error(p0_0[4],p2_0[4],p0_1[4],p2_1[4],

p1_2[4],p3_2[4],p1_3[4],p3_3[4]);
endmodule

/******************************************************/
/*
module compare_select
*/
/******************************************************/
/* This module compares the summations from the compute_metric
module and selects the metric and path with the lowest value. The
output of this module is saved as the new path metric for each
state. The ACS output signals are used to control the path memory of
the decoder. */
module compare_select
(p0_0,p2_0,p0_1,p2_1,p1_2,p3_2,p1_3,p3_3,
out0,out1,out2,out3,
ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3);
input [4:0] p0_0,p2_0,p0_1,p2_1,p1_2,p3_2,p1_3,p3_3;
output [4:0] out0,out1,out2,out3;
output ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3;

function [4:0] find_min_metric; input [4:0] a,b;

begin
if (a <= b) find_min_metric = a; else find_min_metric = b;
end
endfunction

function set_control; input [4:0] a,b;

begin
if (a <= b) set_control = 0; else set_control = 1;
end
endfunction

assign
assign
assign
assign

out0
out1
out2
out3

=
=
=
=

find_min_metric(p0_0,p2_0);
find_min_metric(p0_1,p2_1);
find_min_metric(p1_2,p3_2);
find_min_metric(p1_3,p3_3);

36

SECTION 11

assign ACS0
assign ACS1
assign ACS2
assign ACS3
endmodule

=
=
=
=

VERILOG HDL

set_control
set_control
set_control
set_control

ASICS... THE COURSE

(p0_0,p2_0);
(p0_1,p2_1);
(p1_2,p3_2);
(p1_3,p3_3);

/******************************************************/
/*
module path
*/
/******************************************************/
/* This is the basic unit for the path memory of the Viterbi
decoder. It consists of four 3-bit D flip-flops in parallel. There
is a 2:1 mux at each D flip-flop input. The statement dff #(12)
instantiates a vector array of 12 flip-flops. */
module path(in,out,clk,reset,ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3);
input [11:0] in; output [11:0] out;
input clk,reset,ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3; wire [11:0] p_in;
dff #(12) path0(p_in,out,clk,reset);
function [2:0] shift_path; input [2:0] a,b; input control;
begin
if (control == 0) shift_path = a; else shift_path = b;
end
endfunction

assign p_in[11:9]
assign p_in[ 8:6]
assign p_in[ 5:3]
assign p_in[ 2:0]
endmodule

=
=
=
=

shift_path(in[11:9],in[5:3],ACS0);
shift_path(in[11:9],in[5:3],ACS1);
shift_path(in[8: 6],in[2:0],ACS2);
shift_path(in[8: 6],in[2:0],ACS3);

/******************************************************/
/*
module path_memory
*/
/******************************************************/
/* This module consists of an array of memory elements (D
flip-flops) that store and shift the path memory as new signals are
added to the four paths (or four most likely sequences of signals).
This module instantiates 11 instances of the path module. */
module path_memory
(p0,p1,p2,p3,
path0,clk,reset,
ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3);
output [2:0] p0,p1,p2,p3; input [11:0] path0;

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.12 A Viterbi Decoder

input clk,reset,ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3;
wire [11:0]out1,out2,out3,out4,out5,out6,out7,out8,out9,out10,out11;
path x1 (path0,out1 ,clk,reset,ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3),
x2 (out1, out2 ,clk,reset,ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3),
x3 (out2, out3 ,clk,reset,ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3),
x4 (out3, out4 ,clk,reset,ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3),
x5 (out4, out5 ,clk,reset,ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3),
x6 (out5, out6 ,clk,reset,ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3),
x7 (out6, out7 ,clk,reset,ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3),
x8 (out7, out8 ,clk,reset,ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3),
x9 (out8, out9 ,clk,reset,ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3),
x10(out9, out10,clk,reset,ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3),
x11(out10,out11,clk,reset,ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3);
assign p0 = out11[11:9];
assign p1 = out11[ 8:6];
assign p2 = out11[ 5:3];
assign p3 = out11[ 2:0];
endmodule

/******************************************************/
/*
module pathin
*/
/******************************************************/
/* This module determines the input signal to the path for each of
the four paths. Control signals from the subset decoder and compare
select modules are used to store the correct signal. The statement
dff #(12) instantiates a vector array of 12 flip-flops. */
module pathin
(sout0,sout1,sout2,sout3,
ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3,
path0,clk,reset);
input sout0,sout1,sout2,sout3,ACS0,ACS1,ACS2,ACS3;
input clk,reset; output [11:0] path0;
wire [2:0] sig0,sig1,sig2,sig3; wire [11:0] path_in;

dff #(12) firstpath(path_in,path0,clk,reset);

function [2:0] subset0; input sout0;

begin
if(sout0 == 0) subset0 = 0; else subset0 = 4;
end
endfunction

37

38

SECTION 11

VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

function [2:0] subset1; input sout1;

begin
if(sout1 == 0) subset1 = 1; else subset1 = 5;
end
endfunction

function [2:0] subset2; input sout2;

begin
if(sout2 == 0) subset2 = 2; else subset2 = 6;
end
endfunction

function [2:0] subset3; input sout3;

begin
if(sout3 == 0) subset3 = 3; else subset3 = 7;
end
endfunction

function [2:0] find_path; input [2:0] a,b; input control;

begin
if(control==0) find_path = a; else find_path = b;
end
endfunction

assign sig0 = subset0(sout0);

assign sig1 = subset1(sout1);
assign sig2 = subset2(sout2);
assign sig3 = subset3(sout3);
assign path_in[11:9] = find_path(sig0,sig2,ACS0);
assign path_in[ 8:6] = find_path(sig2,sig0,ACS1);
assign path_in[ 5:3] = find_path(sig1,sig3,ACS2);
assign path_in[ 2:0] = find_path(sig3,sig1,ACS3);
endmodule

/******************************************************/
/*
module metric
*/
/******************************************************/
/* The registers created in this module (using D flip-flops) store
the four path metrics. Each register is 5 bits wide. The statement
dff #(5) instantiates a vector array of 5 flip-flops. */

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.12 A Viterbi Decoder

39

module metric
(m_in0,m_in1,m_in2,m_in3,
m_out0,m_out1,m_out2,m_out3,
clk,reset);
input [4:0] m_in0,m_in1,m_in2,m_in3;
output [4:0] m_out0,m_out1,m_out2,m_out3;
input clk,reset;
dff #(5) metric3(m_in3, m_out3, clk, reset);
dff #(5) metric2(m_in2, m_out2, clk, reset);
dff #(5) metric1(m_in1, m_out1, clk, reset);
dff #(5) metric0(m_in0, m_out0, clk, reset);
endmodule

/******************************************************/
/*
module output_decision
*/
/******************************************************/
/* This module decides the output signal based on the path that
corresponds to the smallest metric. The control signal comes from
the reduce module. */

module output_decision(p0,p1,p2,p3,control,out);
input [2:0] p0,p1,p2,p3; input [1:0] control; output [2:0] out;
function [2:0] decide;
input [2:0] p0,p1,p2,p3; input [1:0] control;
begin
if(control == 0) decide = p0;
else if(control == 1) decide = p1;
else if(control == 2) decide = p2;
else decide = p3;
end
endfunction

assign out = decide(p0,p1,p2,p3,control);

endmodule

/******************************************************/
/*
module reduce
*/
/******************************************************/
/* This module reduces the metrics after the addition and compare
operations. This algorithm selects the smallest metric and subtracts
it from all the other metrics. */

40

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VERILOG HDL

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module reduce
(in0,in1,in2,in3,
m_in0,m_in1,m_in2,m_in3,
control);
input [4:0] in0,in1,in2,in3;
output [4:0] m_in0,m_in1,m_in2,m_in3;
output [1:0] control; wire [4:0] smallest;

function [4:0] find_smallest;

input [4:0] in0,in1,in2,in3; reg [4:0] a,b;
begin
if(in0 <= in1) a = in0; else a = in1;
if(in2 <= in3) b = in2; else b = in3;
if(a <= b) find_smallest = a;
else find_smallest = b;
end
endfunction

function [1:0] smallest_no;

input [4:0] in0,in1,in2,in3,smallest;
begin
if(smallest == in0) smallest_no = 0;
else if (smallest == in1) smallest_no = 1;
else if (smallest == in2) smallest_no = 2;
else smallest_no = 3;
end
endfunction

assign smallest = find_smallest(in0,in1,in2,in3);

assign m_in0 = in0 - smallest;
assign m_in1 = in1 - smallest;
assign m_in2 = in2 - smallest;
assign m_in3 = in3 - smallest;
assign control = smallest_no(in0,in1,in2,in3,smallest);
endmodule

11.13 Other Verilog Features

Key terms and concepts: system tasks and functions are part of the IEEE standard

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.13 Other Verilog Features

41

11.13.1 Display Tasks

Key terms and concepts: display system tasks $display (format works like C) $write
$strobe

module test_display; // display system tasks:

initial begin $display ("string, variables, or expression");
/* format specifications work like printf in C:
%d=decimal %b=binary %s=string %h=hex %o=octal
%c=character %m=hierarchical name %v=strength %t=time format
%e=scientific %f=decimal %g=shortest
examples: %d uses default width %0d uses minimum width
%7.3g uses 7 spaces with 3 digits after decimal point */
// $displayb, $displayh, $displayo print in b, h, o formats
// $write, $strobe, $monitor also have b, h, o versions

$write("write"); // as $display, but without newline at end of line

$strobe("strobe"); // as $display, values at end of simulation cycle

$monitor(v); // disp. @change of v (except v= $time,$stime,$realtime)

$monitoron; $monitoroff; // toggle monitor mode on/off

end endmodule

11.13.2 File I/O Tasks

Key terms and concepts: file I/O system tasks $fdisplay $fopen $fclose
multichannel descriptor 32 flags channel 0 is the standard output (screen) and is always
open $readmemb and $readmemh read a text file into a memory file may contain only spaces,
new lines, tabs, form feeds, comments, addresses, and binary ($readmemb) or hex
($readmemh)

module file_1; integer f1, ch; initial begin f1 = $fopen("f1.out");

if(f1==0) $stop(2); if(f1==2)$display("f1 open");
ch = f1|1; $fdisplay(ch,"Hello"); $fclose(f1);end endmodule

42

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VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

> vlog file_1.v

> vsim -c file_1
# Loading work.file_1
VSIM 1> run 10
# f1 open
# Hello
VSIM 2> q
> more f1.out
Hello
>

mem.dat
@2 1010_1111 @4 0101_1111 1010_1111 // @address in hex
x1x1_zzzz 1111_0000 /* x or z is OK */

module load; reg [7:0] mem[0:7]; integer i; initial begin

$readmemb("mem.dat", mem, 1, 6); // start_address=1, end_address=6
for (i= 0; i<8; i=i+1) $display("mem[%0d] %b", i, mem[i]);
end endmodule

> vsim -c load

# Loading work.load
VSIM 1> run 10
# ** Warning: $readmem (memory mem) file mem.dat line 2:
#
More patterns than index range (hex 1:6)
#
Time: 0 ns Iteration: 0 Instance:/
# mem[0] xxxxxxxx
# mem[1] xxxxxxxx
# mem[2] 10101111
# mem[3] xxxxxxxx
# mem[4] 01011111
# mem[5] 10101111
# mem[6] x1x1zzzz
# mem[7] xxxxxxxx
VSIM 2> q
>

11.13.3 Timescale, Simulation, and Timing-Check Tasks

Key terms and concepts: timescale tasks: $printtimescale and $timeformat
simulation control tasks: $stop and $finish timing-check tasks edge specifiers

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11.13 Other Verilog Features

43

'edge [01, 0x, x1] clock'is equivalent to 'posedge clock' edge transitions with
'z' are treated the same as transitions with 'x' notifier register (changed when a timingcheck task detects a violation)
Timing-check system task parameters
Timing task arguDescription of argument
ment
reference_event to establish reference time
data_event
limit
threshold
notifier

signal to check against

reference_event
time limit to detect timing violation on
data_event

Type of argument
module input or inout
(scalar or vector net)
module input or inout
(scalar or vector net)
constant expression

or specparam
largest pulse width ignored by timing check constant expression
$width
or specparam
flags a timing violation (before -> after):
register
x->0, 0->1, 1->0, z->z

edge_control_specifier ::= edge [edge_descriptor {, edge_descriptor}]

edge_descriptor ::= 01 | 0x | 10 | 1x | x0 | x1

// timescale tasks:
module a; initial $printtimescale(b.c1); endmodule
module b; c c1 (); endmodule
`timescale 10 ns / 1 fs
module c_dat; endmodule

`timescale 1 ms / 1 ns
module Ttime; initial $timeformat(-9, 5, " ns", 10); endmodule
/* $timeformat [ ( n, p, suffix , min_field_width ) ] ;
units = 1 second ** (-n), n = 0->15, e.g. for n = 9, units = ns
p = digits after decimal point for %t e.g. p = 5 gives 0.00000
suffix for %t (despite timescale directive)
min_field_width is number of character positions for %t */

44

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VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

module test_simulation_control; // simulation control system tasks:

initial begin $stop; // enter interactive mode (default parameter 1)
$finish(2); // graceful exit with optional parameter as follows:
// 0 = nothing 1 = time and location 2 = time, location, and
statistics
end endmodule

module timing_checks (data, clock, clock_1,clock_2);

input data,clock,clock_1,clock_2; reg tSU,tH,tHIGH,tP,tSK,tR;
specify // timing check system tasks:
/* $setup (data_event, reference_event, limit [, notifier]);
violation = (T_reference_event)-(T_data_event) < limit */
$setup(data, posedge clock, tSU);
/* $hold (reference_event, data_event, limit [, notifier]);
violation =
(time_of_data_event)-(time_of_reference_event) < limit */
$hold(posedge clock, data, tH);
/* $setuphold (reference_event, data_event, setup_limit,
hold_limit [, notifier]);
parameter_restriction = setup_limit + hold_limit > 0 */
$setuphold(posedge clock, data, tSU, tH);
/* $width (reference_event, limit, threshold [, notifier]);
violation =
threshold < (T_data_event) - (T_reference_event) < limit
reference_event = edge
data_event = opposite_edge_of_reference_event */
$width(posedge clock, tHIGH);
/* $period (reference_event, limit [, notifier]);
violation = (T_data_event) - (T_reference_event) < limit
reference_event = edge
data_event = same_edge_of_reference event */
$period(posedge clock, tP);
/* $skew (reference_event, data_event, limit [, notifier]);
violation = (T_data_event) - (T_reference_event) > limit */
$skew(posedge clock_1, posedge clock_2, tSK);
/* $recovery (reference_event, data_event, limit, [, notifier]);
violation = (T_data_event) - (T_reference_event) < limit */
$recovery(posedge clock, posedge clock_2, tR);
/* $nochange (reference_event, data_event, start_edge_offset,
end_edge_offset [, notifier]);
reference_event = posedge | negedge

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11
//12
//13
//14
//15
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//32
//33
//34

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.13 Other Verilog Features

violation = change while reference high (posedge)/low (negedge)

+ve start_edge_offset moves start of window later
+ve end_edge_offset moves end of window later */
$nochange (posedge clock, data, 0, 0);
endspecify endmodule

45

//35
//36
//37
//38
//39

primitive dff_udp(q, clock, data, notifier);

output q; reg q; input clock, data, notifier;
table //
clock data notifier:state: q
r
0
?
: ? :
0 ;
r
1
?
: ? :
1 ;
n
?
?
: ? :
- ;
?
*
?
: ? :
- ;
?
?
*
: ? :
x ; endtable // notifier
endprimitive

`timescale 100 fs / 1 fs
module dff(q, clock, data); output q; input clock, data; reg
notifier;
dff_udp(q1, clock, data, notifier); buf(q, q1);
specify
specparam tSU = 5, tH = 1, tPW = 20, tPLH = 4:5:6, tPHL = 4:5:6;
(clock *> q) = (tPLH, tPHL);
$setup(data, posedge clock, tSU, notifier); // setup: data to clock
$hold(posedge clock, data, tH, notifier); // hold: clock to data
$period(posedge clock, tPW, notifier); // clock: period
endspecify
endmodule

11.13.4 PLA Tasks

Key terms and concepts: The PLA modeling tasks model two-level logic eqntott logic
equations array format ('1' or '0' in personality array) espresso input plane format
plane format allows '1', '0', '?' or 'z' (either may be used for dont care) in personality
array
b1 = a1 & a2; b2 = a3 & a4 & a5 ; b3 = a5 & a6 & a7;

array.dat
1100000

46

SECTION 11

VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

0011100
0000111

module pla_1 (a1,a2,a3,a4,a5,a6,a7,b1,b2,b3);

input a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6, a7 ; output b1, b2, b3;
reg [1:7] mem[1:3]; reg b1, b2, b3;
initial begin
$readmemb("array.dat", mem);
#1; b1=1; b2=1; b3=1;
$async$and$array(mem,{a1,a2,a3,a4,a5,a6,a7},{b1,b2,b3});
end
initial $monitor("%4g",$time,,b1,,b2,,b3);
endmodule
b1 = a1 & !a2; b2 = a3; b3 = !a1 & !a3; b4 = 1;

module pla_2; reg [1:3] a, mem[1:4]; reg [1:4] b;

initial begin
$async$and$plane(mem,{a[1],a[2],a[3]},{b[1],b[2],b[3],b[4]});
mem[1] = 3'b10?; mem[2] = 3'b??1; mem[3] = 3'b0?0; mem[4] = 3'b???;
#10 a = 3'b111; #10 $displayb(a, " -> ", b);
#10 a = 3'b000; #10 $displayb(a, " -> ", b);
#10 a = 3'bxxx; #10 $displayb(a, " -> ", b);
#10 a = 3'b101; #10 $displayb(a, " -> ", b);
end endmodule

111
000
xxx
101

->
->
->
->

0101
0011
xxx1
1101

11.13.5 Stochastic Analysis Tasks

Key terms and concepts: The stochastic analysis tasks model queues

module stochastic; initial begin // stochastic analysis system tasks:

/* $q_initialize (q_id, q_type, max_length, status) ;

q_id is an integer that uniquely identifies the queue

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.13 Other Verilog Features

47

Status values for the stochastic analysis tasks.

Status value
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Meaning
OK
queue full, cannot add
undefined q_id
queue empty, cannot remove
unsupported q_type, cannot create queue
max_length <= 0, cannot create queue
duplicate q_id, cannot create queue
not enough memory, cannot create queue

q_type 1=FIFO 2=LIFO

max_length is an integer defining the maximum number of entries */

$q_initialize (q_id, q_type, max_length, status) ;

/* $q_add (q_id, job_id, inform_id, status) ;

job_id = integer input
inform_id = user-defined integer input for queue entry */
$q_add (q_id, job_id, inform_id, status) ;

/* $q_remove (q_id, job_id, inform_id, status) ; */

$q_remove (q_id, job_id, inform_id, status) ;

/* $q_full (q_id, status) ;

status = 0 = queue is not full, status = 1 = queue full */
$q_full (q_id, status) ;

/* $q_exam (q_id, q_stat_code, q_stat_value, status) ;

q_stat_code is input request as follows:
1=current queue length 2=mean inter-arrival time 3=max. queue length
4=shortest wait time ever
5=longest wait time for jobs still in queue 6=ave. wait time in queue

48

SECTION 11

VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

q_stat_value is output containing requested value */

$q_exam (q_id, q_stat_code, q_stat_value, status) ;

end endmodule
11.13.6 Simulation Time Functions
Key terms and concepts: The simulation time functions return the time

module test_time; initial begin // simulation time system functions:

$time ;
// returns 64-bit integer scaled to timescale unit of invoking module

$stime ;
// returns 32-bit integer scaled to timescale unit of invoking module

$realtime ;
// returns real scaled to timescale unit of invoking module

end endmodule

11.13.7 Conversion Functions

Key terms and concepts: The conversion functions for reals handle real numbers:

module test_convert; // conversion functions for reals:

integer i; real r; reg [63:0] bits;
initial begin #1 r=256;#1 i = $rtoi(r);
#1; r = $itor(2 * i) ; #1 bits = $realtobits(2.0 * r) ;
#1; r = $bitstoreal(bits) ; end
initial $monitor("%3f",$time,,i,,r,,bits); /*
$rtoi converts reals to integers w/truncation e.g. 123.45 -> 123
$itor converts integers to reals e.g. 123 -> 123.0
$realtobits converts reals to 64-bit vector
$bitstoreal converts bit pattern to real
Real numbers in these functions conform to IEEE Std 754. Conversion
rounds to the nearest valid number. */
endmodule

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11.13 Other Verilog Features

49

module test_real;wire [63:0]a; driver d (a); receiver r (a);

initial $monitor("%3g",$time,,a,,d.r1,,r.r2);endmodule

module driver (real_net);

output real_net; real r1; wire [64:1] real_net = $realtobits(r1);
initial #1 r1 = 123.456; endmodule

module receiver (real_net);

input real_net; wire [64:1] real_net; real r2;
initial assign r2 = $bitstoreal(real_net);
endmodule

11.13.8 Probability Distribution Functions

Key terms and concepts: probability distribution functions $random uniform normal
exponential poisson chi_square t erlang
module probability; // probability distribution functions:
/* $random [ ( seed ) ] returns random 32-bit signed integer
seed = register, integer, or time */
reg [23:0] r1,r2; integer r3,r4,r5,r6,r7,r8,r9;
integer seed, start, \end , mean, standard_deviation;
integer degree_of_freedom, k_stage;
initial begin seed=1; start=0; \end =6; mean=5;
standard_deviation=2; degree_of_freedom=2; k_stage=1; #1;
r1 = $random % 60; // random -59 to 59
r2 = {$random} % 60; // positive value 0-59
r3=$dist_uniform (seed, start, \end ) ;
r4=$dist_normal (seed, mean, standard_deviation) ;
r5=$dist_exponential (seed, mean) ;
r6=$dist_poisson (seed, mean) ;
r7=$dist_chi_square (seed, degree_of_freedom) ;
r8=$dist_t (seed, degree_of_freedom) ;
r9=$dist_erlang (seed, k_stage, mean) ;end
initial #2 $display ("%3f",$time,,r1,,r2,,r3,,r4,,r5);
initial begin #3; $display ("%3f",$time,,r6,,r7,,r8,,r9);end
/* All parameters are integer values.
Each function returns a pseudo-random number
e.g. $dist_uniform returns uniformly distributed random numbers
mean, degree_of_freedom, k_stage

//1
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//23

50

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VERILOG HDL

ASICS... THE COURSE

(exponential, poisson, chi-square, t, erlang) > 0.

seed = inout integer initialized by user, updated by function
start, end ($dist_uniform) = integer bounding return values */
endmodule

2.000000
3.000000

57
7

0
3

4
0

//24
//25
//26
//27

9
2

11.13.9 Programming Language Interface

Key terms and concepts: The C language Programming Language Interface (PLI) allows you
to access the internal Verilog data structure three generations of PLI routines task/function
(TF) routines (or utility routines) access (ACC) routines access delay and logic values Verilog
Procedural Interface (VPI) routines are a superset of the TF and ACC routines

11.14 Summary
Key terms and concepts: concurrent processes and sequential execution difference between a
reg and a wire scalars and vectors arithmetic operations on reg and wire data slip
delays and events

ASICs... THE COURSE

11.14 Summary

51

Verilog on one page

Verilog feature

Example

Comments

a = 0; // comment ends with newline

/* This is a multiline or block
comment */

Constants: string and numeric

parameter BW = 32 // local, BW
`define G_BUS 32 // global, `G_BUS
4'b2 1'bx

Names (case-sensitive, start with letter or '_')

Two basic types of logic signals: wire and reg
Use continuous assignment statement with wire
Use procedural assignment statement with reg
Buses and vectors use square brackets
We can perform arithmetic on bit vectors

_12name A_name $BAD NotSame notsame

Arithmetic is performed modulo 2n

Operators: as in C (but not ++ or -- )
Fixed logic-value system
Basic unit of code is the module

reg [2:0] R; R = 7 + 1; // now R = 0

wire myWire; reg myReg;

assign myWire = 1;
always myReg = myWire;
reg [31:0] DBus; DBus[12] = 1'bx;
reg [31:0] DBus; DBus = DBus + 2;

1, 0, x (unknown), z (high-impedance)
module bake (chips, dough, cookies);
input chips, dough; output cookies;
assign cookies = chips & dough;
endmodule

Ports

input or input/output ports are wire

output ports are wire or reg

Procedures happen at the same time

and may be sensitive to an edge, posedge,
negedge, or to a level.

always @rain sing; always @rain

dance;
always @(posedge clock) D = Q; //
flop
always @(a or b) c = a & b; // and
gate

Sequential blocks model repeating things:

always: executes forever
initial: executes once only at start of simulation

initial born;
always @alarm_clock begin : a_day
metro=commute; bulot=work;
dodo=sleep;
end

Functions and tasks

function ... endfunction

task ... endtask

Output

$display("a=%f",a);$dumpvars;$monitor
(a)

Control simulation
Compiler directives

$stop; $finish // sudden/gentle halt

Delay

#1 a = b;
a = #1 b;

`timescale 1ns/1ps //
units/resolution
// delay then sample b
// sample b then delay

ASICs...THE COURSE (1 WEEK)

LOGIC
SYNTHESIS

12

Key terms and concepts: logic synthesis converts an HDL behavioral model (Verilog or
VHDL) to a netlist (structural model) the same way a C compiler converts C code to machine
language a cell library is called the target library

SECTION 12

LOGIC SYNTHESIS

ASICS... THE COURSE

12.1 A Logic-Synthesis Example

A comparison of hand design with synthesis (using a 1.0 m VLSI Technology cell
library)

Hand design
Synthesized design

Path delay/
ns
41.6
36.3

No. of
standard cells
1,359
1,493

0
1

outp[2]

a[1]
b[1]

0
1

outp[1]

a[0]
b[0]

0
1

outp[0]

a[2]
b[2]

sel

No. of
transistors
16,545
11,946

Chip area/
mils2
21,877
18,322

// comp_mux.v
module comp_mux(a, b, outp);
input [2:0] a, b;
output [2:0] outp;
function [2:0] compare;
input [2:0] ina, inb;
begin
if (ina <= inb) compare = ina;
else compare = inb;
end
endfunction
assign outp = compare(a, b);
endmodule

Comparison of the comparator/MUX designs using a 1.0 m standard-cell library

Delay /ns
Hand design
Synthesized

4.3
2.9

No. of standard
cells
12
15

No. of
transistors
116
66

Area /mils2
68.68
46.43

12.2 A Comparator/MUX
Key terms and concepts: synopsys_dc.setup script derived schematic analysis
elaboration logic optimization logic-mapping timing-analysis (timing engine)

ASICs... THE COURSE

12.2 A Comparator/MUX

`timescale 1ns / 10ps

module comp_mux_u (a, b, outp);
input [2:0] a; input [2:0] b;
output [2:0] outp;
supply1 VDD; supply0 VSS;
in01d0 u2 (.I(b[1]), .ZN(u2_ZN));
nd02d0 u3 (.A1(a[1]), .A2(u2_ZN), .ZN(u3_ZN));
in01d0 u4 (.I(a[1]), .ZN(u4_ZN));
nd02d0 u5 (.A1(u4_ZN), .A2(b[1]), .ZN(u5_ZN));
in01d0 u6 (.I(a[0]), .ZN(u6_ZN));
nd02d0 u7 (.A1(u6_ZN), .A2(u3_ZN), .ZN(u7_ZN));
nd02d0 u8 (.A1(b[0]), .A2(u3_ZN), .ZN(u8_ZN));
nd03d0 u9 (.A1(u5_ZN), .A2(u7_ZN), .A3(u8_ZN),
.ZN(u9_ZN));
in01d0 u10 (.I(a[2]), .ZN(u10_ZN));
nd02d0 u11 (.A1(u10_ZN), .A2(u9_ZN),
.ZN(u11_ZN));
nd02d0 u12 (.A1(b[2]), .A2(u9_ZN), .ZN(u12_ZN));
nd02d0 u13 (.A1(u10_ZN), .A2(b[2]), .ZN(u13_ZN));
nd03d0 u14 (.A1(u11_ZN), .A2(u12_ZN),
.A3(u13_ZN), .ZN(u14_ZN));
nd02d0 u15 (.A1(a[2]), .A2(u14_ZN), .ZN(u15_ZN));
in01d0 u16 (.I(u14_ZN), .ZN(u16_ZN));
nd02d0 u17 (.A1(b[2]), .A2(u16_ZN), .ZN(u17_ZN));
nd02d0 u18 (.A1(u15_ZN), .A2(u17_ZN),
.ZN(outp[2]));
nd02d0 u19 (.A1(a[1]), .A2(u14_ZN), .ZN(u19_ZN));
nd02d0 u20 (.A1(b[1]), .A2(u16_ZN), .ZN(u20_ZN));
nd02d0 u21 (.A1(u19_ZN), .A2(u20_ZN),
.ZN(outp[1]));
nd02d0 u22 (.A1(a[0]), .A2(u14_ZN), .ZN(u22_ZN));
nd02d0 u23 (.A1(b[0]), .A2(u16_ZN), .ZN(u23_ZN));
nd02d0 u24 (.A1(u22_ZN), .A2(u23_ZN),
.ZN(outp[0]));

b[1]

a[1] a[1] a[0]

b[0]

b[1]

a[2]

b[2]
b[2]

logic cell names

INV (in01d0)
NAND2 (nd02d0)
NAND3 (nd03d0)
a[1] a[2]

endmodule

a[0]
a[1]

outp[1] outp[2]

The comparator/MUX after logic synthesis, but before logic optimization

The structural netlist, comp_mux_u.v, and its derived schematic

b[2]

b[0]

outp[0]

SECTION 12

LOGIC SYNTHESIS

`timescale 1ns / 10ps

module comp_mux_o (a, b, outp);
input [2:0] a; input [2:0] b;
output [2:0] outp;
supply1 VDD; supply0 VSS;
in01d0 B1_i1 (.I(a[2]),
.ZN(B1_i1_ZN));
in01d0 B1_i2 (.I(b[1]),
.ZN(B1_i2_ZN));
oa01d1 B1_i3 (.A1(a[0]),
.A2(B1_i4_ZN), .B1(B1_i2_ZN),
.B2(a[1]), .ZN(B1_i3_Z;
fn05d1 B1_i4 (.A1(a[1]), .B1(b[1]),
.ZN(B1_i4_ZN));
fn02d1 B1_i5 (.A(B1_i3_ZN),
.B(B1_i1_ZN), .C(b[2]),
.ZN(B1_i5_ZN));
mx21d1 B1_i6 (.I0(a[0]), .I1(b[0]),
.S(B1_i5_ZN), .Z(outp[0]));
mx21d1 B1_i7 (.I0(a[1]), .I1(b[1]),
.S(B1_i5_ZN), .Z(outp[1]));
mx21d1 B1_i8 (.I0(a[2]), .I1(b[2]),
.S(B1_i5_ZN), .Z(outp[2]));

ASICS... THE COURSE

b[1]

b[1]
INV
(in01d0)

a[1]

NOR1-1
(fn05d1)

a[2]

a[1]

a[0]

INV
(in01d0)
OAI22
(oa01d1)

b[2]

critical path

MAJ3
(fn02d1)

endmodule

sel
b[0]

a[0]

MUX
(mx21d1)

outp[0]

b[2]

a[2]

outp[2]

b[1] a[1]
1

outp[1]

The comparator/MUX after logic synthesis and logic optimization with the default settings
The structural netlist, comp_mux_o.v, and its derived schematic

ASICs... THE COURSE

12.2 A Comparator/MUX

12.2.1 An Actel Version of the Comparator/MUX

Key terms and concepts: Actel ACT 2/3 FPGA architecture the symbols represent the
eight-input ACT 2/3 C-Module the logic synthesizer, in the technology-mapping step, decides
the connections to the inputs to the logic macro, CM8
`timescale 1 ns/100 ps
module comp_mux_actel_o (a, b, outp);
input [2:0] a, b; output [2:0] outp;
wire n_13, n_17, n_19, n_21, n_23, n_27, n_29,
n_31, n_62;
CM8 I_5_CM8(.D0(n_31), .D1(n_62), .D2(a[0]),
.D3(n_62), .S00(n_62), .S01(n_13), .S10(n_23),
.S11(n_21), .Y(outp[0]));
CM8 I_2_CM8(.D0(n_31), .D1(n_19), .D2(n_62),
.D3(n_62), .S00(n_62), .S01(b[1]), .S10(n_31),
.S11(n_17), .Y(outp[1]));
CM8 I_1_CM8(.D0(n_31), .D1(n_31), .D2(b[2]),
.D3(n_31), .S00(n_62), .S01(n_31), .S10(n_31),
.S11(a[2]), .Y(outp[2]));
VCC VCC_I(.Y(n_62));
CM8 I_4_CM8(.D0(a[2]), .D1(n_31), .D2(n_62),
.D3(n_62), .S00(n_62), .S01(b[2]), .S10(n_31),
.S11(a[1]), .Y(n_19));
CM8 I_7_CM8(.D0(b[1]), .D1(b[2]), .D2(n_31),
.D3(n_31), .S00(a[2]), .S01(b[1]), .S10(n_31),
.S11(a[1]), .Y(n_23));
CM8 I_9_CM8(.D0(n_31), .D1(n_31), .D2(a[1]),
.D3(n_31), .S00(n_62), .S01(b[1]), .S10(n_31),
.S11(b[0]), .Y(n_27));
CM8 I_8_CM8(.D0(n_29), .D1(n_62), .D2(n_31),
.D3(a[2]), .S00(n_62), .S01(n_27), .S10(n_31),
.S11(b[2]), .Y(n_13));
CM8 I_3_CM8(.D0(n_31), .D1(n_31), .D2(a[1]),
.D3(n_31), .S00(n_62), .S01(a[2]), .S10(n_31),
.S11(b[2]), .Y(n_17));
CM8 I_6_CM8(.D0(b[2]), .D1(n_31), .D2(n_62),
.D3(n_62), .S00(n_62), .S01(a[2]), .S10(n_31),
.S11(b[0]), .Y(n_21));
CM8 I_10_CM8(.D0(n_31), .D1(n_31), .D2(b[0]),
.D3(n_31), .S00(n_62), .S01(n_31), .S10(n_31),
.S11(a[2]), .Y(n_29));
GND GND_I(.Y(n_31));
endmodule

VCC
b[0]
b[2]
a[2]

b[2]

a[1]
a[2]

n_62
a[1] a[2]
b[2]

n_31

a[2] b[0]

a[2] b[2]

GND
b[0] b[1] a[1]

outp[2]
b[1]
outp[1]

a[1] a[2] b[1]

b[1] b[2]
a[0]

outp[0]
S10S00 D3 D1
S11 S01
D2 D0
Actel ACT2/3
C-Module

CM8

The Actel version of the comparator/MUX after logic optimization

The structural netlist, comp_mux_actel_o_adl_e.v, and its derived schematic

b[2] a[2]

SECTION 12

LOGIC SYNTHESIS

ASICS... THE COURSE

12.3 Inside a Logic Synthesizer

Key terms and concepts: The logic synthesizer parses the Verilog and builds an internal data
structure (CDFG) logic minimization finds a minimum cover synthesized network logic
optimization uses factoring, substitution, and elimination technology-decomposition builds
a generic network technology-mapping (logic-mapping) matches pieces of the network with
the logic cells we imply A the logic synthesizer has to infer B we must write HDL code so
A=B

12.4 Synthesis of the Viterbi Decoder

12.4.1 ASIC I/O
Key terms and concepts: inference of I/O cells directives for special pads (clock buffers) pullup resistor, slew rate no standards no accepted way to set these parameters from an HDL
generic technology-independent I/O models instantiate I/O cells directly from a library
//
//
//
//
//
//
//

asPadBidir #(W, N, S, L, P) I (Pad, toCore, frCore, OEN)

W = width, integer (default=1)
N = pin number string, e.g. "1:3,5:8"
S = strength = {2, 4, 8, 16} in mA drive
L = level = {cmos, ttl, schmitt} (default = cmos)
P = pull-up resistor = {down, float, none, up}
Vxx = {Vss, Vdd}

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7

module PadTri (Pad, I, Oen); // active-low output enable

parameter width = 1, pinNumbers = "", \strength = 1,
level = "CMOS", externalVdd = 5;
output [width-1:0] Pad; input [width-1:0] I; input Oen;
assign #1 Pad = (Oen ? {width{1'bz}} : I);
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6

module PadBidir (C, Pad, I, Oen); // active-low output enable

parameter width = 1, pinNumbers = "", \strength = 1,
level = "CMOS", pull = "none", externalVdd = 5;
output [width-1:0] C; inout [width-1:0] Pad;
input [width-1:0] I; input Oen;
assign #1 Pad = Oen ? {width{1'bz}} : I;assign #1 C = Pad;
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7

ASICs... THE COURSE

12.4 Synthesis of the Viterbi Decoder

sel

a[0]b[0]
00 01 11 10
a[1]b[1]

sel

a[0]b[0]
00 01 11 10

00

01

a[1]b[1] 00

01

11

11

10

10

sel

a[0]b[0]
00 01 11 10

sel

a[0]b[0]
00 01 11 10

00

00

01

01

11

11

10

10

a[2]b[2]=00

a[2]b[2]=01

(a)

a[1]b[1]

a0

a2' b2'

b1

1
(b)

a[1]b[1]

a[2]b[2]=10

3
a1
b0

a[2]b[2]=11

a2' b2

2
2

a2 b2'

1 4

5
6
3
2

5
6

a2 b2

5
4

sel = a1*!b1*!b2 + a0*!b1*!b2 + a0*a1*!b2 + a1*!b1*a2 + a0*!b1*a2 + a0*a1*a2 + a2*!b1

=
1
+
2
+
3
+
4
+
5
+
6
+ 7

Logic maps for the comparator/MUX

(a) If the input b is less than a, then sel is '1'. If a=b, then sel = 'x' (dont care)
(b) A cover for sel.

SECTION 12

LOGIC SYNTHESIS

ASICS... THE COURSE

12.4.2 Flip-Flops
Key terms and concepts: synthesis tools cannot handle two wait statements
module dff(D,Q,Clock,Reset); // N.B. reset is active-low
output Q; input D,Clock,Reset;
parameter CARDINALITY = 1; reg [CARDINALITY-1:0] Q;
wire [CARDINALITY-1:0] D;
always @(posedge Clock) if (Reset!==0) #1 Q=D;
always begin wait (Reset==0); Q=0; wait (Reset==1); end
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7

module dff(D, Q, Clk, Rst); // new flip-flop for Viterbi decoder

parameter width = 1, reset_value = 0; input [width - 1 : 0] D;
output [width - 1 : 0] Q; reg [width - 1 : 0] Q; input Clk, Rst;
initial Q <= {width{1'bx}};
always @ ( posedge Clk or negedge Rst )
if ( Rst == 0 ) Q <= #1 reset_value;else Q <= #1 D;
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7

12.4.3 The Top-Level Model

Key terms and concepts: top-level Viterbi decoder generic input, output, power, and clock I/O
cells from the standard-component library
/* This is the top-level module, viterbi_ASIC.v */
module viterbi_ASIC
(padin0, padin1, padin2, padin3, padin4, padin5, padin6, padin7,
padOut, padClk, padRes, padError);
input [2:0] padin0, padin1, padin2, padin3,
padin4, padin5, padin6, padin7;
input padRes, padClk; output padError; output [2:0] padOut;
wire Error, Clk, Res; wire [2:0] Out; // core
wire padError, padClk, padRes; wire [2:0] padOut;
wire [2:0] in0,in1,in2,in3,in4,in5,in6,in7; // core
wire [2:0]
padin0, padin1,padin2,padin3,padin4,padin5,padin6,padin7;
// Do not let the software mess with the pads.
//compass dontTouch u*
asPadIn #(3,"1,2,3") u0 (in0, padin0);
asPadIn #(3,"4,5,6") u1 (in1, padin1);
asPadIn #(3,"7,8,9") u2 (in2, padin2);
asPadIn #(3,"10,11,12") u3 (in3, padin3);
asPadIn #(3,"13,14,15") u4 (in4, padin4);

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11
//12
//13
//14
//15
//16
//17
//18
//19

ASICs... THE COURSE

12.4 Synthesis of the Viterbi Decoder

subset_decode

sout2
sout3
sout1
sout0

clk

ACS1
ACS3

pathin

sout0
sout1
sout2
sout3
ACS0
ACS2

in0-7

reset
clk

path0[11:0]

s0-3
path_memory
p0-3

ACS0

out[2:0]

ACS1
ACS2
ACS3
path0[11:0]

ACS3
ACS1
ACS2
ACS0

p0_0-p3_3

out0-3

control

p0_0-p3_3

clk
reduce

reset

output_decision

metric
m_out0-3

m_in0-3

compare_select

error

s0-3
compute_metric

The core logic of the Viterbi decoder . Bus names are abbreviated (label m_out0-3 denotes
four buses: m_out0, m_out1, m_out2, and m_out3)
asPadIn #(3,"16,17,18") u5 (in5, padin5);
asPadIn #(3,"19,20,21") u6 (in6, padin6);
asPadIn #(3,"22,23,24") u7 (in7, padin7);
asPadVdd #("25","both") u25 (vddb);
asPadVss #("26","both") u26 (vssb);
asPadClk #("27") u27 (Clk, padClk);
asPadOut #(1,"28") u28 (padError, Error);
asPadin #(1,"29") u29 (Res, padRes);
asPadOut #(3,"30,31,32") u30 (padOut, Out);
// Here is the core module:
viterbi v_1

//20
//21
//22
//23
//24
//25
//26
//27
//28
//29
//30

10

SECTION 12

LOGIC SYNTHESIS

(in0,in1,in2,in3,in4,in5,in6,in7,Out,Clk,Res,Error);
endmodule

ASICS... THE COURSE

//31
//32

ASICs... THE COURSE

12.5 Verilog and Logic Synthesis

11

12.5 Verilog and Logic Synthesis

Key terms and concepts: top-down design approach stubs contain a minimum of code

module MyChip_ASIC()
// behavioral "always", etc. ...
SecondLevelStub1 port mapping
SecondLevelStub2 port mapping
... endmodule
module SecondLevelStub1() ... assign Output1 = ~Input1; endmodule
module SecondLevelStub2() ... assign Output2 = ~Input2;
endmodule

12.5.1 Verilog Modeling

Key terms and concepts: synthesizable synthesis policy modeling style functionally
identical, or functionally equivalent
12.5.2 Delays in Verilog
Key terms and concepts: Synthesis tools ignore delay values
module Step_Time(clk, phase);
input clk; output [2:0] phase; reg [2:0] phase;
always @(posedge clk) begin
phase <=
4'b0000;
phase <= #1 4'b0001; phase <= #2 4'b0010;
phase <= #3 4'b0011; phase <= #4 4'b0100;
end
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8

module Step_Count (clk_5x, phase);

//1
input clk_5x; output [2:0] phase; reg [2:0] phase;
//2
always@(posedge clk_5x)
//3
case (phase)
//4
0:phase = #1 1; 1:phase = #1 2; 2:phase = #1 3; 3:phase = #1 4; //5
default: phase = #1 0;
//6
endcase
//7
endmodule
//8
12.5.3 Blocking and Nonblocking Assignments
Key terms and concepts: race condition (or a race)

12

SECTION 12

LOGIC SYNTHESIS

ASICS... THE COURSE

module race(clk, q0); input clk, q0; reg q1, q2;

always @(posedge clk) q1 = #1 q0; always @(posedge clk) q2 = #1 q1;
endmodule

module no_race_1(clk, q0, q2); input clk, q0; output q2; reg q1, q2;
always @(posedge clk) begin q2 = q1; q1 = q0; end
endmodule

module no_race_2(clk, q0, q2); input clk, q0; output q2; reg q1, q2;
always @(posedge clk) q1 <= #1 q0; always @(posedge clk) q2 <= #1 q1;
endmodule

12.5.4 Combinational Logic in Verilog

Key terms and concepts: level-sensitive sensitivity list continuous assignment statements
also imply combinational logic

module And_Always(x, y, z); input x,y; output z; reg z;

always @(x or y) z <= x & y; // combinational logic method 1
endmodule

module And_Assign(x, y, z); input x,y; output z; wire z;

assign z <= x & y; // combinational logic method 2 = method 1
endmodule

module And_Or (a,b,c,z); input a,b,c; output z; reg [1:0]z;

always @(a or b or c) begin z[1]<= &{a,b,c}; z[2]<= |{a,b,c};end
endmodule

module Parity (BusIn, outp); input[7:0] BusIn; output outp; reg outp;
always @(BusIn) if (^Busin == 0) outp = 1; else outp = 0;
endmodule

module And_Bad(a, b, c); input a, b; output c; reg c;

always@(a) c <= a & b; // b is missing from this sensitivity list
endmodule

ASICs... THE COURSE

12.5 Verilog and Logic Synthesis

13

module CL_good(a, b, c); input a, b; output c; reg c;

always@(a or b)
begin c = a + b; d = a & b; e = c + d; end // c, d: LHS before RHS
endmodule

module CL_bad(a, b, c); input a, b; output c; reg c;

always@(a or b)
begin e = c + d; c = a + b; d = a & b; end // c, d: RHS before LHS
endmodule

// The complement of this function is too big for synthesis.

module Achilles (out, in); output out; input [30:1] in;
assign out = in[30]&in[29]&in[28] | in[27]&in[26]&in[25]
| in[24]&in[23]&in[22] | in[21]&in[20]&in[19]
| in[18]&in[17]&in[16] | in[15]&in[14]&in[13]
| in[12]&in[11]&in[10] | in[9] & in[8]&in[7]
| in[6] & in[5]&in[4] | in[3] & in[2]&in[1];
endmodule
12.5.5 Multiplexers In Verilog
Key terms and concepts: We imply a MUX using a case or if statement metalogical values or
simbits (such as 'x') are not real avoid using casex and casez statements if you need
to remember a value, this implies sequential logic

module Mux_21a(sel, a, b, z); input sel, a , b; output z; reg z;

always @(a or b or sel)
begin case(sel) 1'b0: z <= a; 1'b1: z <= b; end
endmodule

module Mux_x(sel, a, b, z); input sel, a, b; output z; reg z;

always @(a or b or sel)
begin case(sel) 1'b0: z <= 0; 1'b1: z <= 1; 1'bx: z <= 'x';end
endmodule

module Mux_21b(sel, a, b, z); input sel, a, b; output z; reg z;

always @(a or b or sel) begin if (sel) z <= a else z <= b; end
endmodule

14

SECTION 12

LOGIC SYNTHESIS

ASICS... THE COURSE

module Mux_Latch(sel, a, b, z); input sel, a, b; output z; reg z;

always @(a or sel) begin if (sel) z <= a; end
endmodule

module Mux_81(InBus, sel, OE, OutBit);

input [7:0] InBus; input [2:0] Sel;
input OE; output OutBit; reg OutBit;
always @(OE or sel or InBus)
begin
if (OE == 1) OutBit = InBus[sel]; else OutBit = 1'bz;
end
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8

12.5.6 The Verilog Case Statement

Key terms and concepts: exhaustive compiler directive synthesis directive
pseudocomment an 'x' (synthesis dont care value) gives the synthesizer flexibility in
optimization priority encoder
module case8_oneHot(oneHot, a, b, c, z);
input a, b, c; input [2:0] oneHot; output z; reg z;
always @(oneHot or a or b or c)
begin case(oneHot) //synopsys full_case
3'b001: z <= a; 3'b010: z <= b; 3'b100: z <= c;
default: z <= 1'bx; endcase
end
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8

module case8_priority(oneHot, a, b, c, z);

input a, b, c; input [2:0] oneHot; output z; reg z;
always @(oneHot or a or b or c) begin
case(1'b1) //synopsys parallel_case
oneHot[0]: z <= a;
oneHot[1]: z <= b;
oneHot[2]: z <= c;
default: z <= 1'bx; endcase
end
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10

ASICs... THE COURSE

12.5 Verilog and Logic Synthesis

15

12.5.7 Decoders In Verilog

Key terms and concepts: the synthesizer infers a three-state buffer from an assignment of 'z'
module Decoder_4To16(enable, In_4, Out_16); // 4-to-16 decoder
input enable; input [3:0] In_4; output [15:0] Out_16;
reg [15:0] Out_16;
always @(enable or In_4)
begin Out_16 = 16'hzzzz;
if (enable == 1)
begin Out_16 = 16'h0000; Out_16[In_4] = 1;end
end
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9

if (enable === 1) // can't make logic to check for enable = x or z

12.5.8 Priority Encoder in Verilog
Key terms and concepts: The logic synthesizer must be able to unroll a loop in a for statement.
module Pri_Encoder32 (InBus, Clk, OE, OutBus);
input [31:0]InBus; input OE, Clk; output [4:0]OutBus;
reg j; reg [4:0]OutBus;
always@(posedge Clk)
begin
if (OE == 0) OutBus = 5'bz ;
else
begin OutBus = 0;
for (j = 31; j >= 0; j = j - 1)
begin if (InBus[j] == 1) OutBus = j; end
end
end
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
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//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11
//12
//13

12.5.9 Arithmetic in Verilog

Key terms and concepts: make room for the carry bit when you add two numbers in Verilog
resource allocation resource sharing multiplication assumes nets are unsigned
module Adder_8 (A, B, Z, Cin, Cout);
input [7:0] A, B; input Cin; output [7:0] Z; output Cout;
assign {Cout, Z} = A + B + Cin;
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4

module Adder_16 (A, B, Sum, Cout);

input [15:0] A, B; output [15:0] Sum; output Cout;

//1
//2

16

SECTION 12

LOGIC SYNTHESIS

ASICS... THE COURSE

reg [15:0] Sum; reg Cout;

always @(A or B) {Cout, Sum} = A + B + 1; // One adder not two!
endmodule

//3
//4
//5

module Add_A (sel, a, b, c, d, y);

input a, b, c, d, sel; output y; reg y;
always@(sel or a or b or c or d) // One or two adders?
begin if (sel == 0) y <= a + b; else y <= c + d; end
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5

module Add_B (sel, a, b, c, d, y);

input a, b, c, d, sel; output y; reg t1, t2, y;
always@(sel or a or b or c or d) begin // One adder not two!
if (sel == 0) begin t1 = a; t2 = b; end // Temporary
else
begin t1 = c; t2 = d; end // variables.
y = t1 + t2; end
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
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//7

module Multiply_unsigned (A, B, Z);

input [1:0] A, B; output [3:0] Z;
assign Z <= A * B;
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4

module Multiply_signed (A, B, Z);

input [1:0] A, B; output [3:0] Z;
// 00 -> 00_00 01 -> 00_01 10 -> 11_10 11 -> 11_11
assign Z = { { 2{A[1]} }, A} * { { 2{B[1]} }, B};
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5

12.5.10 Sequential Logic in Verilog

Key terms and concepts: edges (posedge or negedge) in the sensitivity list of an always
statement imply a clocked storage element however, an always statement does not have to
be edge-sensitive to imply sequential logic all sequential logic cells must be initialized
template synthesis style guide
always@(posedge clock) Q_flipflop = D; // A flip-flop.
always@(clock or D) if (clock) Q_latch = D; // A latch.
always@(posedge clock or negedge reset) // names mean nothing,
always@(posedge day or negedge year) // which is the reset?

ASICs... THE COURSE

12.5 Verilog and Logic Synthesis

17

always@(posedge clk or negedge reset) begin // Template for reset:

if (reset == 0) Q = 0; // initialize,
else Q = D;
// normal clocking
end

module Counter_With_Reset (count, clock, reset);

input clock, reset; output count; reg [7:0] count;
always @ (posedge clock or negedge reset)
if (reset == 0) count = 0; else count = count + 1;
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5

module DFF_MasterSlave (D, clock, reset, Q); // D type flip-flop

input D, clock, reset; output Q; reg Q, latch;
always @(posedge clock or posedge reset)
if (reset == 1) latch = 0; else latch = D; // the master.
always @(latch) Q = latch; // the slave.
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6

12.5.11 Component Instantiation in Verilog

Key terms and concepts: HDL description is technology-independent (CMOS, FPGA, TTL,
GaAs) the only way to use a particular cell is to use structural Verilog and hand instantiation
dont_touch soft models or standard components DesignWare

//Compass dontTouch my_inv_8x or // synopsys dont_touch

INVD8 my_inv_8x(.I(a), .ZN(b) );

module Count4(clk, reset, Q0, Q1, Q2, Q3);

input clk, reset; output Q0, Q1, Q2, Q3; wire Q0, Q1, Q2, Q3;
//
Q , D , clk, reset
asDff dff0( Q0, ~Q0, clk, reset); // The asDff is a
asDff dff1( Q1, ~Q1, Q0, reset); // standard component,
asDff dff2( Q2, ~Q2, Q1, reset); // unique to one set of tools.
asDff dff3( Q3, ~Q3, Q2, reset);
endmodule

//1
//2
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//8

module asDff (D, Q, Clk, Rst);

parameter width = 1, reset_value = 0;
input [width-1:0] D; output [width-1:0] Q; reg [width-1:0] Q;
input Clk,Rst; initial Q = {width{1'bx}};
always @ ( posedge Clk or negedge Rst )

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5

18

SECTION 12

LOGIC SYNTHESIS

if ( Rst==0 ) Q <= #1 reset_value; else Q <= #1 D;

endmodule

ASICS... THE COURSE

//6
//7

12.5.12 Datapath Synthesis in Verilog

Key terms and concepts: Datapath synthesis Synopsys VHDL DesignWare compiler directives X-BLOX LPM (library of parameterized modules) RPM (relationally placed modules)
thinking like the hardware

module DP_csum(A1,B1,Z1); input [3:0] A1,B1; output Z1; reg [3:0] Z1;
always@(A1 or B1) Z1 <= A1 + B1;//Compass adder_arch cond_sum_add
endmodule

module DP_ripp(A2,B2,Z2); input [3:0] A2,B2; output Z2; reg [3:0] Z2;
always@(A2 or B2) Z2 <= A2 + B2;//Compass adder_arch ripple_add
endmodule

module DP_sub_A(A,B,OutBus,CarryIn);
input [3:0] A, B ; input CarryIn ;
output OutBus ; reg [3:0] OutBus ;
always@(A or B or CarryIn) OutBus <= A - B - CarryIn ;
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5

module DP_sub_B (A, B, CarryIn, Z) ;

input [3:0] A, B, CarryIn ; output [3:0] Z; reg [3:0] Z;
always@(A or B or CarryIn) begin
case (CarryIn)
1'b1 :
Z <= A - B - 1'b1;
default : Z <= A - B - 1'b0; endcase
end
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8

12.6 VHDL and Logic Synthesis

Key terms and concepts: IEEE VHDL nine-value system You can use '1', 'H', '0', and 'L'
in any manner Some synthesis tools do not accept 'U' You can use logic states 'Z', 'X',
'W', and '-' in assignments in any manner 'Z' is synthesized to three-state logic 'X', 'W',

ASICs... THE COURSE

12.6 VHDL and Logic Synthesis

19

and '-' are treated as unknown or dont care values The IEEE synthesis packages provide the
STD_MATCH function for comparisons
12.6.1 Initialization and Reset
Key terms and concepts: a VHDL process with a sensitivity list synthesizes to clocked logic
with a reset

process (signal_1, signal_2) begin

if (signal_2'EVENT and signal_2 = '0')
then -- Insert initialization and reset statements.
elsif (signal_1'EVENT and signal_1 = '1')
then -- Insert clocking statements.
end if;
end process;

12.6.2 Combinational Logic Synthesis in VHDL

Key terms and concepts: a level-sensitive process has a sensitivity list with signals that are not
tested for event attributes ('EVENT or 'STABLE, for example) combinational logic uses a levelsensitive process or a concurrent assignment statement some synthesizers do not allow a
signal inside a level-sensitive process unless the signal is in the sensitivity list
entity And_Bad is port (a, b: in BIT; c: out BIT); end And_Bad;

architecture Synthesis_Bad of And_Bad is

begin process (a) -- this should be process (a, b)
begin c <= a and b;
end process;
end Synthesis_Bad;

12.6.3 Multiplexers in VHDL

Key terms and concepts: multiplexers can be synthesized using an (exhaustive) case statement
(avoid the reserved word 'select') a concurrent signal assignment is equivalent

20

SECTION 12

LOGIC SYNTHESIS

ASICS... THE COURSE

entity Mux4 is port

(i: BIT_VECTOR(3 downto 0); sel: BIT_VECTOR(1 downto 0); s: out BIT);
end Mux4;

architecture Synthesis_1 of Mux4 is

begin process(sel, i) begin
case sel is
when "00" => s <= i(0); when "01" => s <= i(1);
when "10" => s <= i(2); when "11" => s <= i(3);
end case;
end process;
end Synthesis_1;

architecture Synthesis_2 of Mux4 is

begin with sel select s <=
i(0) when "00", i(1) when "01", i(2) when "10", i(3) when "11";
end Synthesis_2;

library IEEE; use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;

entity Mux8 is port
(InBus : in STD_LOGIC_VECTOR(7 downto 0);
Sel : in INTEGER range 0 to 7;
OutBit : out STD_LOGIC);
end Mux8;

architecture Synthesis_1 of Mux8 is

begin process(InBus, Sel)
begin OutBit <= InBus(Sel);
end process;
end Synthesis_1;

12.6.4 Decoders in VHDL

library IEEE;
use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all; use IEEE.NUMERIC_STD.all;

--1
--2

entity Decoder is port (enable : in BIT;

Din: STD_LOGIC_VECTOR (2 downto 0);
Dout: out STD_LOGIC_VECTOR (7 downto 0));
end Decoder;

--3
--4
--5
--6

ASICs... THE COURSE

12.6 VHDL and Logic Synthesis

architecture Synthesis_1 of Decoder is

begin
with enable select Dout <=
STD_LOGIC_VECTOR
(UNSIGNED'
(shift_left
("00000001", TO_INTEGER (UNSIGNED(Din))
)
)
)
when '1',
"11111111" when '0', "00000000" when others;
end Synthesis_1;

21

--7
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--19

library IEEE;
use IEEE.NUMERIC_STD.all; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all;

--1
--2

entity Concurrent_Decoder is port (

enable : in BIT;
Din : in STD_LOGIC_VECTOR (2 downto 0);
Dout : out STD_LOGIC_VECTOR (7 downto 0));
end Concurrent_Decoder;

--3
--4
--5
--6
--7

architecture Synthesis_1 of Concurrent_Decoder is

begin process (Din, enable)
variable T : STD_LOGIC_VECTOR(7 downto 0);
begin
if (enable = '1') then
T := "00000000"; T( TO_INTEGER (UNSIGNED(Din))) := '1';
Dout <= T ;
else Dout <= (others => 'Z');
end if;
end process;
end Synthesis_1;

--8
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--16
--17
--18

12.6.5 Adders in VHDL

Key terms and concepts: To add two n-bit numbers and keep the overflow bit, we need to assign
to a signal with more bits
library IEEE;
use IEEE.NUMERIC_STD.all; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all;

--1
--2

entity Adder_1 is
port (A, B: in UNSIGNED(3 downto 0); C: out UNSIGNED(4 downto 0));
end Adder_1;

--3
--4
--5

architecture Synthesis_1 of Adder_1 is

--6

22

SECTION 12

LOGIC SYNTHESIS

ASICS... THE COURSE

begin C <= ('0' & A) + ('0' & B);

end Synthesis_1;

--7
--8

12.6.6 Sequential Logic in VHDL

Key terms and concepts: Sensitivity to an edge implies sequential logic in VHDL Either: (1) no
sensitivity list with a wait until statement (2) a sensitivity list and test for 'EVENT plus a
specific level any signal assigned in an edge-sensitive process statement should be reset
but be careful to distinguish between asynchronous and synchronous resets

library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all; entity DFF_With_Reset is

port(D, Clk, Reset : in STD_LOGIC; Q : out STD_LOGIC);
end DFF_With_Reset;

architecture Synthesis_1 of DFF_With_Reset is

begin process(Clk, Reset) begin
if (Reset = '0') then Q <= '0'; -- asynchronous reset
elsif rising_edge(Clk) then Q <= D;
end if;
end process;
end Synthesis_1;

architecture Synthesis_2 of DFF_With_Reset is

begin process begin
wait until rising_edge(Clk);
-- This reset is gated with the clock and is synchronous:
if (Reset = '0') then Q <= '0'; else Q <= D; end if;
end process;
end Synthesis_2;

Key terms and concepts: sequential logic results when we have to remember something
between successive executions of a process statement. This occurs when a process
statement contains one or more of the following situations (1) A signal is read but is not in the

ASICs... THE COURSE

12.6 VHDL and Logic Synthesis

23

sensitivity list of a process statement (2) A signal or variable is read before it is updated (3) A
signal is not always updated (4) There are multiple wait statements
Not all of the models that we could write using the above constructs will be synthesizable. Any
models that do use one or more of these constructs and that are synthesizable will result in
sequential logic.
12.6.7 Instantiation in VHDL
Key terms and concepts: to help hand instantiate a component generate a structural netlist
`timescale 1ns/1ns
module halfgate (myInput, myOutput);
input myInput; output myOutput; wire myOutput;
assign myOutput = ~myInput;
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5

library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all;

library COMPASS_LIB; use COMPASS_LIB.COMPASS.all;
--compass compile_off -- synopsys etc.
use COMPASS_LIB.COMPASS_ETC.all;
--compass compile_on -- synopsys etc.
entity halfgate_u is
--compass compile_off -- synopsys etc.
generic (
myOutput_cap : Real := 0.01;
INSTANCE_NAME : string := "halfgate_u" );
--compass compile_on -- synopsys etc.
port ( myInput : in Std_Logic := 'U';
myOutput : out Std_Logic := 'U' );
end halfgate_u;

--1
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--14

architecture halfgate_u of halfgate_u is

component in01d0
port ( I : in Std_Logic; ZN : out Std_Logic ); end component;
begin
u2: in01d0 port map ( I => myInput, ZN => myOutput );
end halfgate_u;

--15
--16
--17
--18
--19
--20

--compass compile_off -- synopsys etc.

library cb60hd230d;
configuration halfgate_u_CON of halfgate_u is
for halfgate_u
for u2 : in01d0 use configuration cb60hd230d.in01d0_CON
generic map (

--21
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--24
--25
--26

24

SECTION 12

LOGIC SYNTHESIS

ASICS... THE COURSE

ZN_cap => 0.0100 + myOutput_cap,

INSTANCE_NAME => INSTANCE_NAME&"/u2" )
port map ( I => I, ZN => ZN);
end for;
end for;
end halfgate_u_CON;
--compass compile_on -- synopsys etc.

--27
--28
--29
--30
--31
--32
--33

component ASDFF
generic (WIDTH : POSITIVE := 1;
RESET_VALUE : STD_LOGIC_VECTOR := "0" );
port
(Q
: out STD_LOGIC_VECTOR (WIDTH-1 downto 0);
D
: in STD_LOGIC_VECTOR (WIDTH-1 downto 0);
CLK : in STD_LOGIC;
RST : in STD_LOGIC );
end component;

library IEEE, COMPASS_LIB;

use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all; use COMPASS_LIB.STDCOMP.all;
entity Ripple_4 is
port (Trig, Reset: STD_LOGIC; QN0_5x: out STD_LOGIC;
Q : inout STD_LOGIC_VECTOR(0 to 3));
end Ripple_4;
architecture structure of Ripple_4 is
signal QN : STD_LOGIC_VECTOR(0 to 3);
component in01d1
port ( I : in Std_Logic; ZN : out Std_Logic );end component;
component in01d5
port ( I : in Std_Logic; ZN : out Std_Logic );end component;
begin
--compass dontTouch inv5x -- synopsys dont_touch etc.
-- Named association for hand-instantiated library cells:
inv5x: IN01D5 port map( I=>Q(0), ZN=>QN0_5x );
inv0 : IN01D1 port map( I=>Q(0), ZN=>QN(0) );
inv1 : IN01D1 port map( I=>Q(1), ZN=>QN(1) );
inv2 : IN01D1 port map( I=>Q(2), ZN=>QN(2) );
inv3 : IN01D1 port map( I=>Q(3), ZN=>QN(3) );
-- Positional association for standard components:
-Q
D
Clk
Rst
d0: asDFF port map(Q (0 to 0), QN(0 to 0), Trig, Reset);
d1: asDFF port map(Q (1 to 1), QN(1 to 1), Q(0), Reset);
d2: asDFF port map(Q (2 to 2), QN(2 to 2), Q(1), Reset);

--1
--2
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--20
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--23
--24
--25

ASICs... THE COURSE

12.6 VHDL and Logic Synthesis

d3: asDFF port map(Q (3 to 3), QN(3 to 3), Q(2),

end structure;

Reset);

`timescale 1ns / 10ps

module ripple_4_u (trig, reset, qn0_5x, q);
input trig; input reset; output qn0_5x; inout [3:0] q;
wire [3:0] qn; supply1 VDD; supply0 VSS;
in01d5 inv5x (.I(q[0]),.ZN(qn0_5x));
in01d1 inv0 (.I(q[0]),.ZN(qn[0]));
in01d1 inv1 (.I(q[1]),.ZN(qn[1]));
in01d1 inv2 (.I(q[2]),.ZN(qn[2]));
in01d1 inv3 (.I(q[3]),.ZN(qn[3]));
dfctnb d0(.D(qn[0]),.CP(trig),.CDN(reset),.Q(q[0]),.QN(\d0.QN
dfctnb d1(.D(qn[1]),.CP(q[0]),.CDN(reset),.Q(q[1]),.QN(\d1.QN
dfctnb d2(.D(qn[2]),.CP(q[1]),.CDN(reset),.Q(q[2]),.QN(\d2.QN
dfctnb d3(.D(qn[3]),.CP(q[2]),.CDN(reset),.Q(q[3]),.QN(\d3.QN
endmodule

25

--26
--27

));
));
));
));

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
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//7
//8
//9
//10
//11
//12
//13
//14

12.6.8 Shift Registers and Clocking in VHDL

library IEEE;
use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all; use IEEE.NUMERIC_STD.all;

--1
--2

entity SIPO_1 is port (

Clk : in STD_LOGIC;
SI : in STD_LOGIC; -- serial in
PO : buffer STD_LOGIC_VECTOR(3 downto 0)); -- parallel out
end SIPO_1;

--3
--4
--5
--6
--7

architecture Synthesis_1 of SIPO_1 is

begin process (Clk) begin
if (Clk = '1') then PO <= SI & PO(3 downto 1); end if;
end process;
end Synthesis_1;

--8
--9
--10
--11
--12

module sipo_1_u (clk, si, po);

input clk; input si; output [3:0] po;
supply1 VDD; supply0 VSS;
dfntnb po_ff_b0 (.D(po[1]),.CP(clk),.Q(po[0]),.QN(\po_ff_b0.QN));
dfntnb po_ff_b1 (.D(po[2]),.CP(clk),.Q(po[1]),.QN(\po_ff_b1.QN));
dfntnb po_ff_b2 (.D(po[3]),.CP(clk),.Q(po[2]),.QN(\po_ff_b2.QN));
dfntnb po_ff_b3 (.D(si),.CP(clk),.Q(po[3]),.QN(\po_ff_b3.QN ));
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8

library IEEE;
use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all; use IEEE.NUMERIC_STD.all;

--1
--2

26

SECTION 12

LOGIC SYNTHESIS

ASICS... THE COURSE

entity SIPO_R is port (

clk : in STD_LOGIC ; res : in STD_LOGIC ;
SI : in STD_LOGIC ; PO : out STD_LOGIC_VECTOR(3 downto 0));
end;
architecture Synthesis_1 of SIPO_R is
signal PO_t : STD_LOGIC_VECTOR(3 downto 0);
begin
process (PO_t) begin PO <= PO_t; end process;
process (clk, res) begin
if (res = '0') then PO_t <= (others => '0');
elsif (rising_edge(clk)) then PO_t <= SI & PO_t(3 downto 1);
end if;
end process;
end Synthesis_1;

--3
--4
--5
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--7
--8
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--10
--11
--12
--13
--14
--15
--16

12.6.9 Adders and Arithmetic Functions

Key terms and concepts: to perform BIT_VECTOR or STD_LOGIC_VECTORarithmetic you have
three choices: (1) Use a vendor-supplied package (2) Convert to SIGNED (or UNSIGNED) and
use the IEEE standard synthesis packages (3) Use overloaded functions in packages or
functions that you define yourself
library IEEE;
use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all; use IEEE.NUMERIC_STD.all;

--1
--2

entity Adder4 is port (

in1, in2 : in BIT_VECTOR(3 downto 0) ;
mySum : out BIT_VECTOR(3 downto 0) ) ;
end Adder4;

--3
--4
--5
--6

architecture Behave_A of Adder4 is

function DIY(L,R: BIT_VECTOR(3 downto 0)) return BIT_VECTOR is
variable sum:BIT_VECTOR(3 downto 0);variable lt,rt,st,cry: BIT;
begin cry := '0';
for i in L'REVERSE_RANGE loop
lt := L(i); rt := R(i); st := ltxor rt;
sum(i):= st xor cry; cry:= (lt and rt) or (st and cry);
end loop;
return sum;
end;
begin mySum <= DIY (in1, in2); -- do it yourself (DIY) add
end Behave_A;
library IEEE;
use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all; use IEEE.NUMERIC_STD.all;

--7
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--13
--14
--15
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--17
--18
--1
--2

ASICs... THE COURSE

12.6 VHDL and Logic Synthesis

27

entity Adder4 is port (

in1, in2 : in UNSIGNED(3 downto 0) ;
mySum : out UNSIGNED(3 downto 0) ) ;
end Adder4;

--3
--4
--5
--6

architecture Behave_B of Adder4 is

begin mySum <= in1 + in2; -- This uses an overloaded '+'.
end Behave_B;

--7
--8
--9

12.6.10 Adder/Subtracter and Dont Cares

Key terms and concepts: whether to use simple code or more complex code that more
accurately describes the hardware?
library IEEE;
use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all; use IEEE.NUMERIC_STD.all;
entity Adder_Subtracter is port (
xin : in UNSIGNED(15 downto 0);
clk, addsub, clr: in STD_LOGIC;
result : out UNSIGNED(15 downto 0));
end Adder_Subtracter;

--1
--2
--3
--4
--5
--6
--7

architecture Behave_A of Adder_Subtracter is

signal addout, result_t: UNSIGNED(15 downto 0);
begin
result <= result_t;
with addsub select
addout <= (xin + result_t) when '1',
(xin - result_t) when '0',
(others => '-') when others;
process (clr, clk) begin
if (clr = '0') then result_t <= (others => '0');
elsif rising_edge(clk) then result_t <= addout;
end if;
end process;
end Behave_A;

--8
--9
--10
--11
--12
--13
--14
--15
--16
--17
--18
--19
--20
--21

architecture Behave_B of Adder_Subtracter is

signal result_t: UNSIGNED(15 downto 0);
begin
result <= result_t;
process (clr, clk) begin
if (clr = '0') then result_t <= (others => '0');
elsif rising_edge(clk) then
case addsub is
when '1' => result_t <= (xin + result_t);
when '0' => result_t <= (xin - result_t);

--1
--2
--3
--4
--5
--6
--7
--8
--9
--10

28

SECTION 12

LOGIC SYNTHESIS

ASICS... THE COURSE

when others => result_t <= (others => '-');

end case;
end if;
end process;
end Behave_B;

--11
--12
--13
--14
--15

12.7 Finite-State Machine Synthesis

Key terms and concepts: synthesis of a finite-state machine (FSM) let the logic synthesizer
operate on the state machine as random logic use directives to guide the logic synthesis tool to
improve or modify state assignment use a special state-machine compiler FSM encoding
options Adjacent encoding ( Gray codes) One-hot encoding Random encoding Userspecified encoding (keep explicit state assignment) Moore encoding (useful for FSMs that
require fast outputs)
12.7.1 FSM Synthesis in Verilog
Key terms and concepts: FSM paired processes one process synthesizes to sequential logic
and the second process synthesizes to combinational logic pseudocomments to define the
states and state vector
`define
`define
`define
`define

resSt 0
S1 1
S2 2
S3 3

module StateMachine_1 (reset, clk, yOutReg);

input reset, clk; output yOutReg;
reg yOutReg, yOut; reg [1:0] curSt, nextSt;
always @(posedge clk or posedge reset)
begin:Seq //Compass statemachine oneHot curSt
if (reset == 1)
begin yOut = 0; yOutReg = yOut; curSt = `resSt;end
else begin
case (curSt)
`resSt:yOut = 0;`S1:yOut = 1;`S2:yOut = 1;`S3:yOut = 1;
default:yOut = 0;
endcase
yOutReg = yOut; curSt = nextSt; // ... update the state.
end

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11
//12
//13
//14
//15
//16
//17
//18

ASICs... THE COURSE

12.7 Finite-State Machine Synthesis

end
always @(curSt or yOut) // Assign the next state:
begin:Comb
case (curSt)
`resSt:nextSt = `S3; `S1:nextSt = `S2;
`S2:nextSt = `S1; `S3:nextSt = `S1;
default:nextSt = `resSt;
endcase
end
endmodule

29

//19
//20
//21
//22
//23
//24
//25
//26
//27
//28

module StateMachine_2 (reset, clk, yOutReg);

//1
input reset, clk; output yOutReg; reg yOutReg, yOut;
//2
parameter [1:0] //synopsys enum states
//3
resSt = 2'b00, S1 = 2'b01, S2 = 2'b10, S3 = 2'b11;
//4
reg [1:0] /* synopsys enum states */ curSt, nextSt;
//5
//synopsys state_vector curSt
//6
always @(posedge clk or posedge reset) begin
//7
if (reset == 1)
//8
begin yOut = 0; yOutReg = yOut; curSt = resSt;end
//9
else begin
//10
case (curSt) resSt:yOut = 0;S1:yOut = 1;S2:yOut = 1;S3:yOut = 1;//11
default:yOut = 0; endcase
//12
yOutReg = yOut; curSt = nextSt;end
//13
end
//14
always @(curSt or yOut) begin
//15
case (curSt)
//16
resSt:nextSt = S3; S1:nextSt = S2; S2:nextSt = S1; S3:nextSt = S1;
//17
default:nextSt = S1; endcase
//18
end
//19
endmodule
//20

parameter [3:0] //synopsys enum states

resSt = 4'b0000, S1 = 4'b0010, S2 = 4'b0100, S3 = 4'b1000;

30

SECTION 12

LOGIC SYNTHESIS

ASICS... THE COURSE

12.7.2 FSM Synthesis in VHDL

Key terms and concepts: Moore state machine Mealy state machine An FSM compiler
extracts a state machine
library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all;
entity SM1 is
port (aIn, clk : in Std_logic; yOut: out Std_logic);
end SM1;
architecture Moore of SM1 is
type state is (s1, s2, s3, s4);
signal pS, nS : state;
begin
process (aIn, pS) begin
case pS is
when s1 => yOut <= '0'; nS <= s4;
when s2 => yOut <= '1'; nS <= s3;
when s3 => yOut <= '1'; nS <= s1;
when s4 => yOut <= '1'; nS <= s2;
end case;
end process;
process begin
-- synopsys etc.
--compass Statemachine adj pS
wait until clk = '1'; pS <= nS;
end process;
end Moore;
library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all;
entity SM2 is
port (aIn, clk : in Std_logic; yOut: out Std_logic);
end SM2;
architecture Mealy of SM2 is
type state is (s1, s2, s3, s4);
signal pS, nS : state;
begin
process(aIn, pS) begin
case pS is
when s1 => if (aIn = '1')
then yOut <= '0'; nS <= s4;
else yOut <= '1'; nS <= s3;
end if;
when s2 => yOut <= '1'; nS <= s3;
when s3 => yOut <= '1'; nS <= s1;

--1
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--1
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--1
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--12

ASICs... THE COURSE

12.8 Memory Synthesis

when s4 => if (aIn = '1')

then yOut <= '1'; nS <= s2;
else yOut <= '0'; nS <= s1;
end if;
end case;
end process;
process begin
wait until clk = '1' ;
--Compass Statemachine oneHot pS
pS <= nS;
end process;
end Mealy;

31

--13
--14
--15
--16
--17
--18
--19
--20
--21
--22
--23
--24

12.8 Memory Synthesis

Key terms and concepts: approaches to memory synthesis: (1) Random logic using flip-flops or
latches (2) Register files in datapaths (3) RAM standard components (4) RAM compilers
12.8.1 Memory Synthesis in Verilog
Key terms and concepts: Verilog memory array an array of latches or flip-flops
reg [31:0] MyMemory [3:0]; // a 4 x 32-bit register
module RAM_1(A, CEB, WEB, OEB, INN, OUTT);
input [6:0] A; input CEB,WEB,OEB; input [4:0]INN;
output [4:0] OUTT;
reg [4:0] OUTT; reg [4:0] int_bus; reg [4:0] memory [127:0];
always@(negedge CEB) begin
if (CEB == 0) begin
if (WEB == 1) int_bus = memory[A];
else if (WEB == 0) begin memory[A] = INN; int_bus = INN; end
else int_bus = 5'bxxxxx;
end
end
always@(OEB or int_bus) begin
case (OEB) 0 : OUTT = int_bus;
default : OUTT = 5'bzzzzz; endcase

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11
//12
//13
//14

32

SECTION 12

LOGIC SYNTHESIS

ASICS... THE COURSE

end
endmodule

//15
//16

memory[i + 1] = memory[i]; // needs two clock cycles

pointer = memory[memory[i]]; // needs two clock cycles
pc = memory[addr1]; memory[addr2] = pc + 1; // not on the same cycle
12.8.2 Memory Synthesis in VHDL
Key terms and concepts: VHDL multidimensional arrays array of latches standard-cell RAM
type memStor is array(3 downto 0) of integer; -- This is OK.

subtype MemReg is STD_LOGIC_VECTOR(15 downto 0); -- So is this.

type memStor is array(3 downto 0) of MemReg;
-- other code...
signal Mem1 : memStor;

library IEEE;
use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all;
package RAM_package is
constant numOut : INTEGER := 8;
constant wordDepth: INTEGER := 8;
constant numAddr : INTEGER := 3;
subtype MEMV is STD_LOGIC_VECTOR(numOut-1 downto 0);
type MEM is array (wordDepth-1 downto 0) of MEMV;
end RAM_package;

--1
--2
--3
--4
--5
--6
--7
--8
--9

library IEEE;
use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all; use IEEE.NUMERIC_STD.all;
use work.RAM_package.all;
entity RAM_1 is
port (signal A : in STD_LOGIC_VECTOR(numAddr-1 downto 0);
signal CEB, WEB, OEB : in STD_LOGIC;
signal INN : in MEMV;
signal OUTT : out MEMV);
end RAM_1;

--10
--11
--12
--13
--14
--15
--16
--17
--18

architecture Synthesis_1 of RAM_1 is

signal i_bus : MEMV; -- RAM internal data latch
signal mem : MEM; -- RAM data
begin
process begin
wait until CEB = '0';

--19
--20
--21
--22
--23
--24

ASICs... THE COURSE

12.9 The Multiplier

if WEB = '1' then i_bus <= mem(TO_INTEGER(UNSIGNED(A)));

elsif WEB = '0' then
mem(TO_INTEGER(UNSIGNED(A))) <= INN;
i_bus <= INN;
else i_bus <= (others => 'X');
end if;
end process;
process(OEB, int_bus) begin -- control output drivers:
case (OEB) is
when '0'
=> OUTT <= i_bus;
when '1'
=> OUTT <= (others => 'Z');
when others => OUTT <= (others => 'X');
end case;
end process;
end Synthesis_1;

33

--25
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--35
--36
--37
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--39

12.9 The Multiplier

Key terms and concepts: warnings and errors during elaboration
Sum

<= X xor Y xor Cin after TS;

Warning: AFTER clause in a waveform element is not supported

port (A, B : in BIT_VECTOR (7 downto 0); Sel : in BIT := '0'; Y : out

BIT_VECTOR (7 downto 0));
Warning: Default values on interface signals are not supported

port (X:BIT_VECTOR; F:out BIT );

Error: An index range must be specified for this data type

begin assert (D'LENGTH <= Q'LENGTH)

report "D wider than output Q" severity Failure;

34

SECTION 12

LOGIC SYNTHESIS

ASICS... THE COURSE

Warning: Assertion statements are ignored

Error: Statements in entity declarations are not supported

if CLR = '1' then St := (others => '0'); Q <= St after TCQ;

Error: Illegal use of aggregate with the choice "others": the
derived subtype of an array aggregate that has a choice "others" must
be a constrained array subtype

signal SRA, SRB, ADDout, MUXout, REGout: BIT_VECTOR(7 downto 0);

Warning: Name is reserved word in VHDL-93: sra

signal Zero, Init, Shift, Add, Low: BIT := '0'; signal High: BIT :=
'1';
Warning: Initial values on signals are only for simulation and
setting the value of undriven signals in synthesis. A synthesized
circuit can not be guaranteed to be in any known state when the power
is turned on.

12.9.1 Messages During Synthesis

Key terms and concepts: error and warning messages during synthesis
These unused instances are being removed: in full_adder_p_dup8: u5,
u2, u3, u4
These unused instances are being removed: in dffclr_p_dup1: u2

architecture Behave of DFFClr is

signal Qi : BIT;
begin QB <= not Qi; Q <= Qi;
process (CLR, CLK) begin
if CLR = '1' then Qi <= '0' after TRQ;
elsif CLK'EVENT and CLK = '1' then Qi <= D after TCQ;
end if;
end process;
end;

--1
--2
--3
--4
--5
--6
--7
--8
--9

A1:Adder8 port map(A=>SRB,B=>REGout,Cin=>Low,Cout=>OFL,Sum=>ADDout);

Cout <= (X and Y) or (X and Cin) or (Y and Cin) after TC;

ASICs... THE COURSE

12.10 The Engine Controller

35

12.10 The Engine Controller

Key terms and concepts: warnings and errors during optimization unassigned or uninitialized
variables
Warning: Made latches to store values on: net d(4), d(5), d(6), d(7),
d(8), d(9), d(10), d(11), in module fifo_control

case sel
when
when
when

is
"01" => D <= D_1 after TPD; r1 <= '1' after TPD;
"10" => D <= D_2 after TPD; r2 <= '1' after TPD;
"00" => D(3) <= f1 after TPD; D(2) <= f2 after TPD;
D(1) <= e1 after TPD; D(0) <= e2 after TPD; -- Bad!
when others => D <= "ZZZZZZZZZZZZ" after TPD;
end case;

when "00" => D(3) <= f1 after TPD; D(2) <= f2 after TPD; -- Write
D(1) <= e1 after TPD; D(0) <= e2 after TPD; -- to
D(11 downto 4) <= "ZZZZZZZZ" after TPD; -- all bits.

12.11 Performance-Driven Synthesis

Key terms and concepts: use of directives and pseudocomments timing arcs (or timing paths)
a pathcluster (a group of circuit nodes) required time for a signal to reach the output nodes
(the end set) arrival time of the signals at all the inputs constrained delay timing constraint
slack the timing constraint is met or violated

12.12 Optimization of the Viterbi Decoder

Key terms and concepts: set the environment using worst-case conditions die temperature of
25C (fastest logic) to 120C (slowest logic) power supply voltage of VDD =5.5V (fastest logic)
to VDD =4.5V (slowest logic) worst process (slowest logic) to best process (fastest logic)

36

SECTION 12

LOGIC SYNTHESIS

ASICS... THE COURSE

timing arcs

arrival time=0ns

comparator/MUX
a[2]
b[2]
a[1]
b[1]

a[0]
b[0]

// comp_mux.v
module comp_mux(a, b, outp);
input [2:0] a, b;
output [2:0] outp;
function [2:0] compare;
input [2:0] ina, inb;
begin
if (ina <= inb) compare = ina;
else compare = inb;
end
endfunction
assign outp = compare(a, b);
endmodule

pathcluster
constraint

start set

all inputs
pathcluster
constraint
outp[2]

outp[0]

outp[1]

required time =2ns

example:
outp[0]

end set

> set pathcluster pc1

> set requiredTime 2
outp[0] outp[1] outp[2]
-pathcluster pc1
> set arrivalTime 0 *
-pathcluster pc1

start set + end set = pathcluster

(a)

(b)

Timing constraints
(a) A pathcluster
(b) Defining constraints

12.13 Summary
Key terms and concepts: A logic synthesizer may contain over 500,000 lines of code danger of
the garbage in, garbage out syndrome What do I expect to see at the output? Does the
output make sense? the worst thing you can do is write and simulate a huge amount of code,
read it into the synthesis tool, and try and optimize it all at once with the default settings interconnect delay is increasingly dominant it is important to begin physical design as early as
possible ideally floorplanning and logic synthesis should be completed at the same time

ASICs... THE COURSE

`timescale 1ns / 10ps

module comp_mux_o (a, b, outp);
input [2:0] a; input [2:0] b;
output [2:0] outp;
supply1 VDD; supply0 VSS;
mx21d1 B1_i1 (.I0(a[0]), .I1(b[0]),
.S(B1_i6_ZN), .Z(outp[0]));
oa03d1 B1_i2 (.A1(B1_i9_ZN), .A2(a[2]),
.B1(a[0]), .B2(a[1]), .C(B1_i4_ZN),
.ZN(B1_i2_ZN));
nd02d0 B1_i3 (.A1(a[1]), .A2(a[0]),
.ZN(B1_i3_ZN));
nd02d0 B1_i4 (.A1(b[1]), .A2(B1_i3_ZN),
.ZN(B1_i4_ZN));
mx21d1 B1_i5 (.I0(a[1]), .I1(b[1]),
.S(B1_i6_ZN), .Z(outp[1]));
oa04d1 B1_i6 (.A1(b[2]), .A2(B1_i7_ZN),
.B(B1_i2_ZN), .ZN(B1_i6_ZN));
in01d0 B1_i7 (.I(a[2]), .ZN(B1_i7_ZN));
an02d1 B1_i8 (.A1(b[2]), .A2(a[2]),
.Z(outp[2]));
in01d0 B1_i9 (.I(b[2]), .ZN(B1_i9_ZN));

12.13 Summary

a[0]

a[1]
NAND2
(nd02d0)

b[2]

b[1]
NAND2
(nd02d0)
a[2]
a[1]
a[0]

INV
(in01d0)

a[2]
INV
(in01d0)

OAI221
(oa03d0)

b[2]

endmodule
OAI21
(oa04d0)
AND2
(an02d1)
b[0]

a[0] a[2]

b[2]

outp[0]

b[1] a[1]
1

outp[2]

The comparator/MUX example after logic optimization with timing constraints

The structural netlist, comp_mux_o2.v, and its derived schematic

MUX
(mx21d1)

outp[1]

37

38

SECTION 12

LOGIC SYNTHESIS

ASICS... THE COURSE

ASICs...THE COURSE (1 WEEK)

SIMULATION

13

Key terms and concepts: Engineers used to prototype systems to check designs
Breadboarding is feasible for systems constructed from a few TTL parts It is impractical for an
ASIC Instead engineers turn to simulation

13.1 Types of Simulation

Key terms and concepts: simulation modes (high-level to low-level simulationhigh-level is
more abstract, low-level more detailed): Behavioral simulation Functional simulation Static
timing analysis Gate-level simulation Switch-level simulation Transistor-level or circuit-level
simulation

13.2 The Comparator/MUX Example

Key terms and concepts: using input vectors to test or exercise a behavioral model simulation can only prove a design does not work; it cannot prove that hardware will work
// comp_mux.v
module comp_mux(a, b, outp); input [2:0] a, b; output [2:0] outp;
function [2:0] compare; input [2:0] ina, inb;
begin if (ina <= inb) compare = ina; else compare = inb; end
endfunction
assign outp = compare(a, b);
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7

// testbench.v
module comp_mux_testbench;
integer i, j;
reg [2:0] x, y, smaller; wire [2:0] z;
always @(x) $display("t
x y actual calculated");
initial $monitor("%4g",$time,,x,,y,,z,,,,,,,smaller);
initial $dumpvars; initial #1000 $finish;
initial

//1
//2
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//5
//6
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//8
1

SECTION 13

SIMULATION

begin
for (i = 0; i <= 7; i =
begin
for (j = 0; j <= 7; j
begin
x = i; y = j; smaller
#1 if (z != smaller)
end
end
end
comp_mux v_1 (x, y, z);
endmodule

ASICS... THE COURSE

i + 1)
= j + 1)
= (x <= y) ? x : y;
$display("error");

//9
//10
//11
//12
//13
//14
//15
//16
//17
//18
//19
//20

13.2.1 Structural Simulation

Key terms and concepts: logic synthesis produces a structural model from a behavioral model
reference model derived model vector-based simulation (or dynamic simulation)
`timescale 1ns / 10ps // comp_mux_o2.v
module comp_mux_o (a, b, outp);
input [2:0] a; input [2:0] b;
output [2:0] outp;
supply1 VDD; supply0 VSS;
mx21d1 b1_i1 (.i0(a[0]), .i1(b[0]), .s(b1_i6_zn), .z(outp[0]));
oa03d1 b1_i2 (.a1(b1_i9_zn), .a2(a[2]), .b1(a[0]), .b2(a[1]),
.c(b1_i4_zn), .zn(b1_i2_zn));
nd02d0 b1_i3 (.a1(a[1]), .a2(a[0]), .zn(b1_i3_zn));
nd02d0 b1_i4 (.a1(b[1]), .a2(b1_i3_zn), .zn(b1_i4_zn));
mx21d1 b1_i5 (.i0(a[1]), .i1(b[1]), .s(b1_i6_zn), .z(outp[1]));
oa04d1 b1_i6 (.a1(b[2]), .a2(b1_i7_zn), .b(b1_i2_zn),
.zn(b1_i6_zn));
in01d0 b1_i7 (.i(a[2]), .zn(b1_i7_zn));
an02d1 b1_i8 (.a1(b[2]), .a2(a[2]), .z(outp[2]));
in01d0 b1_i9 (.i(b[2]), .zn(b1_i9_zn));
endmodule
`timescale 1 ns / 10 ps
module mx21d1 (z, i0, i1, s); input i0, i1, s; output z;
not G3(N3, s);
and G4(N4, i0, N3), G5(N5, s, i1), G6(N6, i0, i1);
or G7(z, N4, N5, N6);
specify
(i0*>z) = (0.279:0.504:0.900, 0.276:0.498:0.890);

//1
//2
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//17
//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7

ASICs... THE COURSE

13.2 The Comparator/MUX Example

(i1*>z) = (0.248:0.448:0.800, 0.264:0.476:0.850);

(s*>z) = (0.285:0.515:0.920, 0.298:0.538:0.960);
endspecify
endmodule

//8
//9
//10
//11

`timescale 1 ps / 1 ps // comp_mux_testbench2.v
module comp_mux_testbench2;
integer i, j; integer error;
reg [2:0] x, y, smaller; wire [2:0] z, ref;
always @(x) $display("t
x y derived reference");
// initial $monitor("%8.2f",$time/1e3,,x,,y,,z,,,,,,,,ref);
initial $dumpvars;
initial begin
error = 0; #1e6 $display("%4g", error, " errors");
$finish;
end
initial begin
for (i = 0; i <= 7; i = i + 1) begin
for (j = 0; j <= 7; j = j + 1) begin
x = i; y = j; #10e3;
$display("%8.2f",$time/1e3,,x,,y,,z,,,,,,,,ref);
if (z != ref)
begin $display("error"); error = error + 1;end
end
end
end
comp_mux_o v_1 (x, y, z); // comp_mux_o2.v
reference v_2 (x, y, ref);
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11
//12
//13
//14
//15
//16
//17
//18
//19
//20
//21
//22
//23
//24

// reference.v
module reference(a, b, outp);
input [2:0] a, b;output [2:0] outp;
assign outp = (a <= b) ? a : b; // different from comp_mux
endmodule

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5

13.2.2 Static Timing Analysis

Key terms and concepts: What is the longest delay in my circuit? timing analysis finds the
critical path and its delay timing analysis does not find the input vectors that activate the critical
path Boolean relations false paths a timing-analyzer is more logic calculator than logic
simulator

SECTION 13

SIMULATION

ASICS... THE COURSE

13.2.3 Gate-Level Simulation

Key terms and concepts: differences between functional simulation, timing analysis, and gatelevel simulation
# The calibration was done at
Time = 0:0
[0 ns]
a
b
outp
outp
outp
outp
a
b
outp
outp
Time = 0:0 +20ns [20 ns]

Vdd=4.65V, Vss=0.1V, T=70 degrees C

=
=
=
-->
-->
-->
-->
-->
-->
-->

'D6 [0] (input)(display)

'D7 [0] (input)(display)
'Buuu
('Du) [0] (display)
'B1uu
('Du) [.47]
'B11u
('Du) [.97]
'D6 [4.08]
'D7 [10]
'D6 [10]
'D7 [10.97]
'D6 [14.15]

13.2.4 Net Capacitance

Key terms and concepts: net capacitance (interconnect capacitance or wire capacitance)
wire-load model, wire-delay model, or interconnect model

@nodes
a R10 W1; a[2] a[1] a[0]
b R10 W1; b[2] b[1] b[0]
outp R10 W1; outp[2] outp[1]
@data
.00
a
.00
b
.00
outp
.53
outp
.93
outp
4.42
outp
10.00
a
10.00
b
11.03
outp
14.43
outp
### END OF SIMULATION TIME =
@end

outp[0]
->
->
->
->
->
->
->
->
->
->
20

'D6
'D7
'Du
'Du
'Du
'D6
'D7
'D6
'D7
'D6
ns

ASICs... THE COURSE

13.3 Logic Systems

13.3 Logic Systems

Key terms and concepts: Digital simulation logic values (or logic states) from a logic
system A two-value logic system (or two-state logic system) has logic value '0' ( logic level
'zero' ) and a logic value '1' (logic level 'one') logic value 'X' (unknown logic level) or
unknown an unknown can propagate through a circuit to model a three-state bus, we need
a high-impedance state (logic level of 'zero' or 'one') but it is not being driven A four-value
logic system
A four-value logic system
Logic state
0
1
X
Z

Logic level
zero
one
zero or one
zero, one, or neither

Logic value
zero
one
unknown
high impedance

13.3.1 Signal Resolution

Key terms and concepts: signal-resolution function commutative and associative
A resolution function R{A, B} that predicts the result of two drivers simultaneously
attempting to drive signals with values A and B onto a bus
R{A, B}
A=0
A=1
A=X
A=Z

B=0
0
X
X
0

B=1
X
1
X
1

B=X
X
X
X
X

B=Z
0
1
X
Z

13.3.2 Logic Strength

Key terms and concepts: n-channel transistors produce a logic level 'zero' (with a forcing
strength) p-channel transistors force a logic level 'one' An n-channel transistor provides a

SECTION 13

SIMULATION

ASICS... THE COURSE

weak logic level 'one', a resistive 'one', with resistive strength high impedance Verilog
logic system VHDL signal resolution using VHDL signal-resolution functions
A 12-state logic system
Logic strength
strong
weak
high impedance
unknown

zero
S0
W0
Z0
U0

Logic level
unknown
SX
WX
ZX
UX

one
S1
W1
Z1
U1

Verilog logic strengths

Logic strength
supply drive
strong drive
pull drive
large capacitor
weak drive
medium capacitor
small capacitor
high impedance

Strength
number
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Models
power supply
default gate and assign output strength
gate and assign output strength
size of trireg net capacitor
gate and assign output strength
size of trireg net capacitor
size of trireg net capacitor
not applicable

Abbreviation
supply
strong
pull
large
weak
medium
small
highz

Su
St
Pu
La
We
Me
Sm
Hi

The nine-value logic system, IEEE Std 1164-1993.

Logic state
'0'
'1'
'L'
'H'

Logic value
strong low
strong high
weak low
weak high

Logic state
'X'
'W'
'Z'
'-'
'U'

Logic value
strong unknown
weak unknown
high impedance
dont care
uninitialized

function "and"(l,r : std_ulogic_vector) return std_ulogic_vector

is
alias lv : std_ulogic_vector (1 to l'LENGTH ) is l;
alias rv : std_ulogic_vector (1 to r'LENGTH ) is r;
variable result : std_ulogic_vector (1 to l'LENGTH );

--1
--2
--3
--4

ASICs... THE COURSE

13.4 How Logic Simulation Works

constant and_table : stdlogic_table := (

------------------------------------------------------------| U
X
0
1
Z
W
L
H
|
|
----------------------------------------------------------( 'U', 'U', '0', 'U', 'U', 'U', '0', 'U', 'U' ), -- | U |
( 'U', 'X', '0', 'X', 'X', 'X', '0', 'X', 'X' ), -- | X |
( '0', '0', '0', '0', '0', '0', '0', 'U', '0' ), -- | 0 |
( 'U', 'X', '0', '1', 'X', 'X', '0', '1', 'X' ), -- | 1 |
( 'U', 'X', '0', 'X', 'X', 'X', '0', 'X', 'X' ), -- | Z |
( 'U', 'X', '0', 'X', 'X', 'X', '0', 'X', 'X' ), -- | W |
( '0', '0', '0', '0', '0', '0', '0', '0', '0' ), -- | L |
( 'U', 'X', '0', '1', 'X', 'X', '0', '1', 'X' ), -- | H |
( 'U', 'X', '0', 'X', 'X', 'X', '0', 'X', 'X' ), -- | - |);
begin
if (l'LENGTH /= r'LENGTH) then assert false report
"arguments of overloaded 'and' operator are not of the same
length"
severity failure;
else
for i in result'RANGE loop
result(i) := and_table ( lv(i), rv(i) );
end loop;
end if;
return result;
end "and";

--5
--6
--7
--8
--9
--10
--11
--12
--13
--14
--15
--16
--17
--18
--19
--20
--21
--22
--23
--24
--25
--26
--27
--28
--29

13.4 How Logic Simulation Works

Key terms and concepts: event-driven simulator event event queue or event list evaluation
time step interpreted-code simulator compiled-code simulator native-code simulator
evaluation list simulation cycle, or an eventevaluation cycle time wheel

model nd01d1 (a, b, zn)

function (a, b) !(a & b); function end
model end

nand nd01d1(a2, b3, r7)

SECTION 13

SIMULATION

ASICS... THE COURSE

struct Event {
event_ptr fwd_link, back_link; /* event list */
event_ptr node_link; /* list of node events */
node_ptr event_node; /* node for the event */
node_ptr cause; /* node causing event */
port_ptr port; /* port which caused this event */
long event_time; /* event time, in units of delta */
char new_value; /* new value: '1' '0' etc. */
};

13.4.1 VHDL Simulation Cycle

Key terms and concepts: simulation cycle elaboration a delta cycle takes delta time time
step postponed processes
A VHDL simulation cycle consists of the following steps:
1. The current time, tc is set equal to tn.
2. Each active signal in the model is updated and events may occur as a result.
3. For each process P, if P is currently sensitive to a signal S, and an event has occurred on
signal S in this simulation cycle, then process P resumes.
4. Each resumed process is executed until it suspends.
5. The time of the next simulation cycle, tn, is set to the earliest of:
a. the next time at which a driver becomes active or
b. the next time at which a process resumes
6. If tn = tc, then the next simulation cycle is a delta cycle.
7. Simulation is complete when we run out of time (tn = TIME'HIGH) and there are no active
drivers or process resumptions at tn
13.4.2 Delay
Key terms and concepts: delay mechanism transport delay is characteristic of wires and
transmission lines Inertial delay models the behavior of logic cells a logic cell will not transmit
a pulse that is shorter than the switching time of the circuit, the default pulse-rejection limit
Op <= Ip after 10 ns;
Op <= inertial Ip after 10 ns;
Op <= reject 10 ns inertial Ip after 10 ns;

--1
--2
--3

-- Assignments using transport delay:

Op <= transport Ip after 10 ns;
Op <= transport Ip after 10 ns, not Ip after 20 ns;

--1
--2
--3

ASICs... THE COURSE

13.5 Cell Models

-- Their equivalent assignments:

Op <= reject 0 ns inertial Ip after 10 ns;
Op <= reject 0 ns inertial Ip after 10 ns, not Ip after 10 ns;

--4
--5
--6

13.5 Cell Models

Key terms and concepts: delay model power model timing model primitive model
There are several different kinds of logic cell models:
Primitive models, produced by the ASIC library company and describe the function and
properties of logic cells using primitive functions.
Verilog and VHDL models produced by an ASIC library company from the primitive
models.
Proprietary models produced by library companies that describe small logic cells or
functions such as microprocessors.
13.5.1 Primitive Models
Key terms and concepts: primitive model a designer does not normally see a primitive model;
it may only be used by an ASIC library company to generate other models

Function
(timingModel = oneOf("ism","pr"); powerModel = oneOf("pin"); )
Rec
Logic = Function (A1; A2; )Rec ZN = not (A1 AND A2); End; End;
miscInfo = Rec Title = "2-Input NAND, 1X Drive"; freq_fact = 0.5;
tml = "nd02d1 nand 2 * zn a1 a2";
MaxParallel = 1; Transistors = 4; power = 0.179018;
Width = 4.2; Height = 12.6; productName = "stdcell35"; libraryName =
"cb35sc"; End;
Pin = Rec
A1 = Rec input; cap = 0.010; doc = "Data Input"; End;
A2 = Rec input; cap = 0.010; doc = "Data Input"; End;
ZN = Rec output; cap = 0.009; doc = "Data Output"; End; End;
Symbol = Select
timingModel
On pr Do Rec
tA1D_fr = |( Rec prop = 0.078; ramp = 2.749; End);
tA1D_rf = |( Rec prop = 0.047; ramp = 2.506; End);
tA2D_fr = |( Rec prop = 0.063; ramp = 2.750; End);
tA2D_rf = |( Rec prop = 0.052; ramp = 2.507; End); End
On ism Do Rec

10

SECTION 13

SIMULATION

ASICS... THE COURSE

tA1D_fr = |( Rec A0 = 0.0015; dA = 0.0789; D0 = -0.2828;

dD = 4.6642; B = 0.6879; Z = 0.5630; End );
tA1D_rf = |( Rec A0 = 0.0185; dA = 0.0477; D0 = -0.1380;
dD = 4.0678; B = 0.5329; Z = 0.3785; End );
tA2D_fr = |( Rec A0 = 0.0079; dA = 0.0462; D0 = -0.2819;
dD = 4.6646; B = 0.6856; Z = 0.5282; End );
tA2D_rf = |( Rec A0 = 0.0060; dA = 0.0464; D0 = -0.1408;
dD = 4.0731; B = 0.6152; Z = 0.4064; End ); End; End;
Delay = |( Rec from = pin.A1; to = pin.ZN;
edges = Rec fr = Symbol.tA1D_fr; rf = Symbol.tA1D_rf; End; End, Rec
from = pin.A2; to = pin.ZN; edges = Rec fr = Symbol.tA2D_fr; rf =
Symbol.tA2D_rf; End; End );
MaxRampTime = |( Rec check = pin.A1; riseTime = 3.000; fallTime =
3.000; End, Rec check = pin.A2; riseTime = 3.000; fallTime =
3.000; End, Rec check = pin.ZN; riseTime = 3.000; fallTime =
3.000; End );
DynamicPower = |( Rec rise = { ZN }; val = 0.003; End); End; End

13.5.2 Synopsys Models

Key terms and concepts: vendor models each logic cell is part of a file that also contains wireload models and other characterization information for the cell library not all of the information
from a primitive model is present in a vendor model

cell (nd02d1) {
/* title : 2-Input NAND, 1X Drive */
/* pmd checksum : 'HBA7EB26C */
area : 1;
pin(a1) { direction : input; capacitance : 0.088;
fanout_load : 0.088; }
pin(a2) { direction : input; capacitance : 0.087;
fanout_load : 0.087; }
pin(zn) { direction : output; max_fanout : 1.786;
max_transition : 3; function : "(a1 a2)'";
timing() {
timing_sense : "negative_unate"
intrinsic_rise : 0.24 intrinsic_fall : 0.17
rise_resistance : 1.68 fall_resistance : 1.13
related_pin : "a1" }
timing() { timing_sense : "negative_unate"
intrinsic_rise : 0.32 intrinsic_fall : 0.18
rise_resistance : 1.68 fall_resistance : 1.13

ASICs... THE COURSE

13.5 Cell Models

11

related_pin : "a2"
} } } /* end of cell */

13.5.3 Verilog Models

Key terms and concepts: Verilog timing models SDF file contains back-annotation timing
delays delays are calculated by a delay calculator $sdf_annotate performs backannotation golden simulator
`celldefine
`delay_mode_path
`suppress_faults
`enable_portfaults
`timescale 1 ns / 1 ps
module in01d1 (zn, i); input i; output zn; not G2(zn, i);
specify specparam
InCap$i = 0.060, OutCap$zn = 0.038, MaxLoad$zn = 1.538,
R_Ramp$i$zn = 0.542:0.980:1.750, F_Ramp$i$zn = 0.605:1.092:1.950;
specparam cell_count = 1.000000; specparam Transistors = 4 ;
specparam Power = 1.400000; specparam MaxLoadedRamp = 3 ;
(i => zn) = (0.031:0.056:0.100, 0.028:0.050:0.090);
endspecify
endmodule
`nosuppress_faults
`disable_portfaults
`endcelldefine
`timescale 1 ns / 1 ps
module SDF_b; reg A; in01d1 i1 (B, A);
initial begin A = 0; #5; A = 1; #5; A = 0; end
initial $monitor("T=%6g",$realtime," A=",A," B=",B);
endmodule

T=
0
T= 0.056
T=
5
T= 5.05
T=
10
T=10.056

A=0
A=0
A=1
A=1
A=0
A=0

B=x
B=1
B=1
B=0
B=0
B=1

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10
//11
//12
//13
//14
//15
//16
//17
//1
//2
//3
//4
//5

12

SECTION 13

SIMULATION

ASICS... THE COURSE

(DELAYFILE
(SDFVERSION "3.0") (DESIGN "SDF.v") (DATE "Aug-13-96")
(VENDOR "MJSS") (PROGRAM "MJSS") (VERSION "v0")
(DIVIDER .) (TIMESCALE 1 ns)
(CELL (CELLTYPE "in01d1")
(INSTANCE SDF_b.i1)
(DELAY (ABSOLUTE
(IOPATH i zn (1.151:1.151:1.151) (1.363:1.363:1.363))
))
)
)

`timescale 1 ns / 1 ps
//1
module SDF_b; reg A; in01d1 i1 (B, A);
//2
initial begin
//3
$sdf_annotate ( "SDF_b.sdf", SDF_b, , "sdf_b.log", "minimum", , ); //4
A = 0; #5; A = 1; #5; A = 0; end
//5
initial $monitor("T=%6g",$realtime," A=",A," B=",B);
//6
endmodule
//7
Here is the output (from MTI V-System/Plus) including back-annotated timing:

T=
0
T= 1.151
T=
5
T= 6.363
T=
10
T=11.151

A=0
A=0
A=1
A=1
A=0
A=0

B=x
B=1
B=1
B=0
B=0
B=1

13.5.4 VHDL Models

Key terms and concepts: VHDL alone does not offer a standard way to perform back-annotation.
VITAL

library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all;

library COMPASS_LIB; use COMPASS_LIB.COMPASS_ETC.all;
entity bknot is
generic (derating : REAL := 1.0; Z1_cap : REAL := 0.000;
INSTANCE_NAME : STRING := "bknot");
port (Z2 : in Std_Logic; Z1 : out STD_LOGIC);
end bknot;

ASICs... THE COURSE

13.5 Cell Models

13

architecture bknot of bknot is

constant tplh_Z2_Z1 : TIME := (1.00 ns + (0.01 ns * Z1_Cap)) *
derating;
constant tphl_Z2_Z1 : TIME := (1.00 ns + (0.01 ns * Z1_Cap)) *
derating;
begin
process(Z2)
variable int_Z1 : Std_Logic := 'U';
variable tplh_Z1, tphl_Z1, Z1_delay : time := 0 ns;
variable CHANGED : BOOLEAN;
begin
int_Z1 := not (Z2);
if Z2'EVENT then
tplh_Z1 := tplh_Z2_Z1; tphl_Z1 := tphl_Z2_Z1;
end if;
Z1_delay := F_Delay(int_Z1, tplh_Z1, tphl_Z1);
Z1 <= int_Z1 after Z1_delay;
end process;
end bknot;
configuration bknot_CON of bknot is for bknot end for;
end bknot_CON;

13.5.5 VITAL Models

Key terms and concepts: VITAL VHDL Initiative Toward ASIC Libraries, IEEE Std 1076.4
[1995] . sign-off quality ASIC libraries using an approved cell library and a golden simulator
library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all;
use IEEE.VITAL_timing.all; use IEEE.VITAL_primitives.all;
entity IN01D1 is
generic (
tipd_I : VitalDelayType01 := (0 ns, 0 ns);
tpd_I_ZN : VitalDelayType01 := (0 ns, 0 ns) );
port (
I : in STD_LOGIC := 'U';
ZN : out STD_LOGIC := 'U' );
attribute VITAL_LEVEL0 of IN01D1 : entity is TRUE;
end IN01D1;
architecture IN01D1 of IN01D1 is
attribute VITAL_LEVEL1 of IN01D1 : architecture is TRUE;
signal I_ipd : STD_LOGIC := 'X';
begin
WIREDELAY:block
begin VitalWireDelay(I_ipd, I, tipd_I);end block;

--1
--2
--3
--4
--5
--6
--7
--8
--9
--10
--11
--12
--13
--14
--15
--16
--17

14

SECTION 13

SIMULATION

ASICS... THE COURSE

VITALbehavior : process (I_ipd)

variable ZN_zd : STD_LOGIC;
variable ZN_GlitchData : VitalGlitchDataType;
begin
ZN_zd := VitalINV(I_ipd);
VitalPathDelay01(
OutSignal => ZN,
OutSignalName => "ZN",
OutTemp => ZN_zd,
Paths => (0 => (I_ipd'LAST_EVENT, tpd_I_ZN, TRUE)),
GlitchData => ZN_GlitchData,
DefaultDelay => VitalZeroDelay01,
Mode => OnEvent,
MsgOn => FALSE,
XOn => TRUE,
MsgSeverity => ERROR);
end process;
end IN01D1;
library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all;
entity SDF is port ( A : in STD_LOGIC; B : out STD_LOGIC );
end SDF;
architecture SDF of SDF is
component in01d1 port ( I : in STD_LOGIC; ZN : out STD_LOGIC );
end component;
begin i1: in01d1 port map ( I => A, ZN => B);
end SDF;
library STD; use STD.TEXTIO.all;
library IEEE; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.all;
entity SDF_testbench is end SDF_testbench;
architecture SDF_testbench of SDF_testbench is
component SDF port ( A : in STD_LOGIC; B : out STD_LOGIC );
end component;
signal A, B : STD_LOGIC := '0';
begin
SDF_b : SDF port map ( A => A, B => B);
process begin
A <= '0'; wait for 5 ns; A <= '1';
wait for 5 ns; A <= '0'; wait;
end process;
process (A, B) variable L: LINE; begin
write(L, now, right, 10, TIME'(ps));
write(L, STRING'(" A=")); write(L, TO_BIT(A));
write(L, STRING'(" B=")); write(L, TO_BIT(B));
writeline(output, L);

--18
--19
--20
--21
--22
--23
--24
--25
--26
--27
--28
--29
--30
--31
--32
--33
--34
--35
--1
--2
--3
--4
--5
--6
--7
--8
--1
--2
--3
--4
--5
--6
--7
--8
--9
--10
--11
--12
--13
--14
--15
--16
--17
--18

ASICs... THE COURSE

13.5 Cell Models

end process;
end SDF_testbench;

15

--19
--20

(DELAYFILE
(SDFVERSION "3.0") (DESIGN "SDF.vhd") (DATE "Aug-13-96")
(VENDOR "MJSS") (PROGRAM "MJSS") (VERSION "v0")
(DIVIDER .) (TIMESCALE 1 ns)
(CELL (CELLTYPE "in01d1")
(INSTANCE i1)
(DELAY (ABSOLUTE
(IOPATH i zn (1.151:1.151:1.151) (1.363:1.363:1.363))
(PORT i (0.021:0.021:0.021) (0.025:0.025:0.025))
))
)
)

<msmith/MTI/vital> vsim -c -sdfmax /sdf_b=SDF_b.sdf sdf_testbench

...
#
0 ps A=0 B=0
#
0 ps A=0 B=0
#
1176 ps A=0 B=1
#
5000 ps A=1 B=1
#
6384 ps A=1 B=0
#
10000 ps A=0 B=0
#
11176 ps A=0 B=1

13.5.6 SDF in Simulation

Key terms and concepts: SDF is also used to describe forward-annotation of timing constraints
from logic synthesis

(DELAYFILE
(SDFVERSION "1.0")
(DESIGN "halfgate_ASIC_u")
(DATE "Aug-13-96")
(VENDOR "Compass")
(PROGRAM "HDL Asst")
(VERSION "v9r1.2")
(DIVIDER .)
(TIMESCALE 1 ns)

16

SECTION 13

SIMULATION

ASICS... THE COURSE

(CELL (CELLTYPE "in01d0")

(INSTANCE v_1.B1_i1)
(DELAY (ABSOLUTE
(IOPATH I ZN (1.151:1.151:1.151) (1.363:1.363:1.363))
))
)
(CELL (CELLTYPE "pc5o06")
(INSTANCE u1_2)
(DELAY (ABSOLUTE
(IOPATH I PAD (1.216:1.216:1.216) (1.249:1.249:1.249))
))
)
(CELL (CELLTYPE "pc5d01r")
(INSTANCE u0_2)
(DELAY (ABSOLUTE
(IOPATH PAD CIN (.169:.169:.169) (.199:.199:.199))
))
)
)

(DELAYFILE
...
(PROCESS "FAST-FAST")
(TEMPERATURE 0:55:100)
(TIMESCALE 100ps)
(CELL (CELLTYPE "CHIP")
(INSTANCE TOP)
(DELAY (ABSOLUTE
(INTERCONNECT A.INV8.OUT B.DFF1.Q (:0.6:) (:0.6:))
)))

(INSTANCE B.DFF1)
(DELAY (ABSOLUTE
(IOPATH (POSEDGE CLK) Q (12:14:15) (11:13:15))))

(DELAYFILE
(DESIGN "MYDESIGN")
(DATE "26 AUG 1996")
(VENDOR "ASICS_INC")
(PROGRAM "SDF_GEN")
(VERSION "3.0")
(DIVIDER .)

ASICs... THE COURSE

13.6 Delay Models

(VOLTAGE 3.6:3.3:3.0)
(PROCESS "-3.0:0.0:3.0")
(TEMPERATURE 0.0:25.0:115.0)
(TIMESCALE )
(CELL
(CELLTYPE "AOI221")
(INSTANCE X0)
(DELAY (ABSOLUTE
(IOPATH A1 Y (1.11:1.42:2.47)
(IOPATH A2 Y (0.97:1.30:2.34)
(IOPATH B1 Y (1.26:1.59:2.72)
(IOPATH B2 Y (1.10:1.45:2.56)
(IOPATH C1 Y (0.79:1.04:1.91)
))))

17

(1.39:1.78:3.19))
(1.53:1.94:3.50))
(1.52:2.01:3.79))
(1.66:2.18:4.10))
(1.36:1.62:2.61))

13.6 Delay Models

Key terms and concepts: timing model describes delays outside logic cells delay model
describes delays inside logic cells pin-to-pin delay is a delay between an input pin and an
output pin of a logic cell pin delay is a delay lumped to a certain pin of a logic cell (usually an
input) net delay or wire delay is a delay outside a logic cell propramp delay model
specify specparam
InCap$i = 0.060, OutCap$zn = 0.038, MaxLoad$zn = 1.538,
R_Ramp$i$zn = 0.542:0.980:1.750, F_Ramp$i$zn = 0.605:1.092:1.950;
specparam cell_count = 1.000000; specparam Transistors = 4 ;
specparam Power = 1.400000; specparam MaxLoadedRamp = 3 ;
(i=>zn)=(0.031:0.056:0.100, 0.028:0.050:0.090);

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6

13.6.1 Using a Library Data Book

Key terms and concepts: area-optimized library (small) performance-optimized library
(fast)
Input capacitances for an inverter family (pF)
Library
Area
Performance

inv1
0.034
0.145

invh
0.067
0.292

invs
0.133
0.584

inv8
0.265
1.169

inv12
0.397
1.753

18

SECTION 13

SIMULATION

ASICS... THE COURSE

Delay information for a 2:1 MUX

From input

To output

D0\
D0/
D1\
D1/
SD\
SD\
SD/
SD/

Z\
Z/
Z\
Z/
Z\
Z/
Z\
Z/

Process derating factors

Process

Derating factor

Slow

1.31

Nominal
Fast

1.0
0.75

Propagation delay
Area
Performance
Extrinsic/
Intrinsic /
Extrinsic /
Intrinsic /
nspF 1
ns
ns
ns
2.10
1.42
0.5
0.8
3.66
1.23
0.68
0.70
2.10
1.42
0.50
0.80
3.66
1.23
0.68
0.70
2.10
1.42
0.50
0.80
3.66
1.09
0.70
0.73
2.10
2.09
0.5
1.09
3.66
1.23
0.68
0.70
Temperature and voltage derating factors
Supply voltage
Temperature/C
40
0
25
85
100
125

4.5V
0.77
1.00
1.14
1.50
1.60
1.76

4.75V 5.00V 5.25V 5.50V

0.73
0.93
1.07
1.40
1.49
1.65

0.68
0.87
1.00
1.33
1.41
1.56

0.64
0.82
0.94
1.26
1.34
1.47

0.61
0.78
0.90
1.20
1.28
1.41

ASICs... THE COURSE

13.6 Delay Models

19

13.6.2 Input-Slope Delay Model

Key terms and concepts: submicron technologies must account for the effects of the rise (and
fall) time of the input waveforms to a logic cell nonlinear delay model
The input-slope model predicts delay in the fast-ramp region, DISM (50 %, FR), as follows
(0.5 trip points):
DISM (50%, FR)
= A0 + D0CL + 0.5OR = A0 + D0CL + dA /2 + dDCL/2
= 0.0015 + 0.5 0.0789 + (0.2828 + 0.5 4.6642) CL
= 0.041 + 2.05CL
13.6.3 Limitations of Logic Simulation
Key terms and concepts: pin-to-pin delay model timing information for most gate-level
simulators is calculated once, before simulation state-dependent timing
Switching characteristics of a two-input NAND gate

Symbol

Parameter

tPLH
tPHL
tr
tf

Propagation delay, A to X
Propagation delay, B to X
Output rise time, X
Output fall time, X

FO = 0
/ns
0.25
0.17
1.01
0.54

Fanout
FO = 1 FO = 2 FO = 4
/ns
/ns
/ns
0.35
0.45
0.65
0.24
0.30
0.42
1.28
1.56
2.10
0.69
0.84
1.13

FO = 8
K
/ns
/nspF1
1.05
1.25
0.68
0.79
3.19
3.40
1.71
1.83

20

SECTION 13

SIMULATION

ASICS... THE COURSE

Switching characteristics of a half adder

Symbol

Parameter

tPLH
tPHL
tPLH
tPHL
tPLH
tPHL
tr
tf

Delay, A to S (B = '0')
Delay, A to S (B = '1')
Delay, B to S (B = '0')
Delay, B to S (B = '1')
Delay, A to CO
Delay, A to CO
Output rise time, X
Output fall time, X

FO = 0
/ns
0.58
0.93
0.89
1.00
0.43
0.59
1.01
0.54

FO = 1
/ns
0.68
0.97
0.99
1.04
0.53
0.63
1.28
0.69

Fanout
FO = 2
/ns
0.78
1.00
1.09
1.08
0.63
0.67
1.56
0.84

FO = 4
/ns
0.98
1.08
1.29
1.15
0.83
0.75
2.10
1.13

FO = 8
K
/ns
/nspF 1
1.38
1.25
1.24
0.48
1.69
1.25
1.31
0.48
1.23
1.25
0.90
0.48
3.19
3.40
1.71
1.83

13.7 Static Timing Analysis

Key terms and concepts: static timing analysis pipelining critical path
Instance name
in pin-->out pin
tr
total
incr
cell
-------------------------------------------------------------------END_OF_PATH
outp_2_
R
27.26
OUT1
: D--->PAD
R
27.26
7.55
OUTBUF
I_1_CM8
: S11--->Y
R
19.71
4.40
CM8
I_2_CM8
: S11--->Y
R
15.31
5.20
CM8
I_3_CM8
: S11--->Y
R
10.11
4.80
CM8
IN1
: PAD--->Y
R
5.32
5.32
INBUF
a_2_
R
0.00
0.00
BEGIN_OF_PATH

// comp_mux_rrr.v
module comp_mux_rrr(a, b, clock, outp);
input [2:0] a, b; output [2:0] outp; input clock;
reg [2:0] a_r, a_rr, b_r, b_rr, outp;reg sel_r;
wire sel = ( a_r <= b_r ) ? 0 : 1;
always @ (posedge clock) begin a_r <= a; b_r <= b; end
always @ (posedge clock) begin a_rr <= a_r; b_rr <= b_r; end
always @ (posedge clock) outp <= sel_r ? b_rr : a_rr;
always @ (posedge clock) sel_r <= sel;
endmodule
---------------------INPAD to SETUP longest path--------------------Rise delay, Worst case
Instance name
in pin-->out pin
tr
total
incr
cell
--------------------------------------------------------------------

//1
//2
//3
//4
//5
//6
//7
//8
//9
//10

ASICs... THE COURSE

END_OF_PATH
D.a_r_ff_b2
INBUF_24
a_2_
BEGIN_OF_PATH

13.7 Static Timing Analysis

: PAD--->Y

R
R
R

4.52
4.52
0.00

0.00
4.52
0.00

21

DF1
INBUF

---------------------CLOCK to SETUP longest path--------------------Rise delay, Worst case

Instance name
in pin-->out pin
tr
total
incr
cell
-------------------------------------------------------------------END_OF_PATH
D.sel_r_ff
R
9.99
0.00
DF1
I_1_CM8
: S10--->Y
R
9.99
0.00
CM8
I_3_CM8
: S00--->Y
R
9.99
4.40
CM8
a_r_ff_b1
: CLK--->Q
R
5.60
5.60
DF1
BEGIN_OF_PATH

---------------------CLOCK to OUTPAD longest path-------------------Rise delay, Worst case

Instance name
in pin-->out pin
tr
total
incr
cell
-------------------------------------------------------------------END_OF_PATH
outp_2_
R
11.95
OUTBUF_31
: D--->PAD
R
11.95
7.55
OUTBUF
outp_ff_b2
: CLK--->Q
R
4.40
4.40
DF1
BEGIN_OF_PATH

A timing analyzer examines the following types of paths:

1. An entry path (or input-to-D path) to a pipelined design. The longest entry delay (or inputto-setup delay) is 4.52 ns.
2. A stage path (register-to-register path or clock-to-D path) in a pipeline stage. The longest
stage delay (clock-to-D delay) is 9.99 ns.
3. An exit path (clock-to-output path) from the pipeline. The longest exit delay (clock-to-output delay) is 11.95 ns.
13.7.1 Hold Time
Key terms and concepts: Hold-time problems occur if there is clock skew between adjacent flipflops To check for hold-time violations we find the clock skew for each clock-to-D path
timer> shortest
1st shortest path to all endpins
Rank Total Start pin
First Net
0
4.0 b_rr_ff_b1:CLK b_rr_1_
1
4.1 a_rr_ff_b2:CLK a_rr_2_
... 8 similar lines omitted ...

End Net
DEF_NET_48
DEF_NET_46

End pin
outp_ff_b1:D
outp_ff_b2:D

22

SECTION 13

SIMULATION

ASICS... THE COURSE

13.7.2 Entry Delay

Key terms and concepts: Before we can measure clock skew, we need to analyze the entry
delays, including the clock tree
13.7.3 Exit Delay
Key terms and concepts: exit delays (the longest path between clock-pad input and an output)
critical path and operating frequency
13.7.4 External Setup Time
Key terms and concepts: external set-up time internal set-up time clock delay
Each of the six chip data inputs must satisfy the following set-up equation:
tSU (external) > tSU (internal) (clock delay) + (data delay

13.8 Formal Verification

Key terms and concepts: logic synthesis converts a behavioral model to a structural model How
do we know that the two are the same? formal verification can prove they are equivalent
13.8.1 An Example
Key terms and concepts: reference model derived model (1) the HDL is parsed (2) a
finite-state machine compiler extracts the states (3) a proof generator automatically
generates formulas to be proved (4) the theorem prover attempts to prove the formulas
entity Alarm is
port(Clock, Key, Trip : in bit; Ring : out bit);
end Alarm;
architecture RTL of Alarm is
type States is (Armed, Off, Ringing); signal State : States;
begin
process (Clock) begin
if Clock = '1' and Clock'EVENT then
case State is
when Off => if Key = '1' then State <= Armed; end if;
when Armed => if Key = '0' then State <= Off;
elsif Trip = '1' then State <= Ringing;
end if;

--1
--2
--3
--1
--2
--3
--4
--5
--6
--7
--8
--9
--10

ASICs... THE COURSE

13.8 Formal Verification

23

when Ringing => if Key = '0' then State <= Off; end if;
end case;
end if;
end process;
Ring <= '1' when State = Ringing else '0';
end RTL;

--11
--12
--13
--14
--15
--16

library cells; use cells.all; // ...contains logic cell models

architecture Gates of Alarm is
component Inverter port(i : in BIT;z : out BIT) ; end component;
component NAnd2 port(a,b : in BIT;z : out BIT) ; end component;
component NAnd3 port(a,b,c : in BIT;z : out BIT) ; end component;
component DFF port(d,c : in BIT; q,qn : out BIT) ; end component;
signal State, NextState : BIT_VECTOR(1 downto 0);
signal s0, s1, s2, s3 : BIT;
begin
g2: Inverter port map ( i => State(0), z => s1 );
g3: NAnd2 port map ( a => s1, b => State(1), z => s2 );
g4: Inverter port map ( i => s2, z => Ring );
g5: NAnd2 port map ( a => State(1), b => Key, z => s0 );
g6: NAnd3 port map ( a => Trip, b => s1, c => Key, z => s3 );
g7: NAnd2 port map ( a => s0, b => s3, z => NextState(1) );
g8: Inverter port map ( i => Key, z => NextState(0) );
state_ff_b0: DFF port map
( d => NextState(0), c => Clock, q => State(0), qn =>open );
state_ff_b1: DFF port map
( d => NextState(1), c => Clock, q => State(1), qn =>open );
end Gates;

--1
--2
--3
--4
--5
--6
--7
--8
--9
--10
--11
--12
--13
--14
--15
--16
--17
--18
--19
--20
--21

13.8.2 Understanding Formal Verification

Key terms and concepts: The formulas to be proved are generated as proof statements An
axiom is an explicit or implicit fact (signal of type BIT may only be'0' and '1') An assertion
is derived from a statement placed in the HDL code implication equivalence

24

SECTION 13

SIMULATION

ASICS... THE COURSE

assert Key /= '1' or Trip /= '1' or NextState = Ringing

report "Alarm on and tripped but not ringing";

Implication and equivalence

A
F
F
T
T

B
F
T
F
T

AB
T
T
F
T

AB
T
F
F
T

13.8.3 Adding an Assertion

Key terms and concepts: The axioms of the reference model do not imply that the assertions
of the reference model imply the assertions of the derived model. Translation: These two
architectures differ in some way.

<E> Assertion may be violated

SEVERITY: ERROR
REPORT: Alarm on and tripped but not ringing
FILE: .../alarm-rtl3.vhdl
FSM: alarm-rtl3
STATEMENT or DECLARATION: line8
.../alarm-rtl3.vhdl (line 8)
Context of the message is:
(key And trip And memoryofdriver__state(0))

case State is
when Off => if Key = '1' then State <= Armed; end if;
when Armed => if Key = '0' then State <= Off;
elsif Trip = '1' then State <= Ringing;
end if;
when Ringing => if Key = '0' then State <= Off; end if;
end case;

Prove (Axiom_ref => (Assert_ref => Assert_der))

Formula is NOT VALID
But is VALID under Assert Context of alarm-rtl3

--1
--2
--3
--4
--5
--6
--7

ASICs... THE COURSE

13.9 Switch-Level Simulation

25

13.8.4 Completing a Proof

...
case State is
when Off =>

if Key = '1' then

if Trip = '1' then NextState <= Ringing;
else NextState <= Armed;
end if;
end if;
when Armed => if Key = '0' then NextState <= Off;
elsif Trip = '1' then NextState <= Ringing;
end if;
when Ringing => if Key = '0' then NextState <= Off; end if;
end case;
...

13.9 Switch-Level Simulation

Key terms and concepts: The switch-level simulator is a more detailed level of simulation than
we have discussed so far Example: a true single-phase flip-flop using true single-phase
clocking (TSPC)

13.10 Transistor-Level Simulation

Key terms and concepts: transistor-level simulation or circuit-level simulation SPICE (or
Spice, Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis) developed at UC Berkeley
13.10.1 A PSpice Example
Key terms and concepts: PSpice input deck

OB September
.TRAN/OP 1ns
.PROBE
cl output
VIN input
VGround 0
Vdd +5V 0
m1 output

5, 1996 17:27
20ns
Ground 10pF
Ground
PWL(0us 5V 10ns 5V 12ns 0V 20ns 0V)
Ground
DC 0V
DC 5V
input Ground Ground NMOS W=100u L=2u

26

SECTION 13

SIMULATION

ASICS... THE COURSE

(a)

(b)
chargeDecayTime =5ns
chargeDecayTime =
P3
P2
P1
N2
N1

A TSPC (true single-phase clock) flip-flop

(a) The schematic (all devices are W/L=3/2)

QN

(b) The switch-level simulation results

The parameter chargeDecayTime sets the

time after which the simulator sets an undriven
node to an invalid logic level (shown shaded).

D
0

100

time/ns

m2 output input +5V +5V PMOS W=200u L=2u

.model nmos nmos level=2 vto=0.78 tox=400e-10 nsub=8.0e15 xj=-0.15e-6
+ ld=0.20e-6 uo=650 ucrit=0.62e5 uexp=0.125 vmax=5.1e4 neff=4.0
+ delta=1.4 rsh=37 cgso=2.95e-10 cgdo=2.95e-10 cj=195e-6 cjsw=500e-12
+ mj=0.76 mjsw=0.30 pb=0.80
.model pmos pmos level=2 vto=-0.8 tox=400e-10 nsub=6.0e15 xj=-0.05e-6
+ ld=0.20e-6 uo=255 ucrit=0.86e5 uexp=0.29 vmax=3.0e4 neff=2.65
+ delta=1 rsh=125 cgso=2.65e-10 cgdo=2.65e-10 cj=250e-6 cjsw=350e-12
+ mj=0.535 mjsw=0.34 pb=0.80
.end

ASICs... THE COURSE

13.10.2 SPICE Models

13.10 Transistor-Level Simulation

27

28

SECTION 13

SIMULATION

ASICS... THE COURSE

Key terms and concepts: SPICE parameters LEVEL=3 parameters

SPICE transistor model parameters (LEVEL=3)
parameter

n-ch.
value

p-ch.
value

CGBO

4.0E-10

3.8E-10

Fm1

CGDO

3.0E-10

2.4E-10

Fm1

CGSO

3.0E-10

2.4E-10

Fm1

CJ

5.6E-4

9.3E-4

Fm2

CJSW

5E-11

2.9E-10

Junction sidewall capacitance

DELTA

0.7

ETA

3.7E-2

Fm1
0.29
m
2.45E-2 1

GAMMA

0.6

0.47

V0.5

Narrow-width factor for adjusting threshold voltage

Static-feedback factor for adjusting threshold voltage
Body-effect factor

KAPPA

2.9E-2

V1

Saturation-field factor (channel-length modulation)

KP

2E-4

4.9E-5

Intrinsic transconductance (Cox, not 0.5Cox)

LD

5E-8

3.5E-8

LEVEL

MJ

0.56

0.47

MJSW

0.52

0.50

AV2
m
none
1
1

NFS

6E11

6.5E11

cm2V1

NSUB

1.4E17

8.5E16

PB

PHI

0.7

RSH

cm3
V
V
/ square

THETA

0.27

TOX

1E-8

TPG

-1

U0

550

135

XJ

0.2E-6

VMAX

2E5

2.5E5

VTO

0.65

-0.92

0.29

Units

V1
m
none

Explanation
Gatebulk overlap capacitance (CGBoh, not
CGBzero)
Gatedrain overlap capacitance (CGDoh, not CGDzero)
Gatesource overlap capacitance (CGSoh, not
CGSzero)
Junction area capacitance

Lateral diffusion into channel

Empirical model
Junction area exponent
Junction sidewall exponent
Fast surface-state density
Bulk surface doping
Junction area contact potential
Surface inversion potential
Sheet resistance of source and drain
Mobility-degradation factor

Gate-oxide thickness
Type of polysilicon gate
cm2V1s1 Low-field bulk carrier mobility (Uzero, not Uoh)
m
Junction depth
Saturated carrier velocity
ms1
V

Zero-bias threshold voltage (VTzero, not VToh)

ASICs... THE COURSE

13.11 Summary

29

PSpice parameters for process G5 (PSpice LEVEL=4)

.MODEL NM1 NMOS LEVEL=4
+ VFB=-0.7, LVFB=-4E-2, WVFB=5E-2
+ PHI=0.84, LPHI=0, WPHI=0
+ K1=0.78, LK1=-8E-4, WK1=-5E-2
+ K2=2.7E-2, LK2=5E-2, WK2=-3E-2
+ ETA=-2E-3, LETA=2E-02, WETA=-5E-3
+ MUZ=600, DL=0.2, DW=0.5
+ U0=0.33, LU0=0.1, WU0=-0.1
+ U1=3.3E-2, LU1=3E-2, WU1=-1E-2
+ X2MZ=9.7, LX2MZ=-6, WX2MZ=7
+ X2E=4.4E-4, LX2E=-3E-3, WX2E=9E-4
+ X3E=-5E-5, LX3E=-2E-3, WX3E=-1E-3
+ X2U0=-1E-2, LX2U0=-1E-3, WX2U0=5E-3
+ X2U1=-1E-3, LX2U1=1E-3, WX2U1=-7E-4
+ MUS=700, LMUS=-50, WMUS=7
+ X2MS=-6E-2, LX2MS=1, WX2MS=4
+ X3MS=9, LX3MS=2, WX3MS=-6
+ X3U1=9E-3, LX3U1=2E-4, WX3U1=-5E-3
+ TOX=1E-2, TEMP=25, VDD=5
+ CGDO=3E-10, CGSO=3E-10, CGBO=4E-10
+ XPART=1
+ N0=1, LN0=0, WN0=0
+ NB=0, LNB=0, WNB=0
+ ND=0, LND=0, WND=0
* n+ diffusion
+ RSH=2.1, CJ=3.5E-4, CJSW=2.9E-10
+ JS=1E-8, PB=0.8, PBSW=0.8
+ MJ=0.44, MJSW=0.26, WDF=0
*, DS=0

.MODEL PM1 PMOS LEVEL=4

+ VFB=-0.2, LVFB=4E-2, WVFB=-0.1
+ PHI=0.83, LPHI=0, WPHI=0
+ K1=0.35, LK1=-7E-02, WK1=0.2
+ K2=-4.5E-2, LK2=9E-3, WK2=4E-2
+ ETA=-1E-2, LETA=2E-2, WETA=-4E-4
+ MUZ=140, DL=0.2, DW=0.5
+ U0=0.2, LU0=6E-2, WU0=-6E-2
+ U1=1E-2, LU1=1E-2, WU1=7E-4
+ X2MZ=7, LX2MZ=-2, WX2MZ=1
+ X2E= 5E-5, LX2E=-1E-3, WX2E=-2E-4
+ X3E=8E-4, LX3E=-2E-4, WX3E=-1E-3
+ X2U0=9E-3, LX2U0=-2E-3, WX2U0=2E-3
+ X2U1=6E-4, LX2U1=5E-4, WX2U1=3E-4
+ MUS=150, LMUS=10, WMUS=4
+ X2MS=6, LX2MS=-0.7, WX2MS=2
+ X3MS=-1E-2, LX3MS=2, WX3MS=1
+ X3U1=-1E-3, LX3U1=-5E-4, WX3U1=1E-3
+ TOX=1E-2, TEMP=25, VDD=5
+ CGDO=2.4E-10, CGSO=2.4E-10, CGBO=3.8E10
+ XPART=1
+ N0=1, LN0=0, WN0=0
+ NB=0, LNB=0, WNB=0
+ ND=0, LND=0, WND=0
* p+ diffusion
+ RSH=2, CJ=9.5E-4, CJSW=2.5E-10
+ JS=1E-8, PB=0.85, PBSW=0.85
+ MJ=0.44, MJSW=0.24, WDF=0
*, DS=0

13.11 Summary
Key terms and concepts: Behavioral simulation can only tell you only if your design will not work
Prelayout simulation estimates of performance Finding a critical path is difficult because you
need to construct input vectors to exercise the model Static timing analysis is the most widely
used form of simulation Formal verification compares two different representations. It cannot
prove your design will work Switch-level simulation can check the behavior of circuits that may
not always have nodes that are driven or that use logic that is not complementary Transistorlevel simulation is used when you need to know the analog, rather than the digital, behavior of
circuit voltages trade-off in accuracy against run time

30

SECTION 13

SIMULATION

ASICS... THE COURSE

ASICs...THE COURSE (1 WEEK)

14

TEST

Key terms and concepts: production test wafer test or wafer sort probe card production tester
test program test response test vector final test goods-inward test printed-circuit board
(PCB or board) failure analysis field repair

14.1 The Importance of Test

Key terms and concepts: product quality defect level average quality level (AQL)
Defect levels in printed-circuit boards (PCB)
ASIC defect level
5%
1%
0.1%
0.01%

Defective ASICs
5000
1000
100
10

Total PCB repair cost

$1million
$200,000
$20,000
$2,000

Defect levels in systems

ASIC defect level

Defective ASICs

Defective boards

5%
1%
0.1%
0.01%

5000
1000
100
10

500
100
10
1

Total repair cost at

system level
$5million
$1million
$100,000
$10,000

SECTION 14

TEST

ASICS... THE COURSE

14.2 Boundary-Scan Test

Key terms and concepts: 4/5-wire interface for board-level test Joint Test Action Group (JTAG)
IEEE Standard 1149.1 Test Port and Boundary-Scan Architecture boundary-scan test
(BST) test-data output (TDO) test-data registers (TDR) test clock (TCK) test-mode select
(TMS) test-reset input signal (TRST*) test-access port (TAP)
Boundary-scan terminology
Acronym
BR
BSC
BSR
BST
IDCODE
IR
JTAG
TAP
TCK
TDI
TDO
TDR
TMS
TRST* or
nTRST

Meaning
Bypass register

Explanation
A TDR, directly connects TDI and TDO, bypassing
BSR
Boundary-scan cell
Each I/O pad has a BSC to monitor signals
Boundary-scan register
A TDR, a shift register formed from a chain of
BSCs
Boundary-scan test
Not to be confused with BIST (built-in self-test)
Device-identification reg- Optional TDR, contains manufacturer and part
ister
number
Instruction register
Holds a BST instruction, provides control signals
Joint Test Action Group
The organization that developed boundary scan
Test-access port
Four- (or five-)wire test interface to an ASIC
Test clock
A TAP wire, the clock that controls BST operation
Test-data input
A TAP wire, the input to the IR and TDRs
Test-data output
A TAP wire, the output from the IR and TDRs
Test-data register
Group of BST registers: IDCODE, BR, BSR
Test-mode select
A TAP wire, together with TCK controls the BST
state
Test-reset input signal
Optional TAP wire, resets the TAP controller
(active-low)

ASICs... THE COURSE

14.2 Boundary-Scan Test

short

32

1
32

TDI
TCK
TMS

U1
package pin

TCK
TMS

U1

U2

U2
open

PCB trace
(a)

22 pins separation
TDO
TCK
TMS

U4

U3

open

pin 16

'1'

'?'

pin 25

short

"I sent you a one"

U2

U1
die

TDO

"I didn't get it"

'...1....22 other values...?...'

open

(b)

TCK
TMS

(c)

serial data
shifted
time through
chain

IEEE 1149.1 boundary scan

(a) Boundary scan is intended to check for shorts or opens between ICs mounted on a
board
(b) Shorts and opens may also occur inside the IC package
(c) The boundary-scan architecture is a long chain of shift registers allowing data to be sent
over all the connections between the ICs on a board

SECTION 14

TEST

ASICS... THE COURSE

14.2.1 BST Cells

Key terms and concepts: data-register cell (DR cell) boundary-scan cell (BS cell, or BSC)
capture flip-flop or capture register update flip-flop, or update latch scan in (serial in or SI)
data in (parallel in or PI) mode (also called test/normal) scan out (serial out or SO) data out
(parallel out or PO) reversible bypass-register cell (BR cell) instruction-register cell (IR
cell)

mode
scan_in
scan_in
scan_out

G1

data_in
shiftDR
scan_in

G1

update

capture

1
1

q1

1D
C1

1D
C1

data_out

1
1
q2

shift

scan_out
scan_out
clockDR

updateDR

A DR (data register) cell

The most common use of this cell is as a boundary-scan cell (BSC)

scan_out
scan_out

shiftIR
data_in

scan_in

G1

CAP
1D
C1

1
1

clockIR
updateIR
reset_bar
(nTRST)

&

scan_out
q1
scan_in
scan_in

UPD
1D
C1
S/R

data_out

set (S) if reset_value=1

reset (R) if reset_value=0

An IR (instruction register) cell

14.2.2 BST Registers
Key terms and concepts: boundary-scan register (BSR) instruction register (IR)

ASICs... THE COURSE

14.2 Boundary-Scan Test

scan_in

data_in
scan_out

data_out
LSB

MSB

A BSR (boundary-scan register)

shiftIR

data_in

width

clockIR
updateIR
reset_bar
(nTRST)

2 LSBs of
data_in are
unused

fixed values
'0'

'1'

reset_value='1' for all cells

(BYPASS instruction)

scan_in
MSB
4 or 5 (with nTRST)

scan_out

width

LSB
data_out

An IR (instruction register)
14.2.3 Instruction Decoder
instruction decoder device-identification register
An IR (instruction register) decoder
entity IR_decoder is generic (width : INTEGER := 4); port (
shiftDR, clockDR, updateDR : BIT; IR_PO : BIT_VECTOR (width-1 downto 0) ;
test_mode, selectBR, shiftBR, clockBR, shiftBSR, clockBSR, updateBSR : out BIT );
end IR_decoder;
architecture behave of IR_decoder is
type INSTRUCTION is (EXTEST, SAMPLE_PRELOAD, IDCODE, BYPASS);
signal I : INSTRUCTION;
begin process (IR_PO) begin case BIT_VECTOR'( IR_PO(1), IR_PO(0) ) is
when "00" => I <= EXTEST; when "01" => I <= SAMPLE_PRELOAD;
when "10" => I <= IDCODE; when "11" => I <= BYPASS;
end case; end process;
test_mode <= '1' when I = EXTEST else '0';
selectBR <= '1' when (I = BYPASS or I = IDCODE) else '0';
shiftBR <= shiftDR;
clockBR <= clockDR when (I = BYPASS or I = IDCODE) else '1';
shiftBSR <= shiftDR;
clockBSR <= clockDR when (I = EXTEST or I = SAMPLE_PRELOAD) else '1';
updateBSR <= updateDR when (I = EXTEST or I = SAMPLE_PRELOAD) else '0';
end behave;

SECTION 14

TEST

ASICS... THE COURSE

14.2.4 TAP Controller

Key terms and concepts: JTAG brain four-button digital watch clean signal dirty gated
clocks

TMS =1

(nTRST=0)

Reset
0
Run_Idle
0

Select_DR
1

0
Capture_DR
0
Shift_DR
1
Exit1_DR
0
Pause_DR

1
Select_IR

1
1

0
Capture_IR

1
Exit1_IR

Shift_IR
1
0

0
Pause_IR

1
Exit2_DR

1
Exit2_IR

1
Update_DR

1
Update_IR

The TAP (test-access port) controller state machine

14.2.5 Boundary-Scan Controller
Key terms and concepts: bypass register TDO output circuit. instruction register and
instruction decoder TAP controller
14.2.6 A Simple Boundary-Scan Example
Key terms and concepts: Example: comparator/MUX containing boundary scan
14.2.7 BSDL
Key terms and concepts: boundary-scan description language (BSDL)

ASICs... THE COURSE

14.3 Faults

selectBR
BR_SO
TDI
1

BR
shiftBR,
clockBR

BSR_SO
BR_SO

TDI, (nTRST)
3

1
1

selectIR
TDR_SO
IR_SO

test_mode,
shiftBSR,
clockBSR,
updateBSR

selectBR,
shiftBR,
clockBR
shiftDR, clockDR,
updateDR

G1

IR_decoder

G1
TDO_data

1
1

not(TCK)

1D
C1

TDO_reg
enableTDO

EN

TDO

reset_bar, selectIR, enableTDO, shiftIR,

clockIR, updateIR, shiftDR, clockDR,
updateDR
TCK
TAP_sm_output

IR_PO

S
TAP_sm_states

IR_SO
IR
IR_PI, reset_bar, shiftIR,
clockIR, updateIR

TCK, TMS, (nTRST)

A boundary-scan controller

BSR

scan_out
data_in
scan_in

outp

control
signals

core
logic

TDO
nTRST
TMS
TCK
TDI

a
Core
MSB

boundary-scan
cell
data_out

Control

mode, shiftBSR, clockBSR, updateBSR

A boundary-scan example

14.3 Faults
Key terms and concepts: defect fault defect mechanisms bridge or short circuit (shorts)
breaks or open circuits (opens) rework

SECTION 14

TEST

ASICS... THE COURSE

/tck
/tms
/tdi
/a_pad 010
/b_pad 011
/z_pad 010

101

/asic1/c1/s shift_ir
/asic1/c1/dec1/i sample_preload

exit1_ir

2800

update_ir

run_idle
extest

2900

3 us

Results from the MTI simulator for the boundary-scan testbench

14.3.1 Reliability
Key terms and concepts: infant mortality bathtub curve wearout mechanisms burn-in
exp(E a/kT) Arrhenius equation activation energy reliability mean time between failures
(MTBF) mean time to failure (MTTF) failures in time (FITs)

ASICs... THE COURSE

14.3 Faults

14.3.2 Fault Models

Key terms and concepts: fault level physical fault fault model logical fault degradation fault
parametric fault delay fault (timing fault) open-circuit fault short-circuit fault bridging faults
metal coverage feedback bridging faults and nonfeedback bridging faults
Mapping physical faults to logical faults
Fault Physical fault
level
Chip
Leakage or short between package leads
Broken, misaligned, or poor wire bonding
Surface contamination, moisture
Metal migration, stress, peeling
Metallization (open or short)
Gate
Contact opens
Gate to S/D junction short
Field-oxide parasitic device
Gate-oxide imperfection, spiking
Mask misalignment

Logical fault
Degradation Open-circuit
Shortfault
fault
circuit fault

14.3.3 Physical Faults

Key terms and concepts: stuck-at fault model
14.3.4 Stuck-at Fault Model
Key terms and concepts: single stuck-at fault (SSF) multiple stuck-at fault model stuck-on fault
and stuck-open fault (or stuck-off fault) stuck-at faults are: a stuck-at-1 fault (abbreviated to SA1
or s@1) and a stuck-at-0 fault (SA0 or s@0) place faults (inject faults, seed faults, or apply
faults) fault origin net fault input fault output fault supply-strength fault (or rail-strength
fault) output-fault strength node fault pin-fault model structural level, gate level, or cell level
transistor level or switch level fault effect fault propagation structural fault propagation
behavioral fault propagation mixed-level fault simulation

10

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TEST

ASICS... THE COURSE

14.3.5 Logical Faults

Key terms and concepts: not all physical faults translate to logical faultsmost do not

VDD
p2
A1

12/1

p2

12/1

p6

p4
p4
12/1
12/1
F6
t8
t9

t7
p3

12/1
t6

t10

p3

n1

F3

t1
6/1

B1

12/1

12/1 Z1

n4

n4 F5
t4
n5

t3
n3
t2

n2

12/1

24/1

F6

p5

2
p1

F2

VDD

A1

p5

fault F1
shorts n1 to
GND

F4

12/1

F4
F2

F1

n6
VSS

24/1
24/1
VSS

(b)
simplify
all faults modeled by: SA0 and
SA1 on each cell pin

F1: node stuck at '0'

SA0
F1
F6

B1

B1

6/1

t5

(a)

F4

Z1

simplify

12/1

n2

A1

24/1

A1
B1

Z1

Z1

simplify
(c)

(d)

Fault models
(a) Physical faults at the layout level (problems during fabrication) translate to electrical
problems on the detailed circuit schematic. The location and effect of fault F1 is shown. The
locations of the other faults are shown, but not their effect
(b) We can translate some of these faults to the simplified transistor schematic
(c) Only a few of the physical faults still remain in a gate-level fault model of the logic cell
(d) Finally at the functional-level fault model of a logic cell, we abandon the connection between physical and logical faults and model all faults by stuck-at faults. This is a very poor
model of the physical reality, but it works well in practice.
14.3.6 IDDQ Test
Key terms and concepts: IDDQ high supply current can result from bridging faults

ASICs... THE COURSE

14.3 Faults

11

14.3.7 Fault Collapsing

Key terms and concepts: bad circuit (also called the faulty circuit or faulty machine) fault
collapsing equivalent faults (or indistinguishable faults) fault-equivalence class prime fault or
representative fault dominant fault dominant fault collapsing
14.3.8 Fault-Collapsing Example
Key terms and concepts: gate collapsing node collapsing

12

SECTION 14

1
A
B

TEST

good circuit

ASICS... THE COURSE

NAND(A, B)

1
B1

different
0

bad circuit
1
A
B

Z=0

SA1

B
Z=1

1
A1

(a)

1
Z0

{11} = test for Z SA1 (Z1)

Z0
B0

Z0
Fault Z0
dominates
A1 and B1.
A1

Z0 A0

Z1

(b)

(c)

SA1

A0
dominance,

representative
fault

A1

01

(d)

stuck-at-1

Z1

Faults
A0, B0, Z1
are
equivalent
faults.

fault-equivalence
class

{11}
Z {00, 01, 10}

{01}
A {11}
E
{10}
B {11}
equivalence, E

stuck-at-0

B1

Test sets
SA0

B1

Z1

B0
11

Z0 00 B1
10

(e)

collapsing by
fault equivalence

collapsing by
fault dominance
E

logic-cell pin

E
A0 collapses to Z1
B0 collapses to Z1

(f)

(g)

Z0 dominates A1 and B1
A0 and B0 dominate Z1
(h)

Fault dominance and fault equivalence

(a) A test for fault Z0 (Z stuck at 0) makes the bad circuit differ from the good circuit
(b) Some test vectors provide tests for more than one fault
(c) A test for A1 also tests for Z0, Z0 dominates A1. A0, B0, Z1 are the same (equivalent)
(d) There are six sets of input vectors that test for the six stuck-at faults
(e) We only need to choose a subset of all test vectors that test for all faults
(f) The six stuck-at faults for a two-input NAND logic cell
(g) Using fault equivalence we can collapse six faults to four
(h) Using fault dominance we can collapse six faults to three.

ASICs... THE COURSE

14.3 Faults

13

U4
C
B

C
B

U5
Z

U3
A

Z
A

gate
collapsing

U2
(a)

(b)
node
collapsing

C
B

C
B
Z

Z
A

(c)

(d)

Fault collapsing for A'B+BC

(a) A pin-fault model. Each pin has stuck-at-0 and stuck-at-1 faults
(b) Using fault equivalence the pin faults at the input pins and output pins of logic cells are
collapsed. This is gate collapsing
(c) We can reduce the number of faults we need to consider further by collapsing equivalent
faults on nodes and between logic cells. This is node collapsing
(d) The final circuit has eight stuck-at faults (reduced from the 22 original faults). If we
wished to use fault dominance we could also eliminate the stuck-at-0 fault on Z. Notice that
in a pin-fault model we cannot collapse the faults U4.A1.SA1 and U3.A2.SA1 even though
they are on the same net.

14

SECTION 14

TEST

ASICS... THE COURSE

14.4 Fault Simulation

Key terms and concepts: fault simulation primary inputs (PIs) and primary outputs (POs)
stimulus test vector test program test-cycle time sense (or strobe) detected fault
undetected fault fault origins fault coverage
Average quality level as a function of single stuck-at fault coverage
Fault coverage
50%
90%
95%
99%
99.9%

Average defect level

7%
3%
1%
0.1%
0.01%

Average quality level (AQL)

93%
97%
99%
99.9%
99.99%

14.4.1 Serial Fault Simulation

Key terms and concepts: serial fault simulation machines good machine faulty machine
14.4.2 Parallel Fault Simulation
Key terms and concepts: parallel fault simulation uses multiple bits per word a bit is either a
'1' or '0' for each node in the circuit a 32-bit word can simulate 32 circuits at once
14.4.3 Concurrent Fault Simulation
Key terms and concepts: concurrent fault simulation takes advantage of the fact that a fault
does not affect the whole circuit diverged circuit fault-activity signature faults per pass
14.4.4 Nondeterministic Fault Simulation
Key terms and concepts: serial, parallel, and concurrent fault-simulation algorithms are forms of
deterministic fault simulation probabilistic fault simulation simulates a subset or sample of
the faults and extrapolates coverage statistical fault simulation performs a fault-free simulation
and use the results to predict fault coverage toggle test vector quality toggle coverage
14.4.5 Fault-Simulation Results
Key terms and concepts: fault categories testable fault controllable net observable net
uncontrollable net and unobservable net untested fault hard-detected fault undetected fault

ASICs... THE COURSE

14.4 Fault Simulation

15

possibly detected fault soft-detected fault fault-drop threshold fault dropping redundant
fault irredundant oscillatory fault hyperactive fault

PIs
A
B
C

1
control
1

undetectable fault

PO

Q
QN

D
CLK

observe
D = '1' (good circuit)
detectable fault
D = '0' (bad circuit)
(a)

'X'

(b)

'X'

possible-detect
fault
(d)

uncontrollable
net

Z = '1' or '0' (good circuit)

Z = 'X' (bad circuit)

unobservable
undetectable net
fault
(c)

A
C
B
redundant fault
(e)

Fault categories
(a) A detectable fault requires the ability to control and observe the fault origin
(b) A net that is fixed in value is uncontrollable and therefore will produce one undetected
fault
(c) Any net that is unconnected is unobservable and will produce undetected faults
(d) A net that produces an unknown 'X' in the faulty circuit and a '1' or a '0' in the good circuit may be detected (depending on whether the 'X' is in fact a '0' or '1'), but we cannot say
for sure. At some point this type of fault is likely to produce a discrepancy between good
and bad circuits and will eventually be detected
(e) A redundant fault does not affect the operation of the good circuit. In this case the AND
gate is redundant since AB+B'=A+B'

16

SECTION 14

TEST

ASICS... THE COURSE

14.4.6 Fault-Simulator Logic Systems

Key terms and concepts: fault grading dead test cycles fault list faulty output vector fault
signature
The VeriFault concurrent fault simulator logic system

0
1
Z
L
H
X

0
U
D
U
U
U
U

1
D
U
U
U
U
U

Faulty circuit
Z
L
P
P
P
P
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U

H
P
P
U
U
U
U

X
P
P
U
U
U
U

14.4.7 Hardware Acceleration

Key terms and concepts: simulation engines or hardware accelerators distributed fault
simulation
14.4.8 A Fault-Simulation Example
Key terms and concepts: test-vector compression or test-vector compaction structurally
equivalent
14.4.9 Fault Simulation in an ASIC Design Flow
Key terms and concepts: canned test vectors

ASICs... THE COURSE

14.4 Fault Simulation

Fault Type

17

Vectors
(hex)

Good
output

Bad
output

3
0, 4
4, 5
3
2
7
0, 1, 3, 4, 5

0
0, 0
0, 0
0
1
1
0, 0, 0, 0,
0
1, 1, 1

1
1, 1
1, 1
1
0
0
1, 1, 1, 1,
1
0, 0, 0

F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6

SA1
SA1
SA1
SA1
SA1
SA1

F7

SA1

F8

SA0 2, 6, 7

1Test vector format:

3 = 011, so that CBA = 011: C = '0', B = '1', A = '1'

Fault simulation of A'B+BC
The simulation results for fault F1 (U2 output stuck at 1) with test vector value hex 3 (shown
in bold in the table) are shown on the LogicWorks schematic
Notice that the output of U2 is 0 in the good circuit and stuck at 1 in the bad circuit.

18

SECTION 14

TEST

ASICS... THE COURSE

14.5 Automatic Test-Pattern Generation

Key terms and concepts: PODEM, for automatic test-pattern generation (ATPG) or automatic
test-vector generation (ATVG)

good

bad

1/0 = D

1
1

SA0

B
good/bad

A
good
B

0 1/0

good/bad

good/bad

0
A

good/bad

1
A
bad
0

B
1

0
0

1
1

1
0

0
(b)

(a)

A
1
(c)

AND 0
0 0
1 0
D0
D0
X0

A
A
1 DD
0 0 0
1 0D
D0 0
D0D
XXX

X
0
X
X
X
X

A
A

0
OR 0 1
0 0 1
1 1 1
DD1
DD 1
XX1

DD
DD
1 1
D1
1D
XX

X
X
1
X
X
X

A
NOT(A)

1
NAND 0
0 1
1 1
D1
D1
X1

1 DDX
1 1 1 1
0 1 DX
D1 1 X
D1 DX
XXXX

NOT(A)

0
NOR 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
DD0
DD0
XX0

DDX
DDX
0 0 0
D0 X
0 DX
XXX

The D-calculus
(a) We need a way to represent the behavior of the good circuit and the bad circuit at the
same time
(b) The composite logic value D (for detect) represents a logic '1' in the good circuit and a
logic '0' in the bad circuit. We can also write this as D=1/0
(c) The logic behavior of simple logic cells using the D-calculus. Composite logic values can
propagate through simple logic gates if the other inputs are set to their enabling values.

ASICs... THE COURSE

14.5 Automatic Test-Pattern Generation

19

14.5.1 The D-Calculus

Key terms and concepts: D-calculus D-algorithm D (for detect) D=0/1 g/b, a composite
logic value propagate enabling value controlling value justifies

1. Choose a fault

2. Work backward
U4

C
B

C
B

U5
Z

U3
A

Z
A

U2

activate fault

PIs

PO

D
= 0/1

justify 0

(a)

(b)

3. (N)AND gates to 1, (N)OR gates to 0

4. Work backward
justify 1

enabling values
C
B

D-frontier
1
Z

1
A

C
B 1

0
1

A 1
D
(c)

sensitized path
D
D
propagate fault

D
test vector
(d)

A basic ATPG (automatic test-pattern generation) algorithm for A'B+BC

(a) We activate a fault, U2.ZN stuck at 1, by setting the pin or node to '0', the opposite value
of the fault
(b) We work backward from the fault origin to the PIs (primary inputs) by recursively justifying signals at the output of logic cells
(c) We then work forward from the fault origin to a PO (primary output), setting inputs to
gates on a sensitized path to their enabling values. We propagate the fault until the D-frontier reaches a PO
(d) We then work backward from the PO to the PIs recursively justifying outputs to generate
the sensitized path. This simple algorithm always works, providing signals do not branch out
and then rejoin again.

20

SECTION 14

TEST

ASICS... THE COURSE

14.5.2 A Basic ATPG Algorithm

Key terms and concepts: activating (or exciting the fault) sensitize observed D-frontier,
reconvergent fanout multipath sensitization

C
B

U4

D
U5

X
U2

C
B

D
Z

0 U3

U4

D
U2 D

U5

U3

D
A

1
reconvergent
fanout

(a)

(b)

Reconvergent fanout
(a) Signal B branches and then reconverges at logic gate U5, but the fault U4.A1 stuck at 1
can still be excited and a path sensitized using the basic algorithm
(b) Fault B stuck at 1 branches and then reconverges at gate U5. When we enable the inputs to both gates U3 and U4 we create two sensitized paths that prevent the fault from
propagating to the PO (primary output). We can solve this problem by changing A to '0', but
this breaks the rules of the algorithm. The PODEM algorithm solves this problem.
14.5.3 The PODEM Algorithm
Key terms and concepts: path-oriented decision making (PODEM) objective backtrace implication D-frontier X-path check backtrack FAN (fanout-oriented test generation)

J
K
L
M

1 U2

D U3

U4

U8

start
Z

1
1

U5

J=1
K=1

M=1

1
U6

N=1
D
L=1

L=0
U7

retry
(backtrack)

finish

Iteration

Objective

Backtrace

Implication

D-frontier

ASICs... THE COURSE

14.5 Automatic Test-Pattern Generation

1
U3.A2=0
J=1
2
U3.A2=0
K=1
U7.ZN=1
3
U3.A1=1
M=1
U3.ZN=D
4
U6.A2=1
N=1
U6.ZN= D
5a
U8.A1=1
L=0
U8.ZN=1
5b
Retry
L=1
U8.ZN=D
The PODEM (path-oriented decision making) algorithm.

21

U4, U6
U4, U8
U4, U8
A

14.5.4 Controllability and Observability

Key terms and concepts: controllability (three ls) observability SCOAP (Sandia
controllability/observability

analysis

program)

combinational

controllability

sequential

controllability zero-controllability and one-controllability combinational zero-controllability

logic distance combinational one-controllability combinational observability

X1

X2
CC0(Y)=min{CC0(X 1), CC0(X2 )}+1

3:4

CC1(Y)=CC1(X 1 ) +CC1(X2) +1
3

4
2

2
1

CC0

5:4
3:4

4:2
2:1

4:3

4:2
2:1

CC0:CC1

1:1

U4

3:2
U5

1:1

U3

CC1
3:4

C
B

4:2
2:1

2:5

5:4

1:1
4:2

U2 2:2

1:2

(a)

(b)

(c)

Controllability measures
(a) Definition of combinational zero-controllability, CC0, and combinational one-controllability, CC1, for a two-input AND gate
(b) Examples of controllability calculations for simple gates, showing intermediate steps
(c) Controllability in a combinational circuit

22

SECTION 14

TEST

X2

X1
X2

O(X1) =CC1(X 2) +O(Y) +1

X1

CC0:CC1

C
B

X3

(b)
1:1
2:3
5:7

12:2

U4

3:2
U5

1:1

Z
5:4

1:1
4:2
U2 2:2
CC0:CC1

3+1+1=5

CC0:CC1

1+1+1

1:1

U3

O(X1) =min {OC(X2 ), OC(X3)}

3:4

4:2
2:1

OC

ASICS... THE COURSE

0+2+1=3

3+2+1=6

3
4
1+2+1
(a)

5+ 3+7+1=16
5+ 1+7+1=14
5+ 1+3+1=10

5
OC
(c)

5+1=6

3+1+1=5
OC

0+2+1=3

(d)

Observability measures
(a) The combinational observability, OC(X1), of an input, X1, to a two-input AND gate defined in terms of the controllability of the other input and the observability of the output
(b) The observability of a fanout node is equal to the observability of the most observable
branch
(c) Example of an observability calculation at a three-input NAND gate
(d) The observability of a combinational network can be calculated from the controllability
measures, CC0:CC1. The observability of a PO (primary output) is defined to be zero.

14.6 Scan Test

Key terms and concepts: structured test design for test test compiler scan insertion
pseudoprimary input pseudoprimary output partial scan destructive scan nondestructive
scan level-sensitive scan design (LSSD)

ASICs... THE COURSE

14.6 Scan Test

Scan flip-flop

SCIN

1
SCEN

D
CLK

RST
Q
SCOUT

D
SCIN
SCEN
CLK

RST
Q
SCOUT

SCEN
D
SCIN

G1
1
1

RST

CLK

Q
R
1D SCOUT
C1

23

24

SECTION 14

TEST

ASICS... THE COURSE

14.7 Built-in Self-test

Key terms and concepts: built-in self-test (BIST) circuit under test (CUT) or device under test
(DUT)
14.7.1 LFSR
Key terms and concepts: linear feedback shift register (LFSR) pseudorandom binary
sequence (PRBS) maximal-length sequence
LFSR example
Clock tick, t=
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Q0t+1 =Q1 t Q2t

1
0
0
1
0
1
1
1

Q1t+1 =Q0 t
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
1

Q2t+1 =Q1 t
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
1

1110010...

A linear feedback shift register (LFSR).

A 3-bit maximal-length LFSR produces a repeating
string of seven pseudorandom binary numbers: 7,
3, 1, 4, 2, 5, 6.

Q0Q1Q2
7
3
1
4
2
5
6
7

1100101...
0010111... 1001011...
Q0

Q1

Q2

D0

D1

D2

CLK

CLK

CLK

ASICs... THE COURSE

14.7 Built-in Self-test

25

14.7.2 Signature Analysis

Key terms and concepts: data compaction signature serial-input signature register (SISR)
signature analysis Hewlett-Packard

A 3-bit serial-input signature register (SISR) using an

LFSR (linear feedback shift register)

F1

The LFSR is initialized to Q1Q2Q3='000' using the

common RES (reset) signal
The signature, Q1Q2Q3, is formed from shift-andadd operations on the sequence of input bits (IN)

Q0
IN

Q1

Q2

D0

D1

D2

CLK

CLK
RES

CLK
RES

RES

26

SECTION 14

TEST

ASICS... THE COURSE

14.7.3 A Simple BIST Example

(a)
LFSR1

LFSR2

generator

signature analyzer

XS1

XG1
PRE
Q0
D0
CLK
clock

Q1
D1

Q2

R0

D2

CLK
CLK
RES

E0

IN

CLK
RES

CLK
CLK

clock

R1
E1

R2
E2

CLK
RES RES

CLK
RES

reset

good 1011100

0101110

0010111

01001100

00111110 00011111 00001111

bad 1011100

0101110

0010111

01011100

00111000 00011100 00001110

CUT

U4
U2 F1

circuit under
test

U5

signatures:
good = hex 3 = 011
R0 = 0, R1 = 1, R2 = 1

U3

bad (F1) = hex 0 = 000

R0 = 0, R1 = 0, R2 = 0

stuck-at-1

Q0t+1 =
Q1t Q2t

Q1t+1 =Q0 t

Q2t+1 =Q1 t

1
0
1
1
1
0
0
1

0
1
0
1
1
1
0
0

0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0

(b)
Z=
Q0'.Q1
+Q1.Q2
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0

R0t+1 =
Zt R0t
R2t
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
0

R1t+1 =R0 t R2t+1 =R1 t

0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

BIST example. (a) A simple BIST structure showing bit sequences for both good and bad circuits. (b) Bit sequence calculations for the good circuit. The signature appears on the eighth
clock cycle (after seven positive clock edges) and is R0='0', R1='1', R2='1'; with R2 as the MSB
this is '011' or hex 3.

ASICs... THE COURSE

14.7 Built-in Self-test

27

(a)

(b)

(c)

The waveforms of the BIST example

(a) The good-circuit response. The waveforms Q1 and Q2, as well as R1 and R2, are delayed by one clock cycle as they move through each stage of the shift registers
(b) The same good-circuit response with the register outputs Q0Q2 and R0R2 grouped
and their values displayed in hexadecimal (Q0 and R0 are the MSBs). The signature hex 3
or '011' (R0=0, R1=1, R2=1) in R appears seven positive clock edges after the reset signal
is taken high. This is one clock cycle after the generator completes its first sequence (hex
pattern 4, 2, 5, 6, 7, 3, 1)
(c) The response of the bad circuit with fault F1 and fault signature hex 0 (circled).

28

SECTION 14

TEST

ASICS... THE COURSE

14.7.4 Aliasing
Key terms and concepts: aliasing error coverage
14.7.5 LFSR Theory
Key terms and concepts: polynomials and Galois-field theory characteristic polynomial
primitive polynomials external-XOR LFSR type 1 LFSR internal-XOR LFSR type 2 LFSR
n
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

s
Octal
Binary
0, 1
3
11
For n=3 and s=0, 1, 3: c0 =1, c 1 =1, c 2 =0, c 3 =1
0, 1, 2
7
111
P(x)= 1 c 1x ... c n 1 x n 1 x n
0, 1, 3
13
1011
0, 1, 4
3
10011
c1
cn 1
c n =1
0, 2, 5
45
100101
0, 1, 6
103
1000011
Q0
Qn
Q1
Qn 1
0, 1, 7
211
10001001
CLK
CLK
CLK
0, 1, 5, 6,
8
435 100011101
or P *(x) =1 c n 1 x ... c1x n 1 xn
8
9 0, 4, 9
1021 1000010001
10 0, 3, 10
2011 10000001001
Primitive polynomial coefficients for LFSRs (linear feedback shift registers) that generate a
maximal-length PRBS (pseudorandom binary sequence)
A schematic for a type 1 LFSR is shown.
14.7.6 LFSR Example
Key terms and concepts: automatic generation of LFSR and SISR structures
14.7.7 MISR
Key terms and concepts: multiple-input signature register (MISR) built-in logic block observer
(BILBO) circular self-test path (CSTP) complete LFSR scanBIST

ASICs... THE COURSE

14.7 Built-in Self-test

0010111...

1110010...

1100101...

1001011...
D0
CLK

F0
CLK

D1
Q0

29

Q1

D2

Q2

CLK
CLK
Q0Q1Q2 = 7314256...
Q2Q1Q0 = 7641253...
(a)

F1
S0

S1

F2

CLK
CLK
S0S1S2 = 7634215...
S2S1S0 = 7361245...
(c)

E0

R0

CLK

S2

G0
CLK

E1

E2
R1

R2

CLK
CLK
R0R1R2 = 7352146...
R2R1R0 = 7652413...
(b)

T0

G1

G2
T1

T2

CLK
CLK
T0T1T2 = 7542163...
T2T1T0 = 7512436...
(d)

For every primitive polynomial there are four linear feedback shift registers (LFSRs).
There are two types of LFSR; one type uses external XOR gates (type 1) and the other type
uses internal XOR gates (type 2).
For each type the feedback taps can be constructed either from the polynomial P(x) or from
its reciprocal, P*(x). The LFSRs in this figure correspond to P(x)=1xx3 and P*(x)=
1 x2 x3.
Each LFSR produces a different pseudorandom sequence, as shown. The binary values of
the LFSR seen as a register, with the bit labeled as zero being the MSB, are shown in hexadecimal.
The sequences shown are for each register initialized to '111', hex 7.
(a) Type 1, P*(x). (b) Type 1, P(x). (c) Type 2, P(x). (d) Type 1, P*(x).

30

SECTION 14

TEST

ASICS... THE COURSE

Compiled LFSR generator, using P*(x)=1x2 x3

module lfsr_generator (OUT, SERIAL_OUT, INITN, CP);
output [2:0] OUT; output SERIAL_OUT; input INITN, CP;
dfptnb FF2 (.D(FF0_Q), .CP(u4_Z), .SDN(u2_Z), .Q(FF2_Q), .QN(FF2_QN));
dfctnb FF1 (.D(XOR0_Z), .CP(u4_Z), .CDN(u2_Z), .Q(FF1_Q), .QN(FF1_QN));
dfctnb FF0 (.D(FF1_Q), .CP(u4_Z), .CDN(u2_Z), .Q(FF0_Q), .QN(FF0_QN));
ni01d1 u2 (.I(u3_Z), .Z(u2_Z)); ni01d1 u3 (.I(INITN), .Z(u3_Z));
ni01d1 u4 (.I(u5_Z), .Z(u4_Z)); ni01d1 u5 (.I(CP), .Z(u5_Z));
xo02d1 XOR0 (.A1(FF2_Q), .A2(FF0_Q), .Z(XOR0_Z));
in02d1 INV2X0 (.I(FF0_QN), .ZN(OUT[0]));
in02d1 INV2X1 (.I(FF1_QN), .ZN(OUT[1]));
in02d1 INV2X2 (.I(FF2_QN), .ZN(OUT[2]));
in02d1 INV2X3 (.I(FF0_QN), .ZN(SERIAL_OUT));
endmodule

in[0]

in[1]

in[2]

in

out
MISR

xor_i1

xor_i2

xor_i3

D0
cp
initn

D1
out[0]

cp
initn

cp

D2
out[1]

cp
initn

out[2]

initn
out[2]

serial_out

Multiple-input signature register (MISR).

This MISR is formed from the type 2 LFSR (with P*(x)=1x2 x3 ) by adding XOR gates
xor_i1, xor_i2, and xor_i3. This 3-bit MISR can form a signature from logic with three outputs. If we only need to test two outputs then we do not need XOR gate, xor_i3, corresponding to input in[2].

scan_selectn
in[0]

in[1]

G1
SI

1
1

G1
out[0]

D0
cp
initn R

out[0]

Multiple-input signature register (MISR) with scan

1
1

in[2]

G1
out[1]

D1
cp
initn R

Q1

1
1

D2
cp
initn R

out[2]

ASICs... THE COURSE

14.8 A Simple Test Example

31

14.8 A Simple Test Example

14.8.1 Test-Logic Insertion
Key terms and concepts: outp

a_r[0]'.a_r[1]

a_r[1].a_r[2
] test-logic

insertion

taDriver12
taDriver12_I

a_r_2

a_r_ff_b0

a_r_ff_b1

G1
a[0]

R
1D
C1

1
1

G1
a[1]

1
1

a_r_ff_b2
R
1D
C1

G1
a[2]

1
1

a_r_ff_b0_DA
reset clk
a

a[2:0]

clk

clk

reset

reset

CL

reset clk
scan chain

outp

The core of the Threegates ASIC after test-logic insertion.

14.8.2 How the Test Software Works
Key terms and concepts: polarity-hold flip-flop
14.8.3 ATVG and Fault Simulation
Key terms and concepts: flush test

reset clk

R
1D
C1

32

SECTION 14

TEST

ASICS... THE COURSE

G1

1
25 ID-register only cells

1
1
clk
reset
outp

clk
reset
outp
reset

a[0]

clk

reset

CL

a[0]

a[1]

a[1]

a[2]

a[2]
boundary
scan

core

clk
CL

control

core

BSR
+ID

internal
scan
scan_enablen

control bundle
(a)

The Threegates ASIC.

(a) Before test-logic insertion.
(b) After test-logic insertion.

TDO
nTRST
TMS
TCK
TDI

(b)

ASICs... THE COURSE

14.8 A Simple Test Example

c_0

core_p_ta uc1 (
.a_r_2(uc1_a_r_2), 6
.outp(outp_sv[0]),
5
.a_r_ff_b0_DA(ta_TDI_CIN),
.taDriver12_I(test_logic_bst_control_C_9),
.a(a_sv[2:0]),
.clk(clk_bit),
.reset(reset_sv[0]));

bus1[1]
1

taDriver3 taDriver1
c_1

bus1[2]

taDriver6 taDriver4

bus1[3]
c_2

taDriver7
taDriver8_Z

c_4

taDriver8
taDriver9_ZN

ta_TCK_CIN
taDriver9
taDriver11

first boundary scan cell

mybs1cela0 up1_b2_bst (
.SO(up1_b2_bst_SO),
.PO(a_sv[2]),
.C_0(bus1[1]),
3
.TCK(taDriver9_ZN),
.SI(test_logic_bst_control_BST_SI),
.C_1(bus1[2]), 1
.C_2(bus1[3]),
.C_4(taDriver8_Z),
.PI(up1_b2_CIN));
D

asic_p_testlogic_ta test_logic (
.id_reg_25_C_1(bus1[2]),
.id_reg_25_C_0(bus1[1]),
.c_4(c_4),
.c_3(bus1[4]),
.c_2(c_2),
.c_1(c_1), 1
.c_0(c_0),
.ta_TRST_CIN(ta_TRST_CIN),
.ta_TDO_OEN(ta_TDO_OEN),
.ta_TDO_I(ta_TDO_I),
.ta_TDI_CIN(ta_TDI_CIN),
.ta_TMS_CIN(ta_TMS_CIN),
.ta_TCK_CIN(ta_TCK_CIN),
.clock_control_Z(clk_sv[0]), 2
7
.bst_control_C_9(test_logic_bst_control_C_9),
3
.clock_control_I0(up4_1_cin),
.bst_control_BST_SI(test_logic_bst_control_BST_SI),
.bst_control_scan_SO(uc1_a_r_2), 6
.id_reg_25_TCK(taDriver9_ZN),
.bst_control_BST(up4_1_bst_SO), 4
.taDriver5_I(taDriver6_ZN),
.taDriver10_I(taDriver11_ZN),
.taDriver2_I(taDriver3_ZN));

last boundary scan cell

mybs1cela0 up4_1_bst (
.SO(up4_1_bst_SO), 4
.PO(up4_1_cin),
.C_0(bus1[1]),
.TCK(taDriver9_ZN),
.SI(up3_1_bst_SO),
.C_1(bus1[2]),
.C_2(bus1[3]), 1
.C_4(taDriver8_Z),
.PI(up4_1_CIN1));

B
2
clock pad
up4_1 (.PAD(pad_clk[0]),
.CIN(up4_1_CIN1));
F
clock buffer
E

up6 (.CCLK(clk_sv[0]),
.CP(clk_bit));
G

The top level of the Threegates ASIC after test-logic insertion.

TAP pads

I/O pads

I
power pads

33

34

SECTION 14

TEST

ASICS... THE COURSE

.ZN(bus11[1])

.I(taDriver2_I)
taDriver2

.ZN(bus11[2])

.I(taDriver5_I)
taDriver5

.ZN(taDriver10_ZN)

.I(taDriver10_I)

taDriver10
.S(c[7])
.I0(clock_control_I0)
.I1(c[8])

G1

1
1

.Z(clock_control_Z)

clock_control
B

module asic_p_testlogic_ta (
id_reg_25_C_1,
id_reg_25_C_0,
c_4, c_3, c_2, c_1, c_0,
ta_TRST_CIN,
ta_TDO_OEN,
ta_TDO_I,
ta_TDI_CIN,
ta_TMS_CIN,
ta_TCK_CIN,
clock_control_Z,
bst_control_C_9,
clock_control_I0,
bst_control_BST_SI,
bst_control_scan_SO,
id_reg_25_TCK,
bst_control_BST,
2
taDriver5_I,
taDriver10_I,
taDriver2_I);
A

bs1cong0 bst_control (
.C({c_0, c_1, c_2, c_3, c_4, open_net1, open_net2, c[7], c[8], bst_control_C_9}),
.OEN(ta_TDO_OEN),
.TDO(ta_TDO_I),
.BST(bst_control_BST), 2
.DID(id_reg_0_SO), 3
.TCK (ta_TCK_CIN),
.TDI(ta_TDI_CIN),
.TMS(ta_TMS_CIN),
.TRST(ta_TRST_CIN),
.scan_SO(bst_control_scan_SO),
.BST_SI(bst_control_BST_SI));
C
first IDR cell

last IDR cell

bs1celf0 id_reg_25 ( 4
.SO(id_reg_25_SO),
.C({id_reg_25_C_0, id_reg_25_C_1}),
.SI(bst_control_BST),
2
.TCK(id_reg_25_TCK));

Test logic inserted in the Threegate ASIC.

bs1celf1 id_reg_0 (
.SO(id_reg_0_SO), 3
.C({bus11[1], bus11[2]}),
.SI(id_reg_1_SO),
.TCK(taDriver10_ZN));

ASICs... THE COURSE

control
bundle

14.8 A Simple Test Example

mybs1cela0

data_out
PO
SO

TCK

TCK

PI
data_in

PI

C_0
C_1

SI

SI

C_2
4
C_4

scan_in

mybs1cela0

PO
SO
scan_out

C_4

3
C_0
C_1
PO
SO
'0'
SI

MUX
0
0
1 G3
0
1
2
3

SO
PI
1D
C1

1D
C1

G1
1
1

2
1 SO
TCK
C_2

Input boundary-scan cell (BSC) for the Threegates ASIC.

Compare this to a generic data-register (DR) cell (used as a BSC).
ATVG (automatic test-vector generation) report for the Threegates ASIC
CREATE: Output vector database cell defaulted to [svf]asic_p_ta
CREATE: Backtrack limit defaulted to 30
CREATE: Minimal compression effort: 10 (default)
Fault list generation/collapsing
Total number of faults: 184
Number of faults in collapsed fault list: 80
Vector generation
#
# VECTORS FAULTS
FAULT COVER
#
processed
#
#
5
184
60.54%
#
# Total number of backtracks: 0
# Highest backtrack
: 0
# Total number of vectors
: 5
#
# STAR RESULTS summary
#
Noncollapsed
Collapsed
# Fault counts:
#
Aborted
0
0
#
Detected
89
43
#
Untested
58
20
#
----------#
Total of detectable
147
63
#
#
Redundant
6
2
#
Tied
31
15
#
# FAULT COVERAGE
60.54 %
68.25 %
#
# Fault coverage = nb of detected faults / nb of detectable faults
Vector/fault list database [svf]asic_p_ta created.

PO

35

36

SECTION 14

TEST

ASICS... THE COURSE

14.8.4 Test Vectors

Key terms and concepts: serial vectors parallel vectors broadside vectors
14.8.5 Production Tester Vector Formats
Key terms and concepts: Sentry tester file format
# Pin declaration: pin names are separated by semi-colons (all pins
# on a bus must be listed and separated by commas)
pre_; clr_; d; clk; q; q_;
# Pin declarations are separated from test vectors by $
$
# The first number on each line is the time since start in ns,
# followed by space or a tab.
# The symbols following the time are the test vectors
# (in the same order as the pin declaration)
# an "=" means don't do anything
# an "s" means sense the pin at the beginning of this time point
# (before the input changes at this time point have any effect)
#
# pcdcqq
# rlal _
# ertk
# __a
00 1010== # clear the flip-flop
10 1110ss # d=1, clock=0
20 1111ss # d=1, clock=1
30 1110ss # d=1, clock=0
40 1100ss # d=0, clock=0
50 1101ss # d=0, clock=1
60 1100ss # d=0, clock=0
70 ====ss

14.8.6 Test Flow

Key terms and concepts: test-vector generation and the production-test program generation is
the last step in ASIC design after physical design is complete

ASICs... THE COURSE

14.8 A Simple Test Example

Timing effects of test-logic insertion for the Viterbi decoder

Timing of critical paths before test-logic insertion
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#

Slack(ns)
-3.3826
-1.7536
-.1245
1.5045
3.1336
4.7626
6.3916
8.0207
9.6497
11.2787
12.9078

Num Paths
1
18
4
1
0
0
134
6
3
0
24

# instance name
# inPin --> outPin
#

*
*******
**
*
*
*
******************************************
***
**
*
********
incr
(ns)

# v_1.u100.u1.subout6.Q_ff_b0
# CP --> QN
1.73
...
# v_1.u100.u2.metric0.Q_ff_b4
# setup: D --> CP
.16

arrival
(ns)

trs

1.73

21.75

rampDel
(ns)

cap
(pf)

cell

.20

.10

dfctnb

.00

.00

dfctnh

After test-logic insertion

#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#

-4.0034
-1.9835
.0365
2.0565
4.0764
6.0964
8.1164
10.1363
12.1563
14.1763
16.1963

1
18
4
1
0
138
2
3
24
0
187

*
*****
**
*
*
*******************************
*
**
******
*
******************************************

# v_1.u100.u1.subout7.Q_ff_b1
# CP --> Q
1.40
...
# v_1.u100.u2.metric0.Q_ff_b4
# setup: DB --> CP
.39

1.40

.28

.13

mfctnb

21.98

.00

.00

mfctnh

37

38

SECTION 14

TEST

ASICS... THE COURSE

14.9 The Viterbi Decoder Example

Fault coverage for the Viterbi decoder
Fault list generation/collapsing
Total number of faults: 8846
Number of faults in collapsed fault list: 3869
Vector generation
#
# VECTORS FAULTS
FAULT COVER
#
processed
#
#
20
7515
82.92%
#
40
8087
89.39%
#
60
8313
91.74%
#
80
8632
95.29%
#
87
8846
96.06%
# Total number of backtracks: 3000
# Highest backtrack
: 30
# Total number of vectors
: 87
# STAR RESULTS summary
#
# Fault counts:
#
Aborted
#
Detected
#
Untested
#
#
Total of detectable
#
#
Redundant
#
Tied
#
# FAULT COVERAGE

Noncollapsed
178
8427
168
-----8773
10
63
96.06 %

Collapsed
85
3680
60
-----3825
6
38
96.21 %

14.10 Summary
Key terms and concepts: Consider test early during ASIC design otherwise it can become
very expensive Boundary scan Single stuck-at fault model Controllability and observability ATPG using test vectors BIST with no test vectors

ASICs...THE COURSE (1 WEEK)

ASIC
CONSTRUCTION

15

Key terms and concepts:

A microelectronic system (or system on a chip) is the town and ASICs (or system
blocks) are the buildings
System partitioning corresponds to town planning.
Floorplanning is the architects job.
Placement is done by the builder.
Routing is done by the electrician.

15.1 Physical Design

Key terms and concepts: Divide and conquer system partitioning floorplanning chip planning
placement routing global routing detailed routing

15.2 CAD Tools

Key terms and concepts: goals and objectives for each physical design step
System partitioning:
Goal. Partition a system into a number of ASICs.
Objectives. Minimize the number of external connections between the ASICs. Keep each
ASIC smaller than a maximum size.
Floorplanning:
Goal. Calculate the sizes of all the blocks and assign them locations.
Objective. Keep the highly connected blocks physically close to each other.
Placement:
Goal. Assign the interconnect areas and the location of all the logic cells within the
flexible blocks.
Objectives. Minimize the ASIC area and the interconnect density.
1

SECTION 15

ASIC CONSTRUCTION

ASICS... THE COURSE

Design entry

Part of an ASIC design flow showing the

system partitioning, floorplanning, placement, and routing steps.

VHDL/Verilog
Synthesis

These steps may be performed in a slightly different order, iterated or omitted depending on the type and size of the system
and its ASICs.

System
partitioning

As the focus shifts from logic to interconnect, floorplanning assumes an increasingly important role.

Floorplanning

Each of the steps shown in the figure must

be performed and each depends on the
previous step.

netlist

chip

Placement
block

However, the trend is toward completing

these steps in a parallel fashion and iterating, rather than in a sequential manner.
Routing

logic cells

Global routing:
Goal. Determine the location of all the interconnect.
Objective. Minimize the total interconnect area used.
Detailed routing:
Goal. Completely route all the interconnect on the chip.
Objective. Minimize the total interconnect length used.
15.2.1 Methods and Algorithms
Key terms and concepts: methods or algorithms are exact or heuristic (algorithm is usually
reserved for a method that always gives a solution) The complexity O(f(n)) is important
because n is very large algorithms may be constant, logarithmic, linear, or quadratic in time
many VLSI problems are NP-complete we need metrics: a measurement function or
objective function, a cost function or gain function, and possibly constraints

ASICs... THE COURSE

15.3 System Partitioning

15.3 System Partitioning

Key terms and concepts: partitioning we cant do What is the cheapest way to build my
system? we can do How do I split this circuit into pieces that will fit on a chip?
System partitioning for the Sun Microsystems SPARCstation 1
SPARCstation 1 ASIC
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

SPARC IU (integer unit)

SPARC FPU (floating-point unit)
Cache controller
MMU (memory-management unit)
Data buffer
DMA (direct memory access) controller
Video controller/data buffer
RAM controller
Clock generator

Gates
/k-gate
20
50
9
5
3
9
4
1
1

Pins
179
144
160
120
120
120
120
100
44

Package
PGA
PGA
PQFP
PQFP
PQFP
PQFP
PQFP
PQFP
PLCC

Type
CBIC
FC
GA
GA
GA
GA
GA
GA
GA

SECTION 15

ASIC CONSTRUCTION

ASICS... THE COURSE

15.4 Estimating ASIC Size

System partitioning for the Sun Microsystems SPARCstation 10

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

SPARCstation 10 ASIC
SuperSPARC Superscalar
SPARC
SuperCache cache controller
EMC memory control
MSI MBusSBus interface
DMA2 Ethernet, SCSI, parallel
port
SEC SBus to 8-bit bus
DBRI dual ISDN interface
MMCodec stereo codec

Gates

Pins

3M-transistors

293

2M-transistors
40k-gate
40k-gate

369
299
223

30k-gate

160

20k-gate
72k-gate
32k-gate

160
132
44

Package
PGA
PGA
PGA
PGA
PQFP
PQFP
PQFP
PLCC

Type
FC
FC
GA
GA
GA
GA
GA
FC

ASICs... THE COURSE

15.4 Estimating ASIC Size

Some useful numbers for ASIC estimates, normalized to a 1m technology

Parameter
Lambda,

Typical value
Comment
Scaling
0.5 m=0.5 (minimum In a 1m technology, 0.5 m.
NA
feature size)
Effective gate length 0.25 to 1.0m
Less than drawn gate length, usually

by about 10 percent.
I/O-pad width (pitch) 5 to 10mil
For a 1m technology, 2LM
(=0.5 m). Scales less than linearly

=125 to 250m
with .
I/O-pad height
15 to 20mil
For a 1m technology, 2LM
(=0.5 m). Scales approximately lin
=375 to 500m
early with .
Large die
1
1000 mil/side, 106 mil2 Approximately constant
Small die

100 mil/side, 104 mil2

Standard-cell density 1.5 103 gate/m2

=1.0gate/mil2
Standard-cell density 8 103 gate/m2

Approximately constant
For 1m, 2LM, library
= 4 104 gate/2 (independent of
scaling).
For 0.5 m, 3LM, library

= 5 104 gate/2 (independent of

scaling).
Gate-array utilization 60 to 80%
For 2LM, approximately constant
80 to 90%
For 3LM, approximately constant
Gate-array density
(0.8 to 0.9) standard For the same process as standard
cell density
cells
Standard-cell rout1.5 to 2.5 (2LM)
Approximately constant
ing factor=(cell
1.0 to 2.0 (3LM)
area+route
area)/cell area
Package cost
$0.01/pin, penny per Varies widely, figure is for low-cost
pin
plastic package, approximately constant
Wafer cost
$1k to $5k
Varies widely, figure is for a mature,
2LM CMOS process, approximately
average $2k
constant
= 5.0gate/mil2

1
1/2

1/2
1
1
1

SECTION 15

ASIC CONSTRUCTION

ASICS... THE COURSE

(b)

(a)
2

multiplier area/

RAM area/
108

109
64 64

108
107

106

word length/bits

4
8
16
32

32 32
107

16 16
88

106
64
word depth/bits

256
1024
4096
multiplier size = mn /bits

Estmating circuit size

(a) ASIC memory size. These figures are for static RAM constructed using compilers in a
2LM ASIC process, but with no special memory design rules.
The actual area of a RAM will depend on the speed and number of readwrite ports.
(b) Multiplier size for a 2LM process.
The actual area will depend on the multiplier architecture and speed.

15.5 Power Dissipation

Key terms and concepts: dynamic (switching current and short-circuit current ) and static
(leakage current and subthreshold current) power dissipation
15.5.1 Switching Current
Key terms and concepts: I = C(dV/dt) power dissipation = 0.5 CVDD2 = IV = CV(dV/dt) for onehalf the period of the input, t=1/(2 f) total power = P1 = fCV2DD estimate power by counting
nodes that toggle
15.5.2 Short-Circuit Current
Key terms and concepts: P2 = (1/12) f trf(VDD 2 Vtn) short-circuit current is typically less than
20 percent of the switching current

ASICs... THE COURSE

15.6 FPGA Partitioning

15.5.3 Subthreshold and Leakage Current

Key terms and concepts: subthreshold current is normally less than 5pAm1 of gate width
subthreshold current for 10 million transistors (each 10m wide) is 0.1mA subthreshold current
does not scale it takes about 120mV to reduce subthreshold current by a factor of 10 if Vt =
0.36V, at VGS =0 V we can only reduce IDS to 0.001 times its value at VGS =V t leakage current
field transistors quiescent leakage current, IDDQ IDDQ test

15.6 FPGA Partitioning

15.6.1 ATM Simulator
Partitioning of the ATM board using Lattice Logic ispLSI 1048 FPGAs. Each FPGA contains 48 generic logic blocks (GLBs)
Chip #
1
2
3
4
5
6

Size
42 GLBs
64k-bit 8 SRAM
38 GLBs
38 GLBs
42 GLBs
64k-bit 16 SRAM

Chip #
7
8
9
10
11
12

Size
36 GLBs
22 GLBs
256k-bit 16 SRAM
43 GLBs
40 GLBs
30 GLBs

15.6.2 Automatic Partitioning with FPGAs

Key terms and concepts: In Altera AHDL you can direct the partitioner to automatically partition
logic into chips within the same family, using the AUTO keyword:
DEVICE top_level IS AUTO; % let the partitioner assign logic

SECTION 15

ASIC CONSTRUCTION

ASICS... THE COURSE

bit number
byte
number
1

GFC/VPI

VPI

VPI

VCI

VCI

PTI

HEC

payload

GFC = generic flow control

VPI = virtual path identifier
VCI = virtual channel identifier
PTI = payload type identifier
CLP = cell loss priority
HEC = header error control
CLP

...
53

payload

The asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) cell format.

The ATM protocol uses 53-byte cells or packets of information with a data payload and
header information for routing and error control.

ASICs... THE COURSE

15.6 FPGA Partitioning

10

SECTION 15

ASIC CONSTRUCTION

ASICS... THE COURSE

15.7 Partitioning Methods

Key terms and concepts: Examples of goals: A maximum size for each ASIC A maximum
number of ASICs A maximum number of connections for each ASIC A maximum number of
total connections between all ASICs
15.7.1 Measuring Connectivity
Key terms and concepts: a network has circuit modules (logic cells) and terminals (connectors or
pins) modelled by a graph with vertexes (logic cells) connected by edges (electrical connections, nets or signals) cutset net cutset edge cutset (for the graph) external connections
internal connections net cuts edge cuts
15.7.2 A Simple Partitioning Example
Key terms and concepts: two types of network partitioning: constructive partitioning and
iterative partitioning improvement
15.7.3 Constructive Partitioning
Key terms and concepts: seed growth or cluster growth uses a seed cell and forms clusters
or cliques a useful starting point
15.7.4 Iterative Partitioning Improvement
Key terms and concepts: interchange (swap two) and group (swap many) migration greedy
algorithms find a local minimum group migration algorithms such as the KernighanLin
algorithm (basis of min-cut methods) can do better
15.7.5 The KernighanLin Algorithm
Key terms and concepts: a cost matrix plus connectivity matrix models system measure is the
cut cost, or cut weight careful to distinguish external edge cost and internal edge cost net-cut
partitioning and edge-cut partitioning hypergraphs with stars, and hyperedges model connections better than edges the FiducciaMattheyses algorithm uses linked lists to reduce O( KL
algorithm) and is very widely used base logic cell balance critical net
15.7.6 The Ratio-Cut Algorithm
Key terms and concepts: ratio-cut algorithm ratio set cardinality ratio cut

ASICs... THE COURSE

15.7 Partitioning Methods

net,
signal,
or wire

edge

11

module,
cell,
or block

terminal, or pin
network

graph

(a)

(b)

vertex,
node,
or point

net cut
A

G
logic
module

net cutset=two nets

A three-terminal
net requires
three edges.
Only one
wire is
needed to
connect
several
modules
on the
same net.

E
F

A single
wire is
modeled by
multiple
edges in
the network
graph.

edge cut
edge cutset=four edges

(c)

(d)

Networks, graphs, and partitioning.

(a) A network containing circuit logic cells and nets.
(b) The equivalent graph with vertexes and edges. For example: logic cell D maps to node
D in the graph; net 1 maps to the edge (A, B) in the graph. Net 3 (with three connections)
maps to three edges in the graph: (B, C), (B, F), and (C, F).
(c) Partitioning a network and its graph. A network with a net cut that cuts two nets.
(d) The network graph showing the corresponding edge cut. The net cutset in c contains
two nets, but the corresponding edge cutset in d contains four edges. This means a graph is
not an exact model of a network for partitioning purposes.
15.7.7 The Look-ahead Algorithm
Key terms and concepts: gain vector look-ahead algorithm

12

SECTION 15

ASIC CONSTRUCTION

ASICS... THE COURSE

(a)
A
4 1

B
1 2

(b)
C
2

D
10 11

6
4

2 6 5
E
12

3 9 8
I

5 4 10

F
3 9

G
7

12 8 7
J

8 7
K

11

4 5

A 1 B

H
9

ASIC 1

10 F
E
G
D
7
11
3
12
8
H 9 I
J
K
ASIC 2

ASIC 3

Partitioning example.
(a) We wish to partition this network into three ASICs with no more
than four logic cells per ASIC.

(c)

(b) A partitioning with five external

connections (nets 2, 4, 5, 6, and
8)the minimum number.
(c) A constructed partition using logic cell C as a seed. It is difficult to
get from this local minimum, with
seven external connections (2, 3, 5,
7, 9,11,12), to the optimum solution
of b.

2
A 1

4
3
5

9
11

8
J

12

7
7

12

6
L

ASICs... THE COURSE

15.7 Partitioning Methods

One wire corresponds

to one hyperedge in a
hypergraph.

z
y

A
x

13

B
hyperedge
star

z
y

(a)

(b)

A hypergraph.
(a) The network contains a net y with three terminals.
(b) In the network hypergraph we can model net y by a single hyperedge (B, C, D) and a
star node.
Now there is a direct correspondence between wires or nets in the network and hyperedges
in the graph.

14

SECTION 15

ASIC CONSTRUCTION

ASICS... THE COURSE

swap nodes 1 and 6

6

3
8

10

10

B
edges cut=4

4
5

1
2

B
edges cut=2

A
(a)

Gain from swapping i th pair of nodes, gi

after swapping nodes 1 and 6,
gain, g1 =42=2

+2
+1
0
original
configuration 1

i, number of pairs of
nodes pretend swapped

2
(b)
Total gain from swapping the first n pairs of nodes, Gn
G1 = g0 + g1
max (Gn )

+2
+1
0
1

n, number of pairs of
nodes actually swapped

(c)

Partitioning a graph using the KernighanLin algorithm.

(a) Shows how swapping node 1 of partition A with node 6 of partition B results in a gain of
g=1.
(b) A graph of the gain resulting from swapping pairs of nodes.
(c) The total gain is equal to the sum of the gains obtained at each step.

ASICs... THE COURSE

15.7 Partitioning Methods

15

C17

1
2

internal
edge

3
8
4

10

B
external edge
(a)

connectivity
matrix
0000001000 1
0000010100 2
0001100000 3
0010000100 4
C= 0010000000 5
0100000000 6
1000000010 7
0101000001 8
0000001001 9
0000000110 10
1234567891
0
(b)

Terms used by the KernighanLin partitioning algorithm.

(a) An example network graph.
(b) The connectivity matrix, C; the column and rows are labeled to help you see how the
matrix entries correspond to the node numbers in the graph.
For example, C 17 (column 1, row 7) equals 1 because nodes 1 and 7 are connected.
In this example all edges have an equal weight of 1, but in general the edges may have different weights.

16

SECTION 15

ASIC CONSTRUCTION

gain=+1
1

9
10

(a)

6
2

(d)
B

7
9
10

9
10

6
2

7
8

5
gain=+1

gain=+1

6
2

5
A

B
1

6
2

ASICS... THE COURSE

7
8

10

5
A

(b)

gain=+2

(e)
A
3

1
2
4

6
8

6
2

7
9
10

7
4
10

5
A

(c)

(f)

An example of network partitioning that shows the need to look ahead when selecting logic
cells to be moved between partitions.
Partitionings (a), (b), and (c) show one sequence of moves, partitionings (d), (e), and (f)
show a second sequence.
The partitioning in (a) can be improved by moving node 2 from A to B with a gain of 1.
The result of this move is shown in (b).
This partitioning can be improved by moving node 3 to B, again with a gain of 1.
The partitioning shown in (d) is the same as (a).
We can move node 5 to B with a gain of 1 as shown in (e), but now we can move node 4 to
B with a gain of 2.

ASICs... THE COURSE

15.8 Summary

17

15.7.8 Simulated Annealing

Key terms and concepts: simulated-annealing algorithm uses an energy function as a measure
probability of accepting a move is exp(E/T ) E is an increase in energy function T corresponds to temperature we hill climb to get out of a local minimum cooling schedule Ti+1 = Ti
good results at the expense of long run times Xilinx used simulated annealing in one verion of
their tools
15.7.9 Other Partitioning Objectives
Key terms and concepts: timing, power, technology, cost and test constraints many of these are
hard to measure and not well handled by current tools

15.8 Summary
Key terms and concepts: The construction or physical design of a microelectronics system is a
very large and complex problem. To solve the problem we divide it into several steps: system
partitioning, floorplanning, placement, and routing. To solve each of these smaller problems
we need goals and objectives, measurement metrics, as well as algorithms and methods
The goals and objectives of partitioning
Partitioning as an art not a science
The simple nature of the algorithms necessary for VLSI-sized problems
The random nature of the algorithms we use
The controls for the algorithms used in ASIC design

18

SECTION 15

ASIC CONSTRUCTION

ASICS... THE COURSE

ASICs...THE COURSE (1 WEEK)

FLOORPLANNING
AND
PLACEMENT

16

Key terms and concepts: The input to floorplanning is the output of system partitioning and
design entrya netlist. The output of the placement step is a set of directions for the routing
tools.

The starting point for floorplanning and placement for the Viterbi decoder (standard cells).

SECTION 16

FLOORPLANNING AND PLACEMENT

The Viterbi decoder after floorplanning and placement.

ASICS... THE COURSE

ASICs... THE COURSE

16.1 Floorplanning

16.1 Floorplanning
Key terms and concepts: Interconnect and gate delay both decrease with feature sizebut at
different rates Interconnect capacitance bottoms out at 2pFcm1 for a minimum-width wire, but
gate delay continues to decrease Floorplanning predicts interconnect delay by estimating interconnect length
Interconnect and gate delays.
As feature sizes decrease, both
average interconnect delay and
average gate delay decrease
but at different rates.

delay /ns

This is because interconnect capacitance tends to a limit that is

independent of scaling.

1.0

interconnect
delay
gate delay
0.1

Interconnect delay now dominates gate delay.

1.0

0.5

0.25

minimum feature
size/ m

16.1.1 Floorplanning Goals and Objectives

Key terms and concepts: Floorplanning is a mapping between the logical description (the
netlist) and the physical description (the floorplan).
Goals of floorplanning:
arrange the blocks on a chip,
decide the location of the I/O pads,
decide the location and number of the power pads,
decide the type of power distribution, and
decide the location and type of clock distribution.
Objectives of floorplanning are:
to minimize the chip area, and
minimize delay.
16.1.2 Measurement of Delay in Floorplanning
Key terms and concepts: To predict performance before we complete routing we need to answer
How long does it takes to get from Russia to China? In floorplanning we may even move
Russia and China We dont yet know the parasitics of the interconnect capacitance We

SECTION 16

FLOORPLANNING AND PLACEMENT

ASICS... THE COURSE

know only the fanout (FO) of a net and the size of the block We estimate interconnect length
from predicted-capacitance tables (wire-load tables)

fanout
(b)

% of nets

fanout (FO)

100

0.9 1.2

1.9

2.4

3.0

10

FO=5

20
100
30

FO=4
net C

40

100
block size
(k-gate)

FO=3

predicted capacitance
(standard loads) as a
function of fanout (FO) and
block size (k-gate)

100
0.9 standard
loads=0.009 pF

FO=2
average net
capacitance

net A
100

net A

FO=1
net B
0

0.25

0.5

0.75

FO=1
1.0
delay/ ns

0.03pF
0.03 pF

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04
capacitance/pF

4
standard loads

1 standard load=0.01pF
(a)

net B

net C

FO=4

logic cells
row-based ASIC flexible block
(20k-gate)
(c)

Predicted capacitance.
(a) Interconnect lengths as a function of fanout (FO) and circuit-block size.
(b) Wire-load table.
There is only one capacitance value for each fanout (typically the average value).
(c) The wire-load table predicts the capacitance and delay of a net (with a considerable error).
Net A and net B both have a fanout of 1, both have the same predicted net delay, but net B
in fact has a much greater delay than net A in the actual layout (of course we shall not know
what the actual layout is until much later in the design process).

ASICs... THE COURSE

16.1 Floorplanning

A wire-load table showing average interconnect lengths (mm).

Fanout
Array (available
gates)
3k
11k
105k

Worst-case
interconnect delay.
As we scale circuits,
but avoid scaling the
chip size, the worstcase interconnect delay increases.

Chip size (mm)

3.45
5.11
12.50

0.56
0.84
1.75

0.85
1.34
2.70

1.46
2.25
4.92

interconnect
delay/ ns
1.0 ns

worst case is
increasing

interconnect
delay /ns
1.0

from
wire-load
table

average is
decreasing
0.1 ns

1 sigma
spread

1.0

0.1

0.5

0.25

feature
size/ m

100%

16.1.3 Floorplanning Tools

Key terms and concepts: we start with a random floorplan generated by a floorplanning tool
flexible blocks and fixed blocks seeding seed cells wildcard symbol hard seed soft
seed seed connectors rat's nest bundles flight lines congestion aspect ratio die

SECTION 16

FLOORPLANNING AND PLACEMENT

ASICS... THE COURSE

cavity congestion map routability interconnect channels channel capacity channel

density

1.75

1.75

1.5

E
D

F
E
D

(a)

F
(b)

1.75
Routing congestion
200%
100%
50%

1.75

A
B

(c)

(d)

Congestion analysis.
(a) The initial floorplan with a 2:1.5 die aspect ratio.
(b) Altering the floorplan to give a 1:1 chip aspect ratio.
(c) A trial floorplan with a congestion map.
Blocks A and C have been placed so that we know the terminal positions in the channels.
Shading indicates the ratio of channel density to the channel capacity.
Dark areas show regions that cannot be routed because the channel congestion exceeds
the estimated capacity.
(d) Resizing flexible blocks A and C alleviates congestion.

ASICs... THE COURSE

16.1 Floorplanning

flexible standard-cell blocks

(not yet placed)
core
boundary

B
21

flight
line
bundle
line
nets in
bundle

32

41

17

center of
gravity
D

(a)

fixed blocks
B

B B.in

Block status
Block name: A
Type: flexible
Contents: 200 cells
Seed file: A.seed

flexible standard-cell blocks

(with estimated placement)

E.in
D.out

D
terminal, pin, or
port location

(b)
B

C
B.in

mirror about
x-axis

move down

E.in
D.out

swap
(c)

(d)

Floorplanning a cell-based ASIC.

(a) Initial floorplan generated by the floorplanning tool.
Two of the blocks are flexible (A and C) and contain rows of standard cells (unplaced).
A pop-up window shows the status of block A.
(b) An estimated placement for flexible blocks A and C.
The connector positions are known and a rats nest display shows the heavy congestion below block B.
(c) Moving blocks to improve the floorplan.
(d) The updated display shows the reduced congestion after the changes.

SECTION 16

FLOORPLANNING AND PLACEMENT

ASICS... THE COURSE

channel B
block 1

block
pin

m2
1
Adjust
channel A
first.
m1

T-pin

channel B
block 1

block 3

block 3

2
Now we
cannot
adjust
channel A.

block 2

block 2
2 Now we can
adjust channel B.
(a)

1 Adjust channel B
first.
(b)

Routing a T-junction between two channels in two-level metal.

The dots represent logic cell pins.
(a) Routing channel A (the stem of the T) first allows us to adjust the width of channel B.
(b) If we route channel B first (the top of the T), this fixes the width of channel A.
We have to route the stem of a T-junction before we route the top.

ASICs... THE COURSE

16.1 Floorplanning

16.1.4 Channel Definition

Key terms and concepts: channel definition or channel allocation channel ordering
slicing floorplan cyclic constraint switch box merge selective flattening routing
order

cut
line

slice

D
D

1
routing
channel

A
C
B

C
4

B
E
2
(a)

E
circuit
block

route
channels
in this
order

(b)

A
cut
number

E
(c)

Defining the channel routing order for a slicing floorplan using a slicing tree.
(a) Make a cut all the way across the chip between circuit blocks.
Continue slicing until each piece contains just one circuit block.
Each cut divides a piece into two without cutting through a circuit block.
(b) A sequence of cuts: 1, 2, 3, and 4 that successively slices the chip until only circuit
blocks are left.
(c) The slicing tree corresponding to the sequence of cuts gives the order in which to route
the channels: 4, 3, 2, and finally 1.

10

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FLOORPLANNING AND PLACEMENT

ASICS... THE COURSE

1
1

A
C

C
B

4
B

2
D

(a)

(b)

(c)

Cyclic constraints.
(a) A nonslicing floorplan with a cyclic constraint that prevents channel routing.
(b) In this case it is difficult to find a slicing floorplan without increasing the chip area.
(c) This floorplan may be sliced (with initial cuts 1 or 2) and has no cyclic constraints, but it
is inefficient in area use and will be very difficult to route.

(a)

A
3
cyclic constraint:
1, 2, 3, 4

AC

4
B 2

C
7
11

10

(b)

2
B

merge
standard
cell areas 8
A and C

E
4
7
3

D
9

F
5

Channel definition and ordering.

(a) We can eliminate the cyclic constraint by merging the blocks A and C.
(b) A slicing structure.

channel
number
(in routing
order)

ASICs... THE COURSE

16.1 Floorplanning

11

16.1.5 I/O and Power Planning

Key terms and concepts: die chip carrier package bonding pads lead frame package pins
core pad ring pad-limited die core-limited die pad-limited pads core-limited pads power
pads power buses (or power rails) power ring dirty power clean power electrostatic
discharge (ESD) chip cavity substrate connection down bond (or drop bond) pad seed
double bond multiple-signal pad oscillator pad clock pad. corner pad edge pads twopad corner cell bond-wire angle design rules simultaneously switching outputs (SSOs) pad
mapping logical pad physical pad pad library. pad-format changer or hybrid corner pad.
global power nets mixed power supplies multiple power supplies stagger-bond areabump ball-grid array (BGA) pad slot (or pad site) I/O-cell pitch pad pitch channel spine
preferred layer preferred direction

corner pad

m2 power ring

bonding pad

I/O pad (pad-limited)

VDD(I/O)

pad
ring

VSS(I/O)

core

VDD(core)
VSS(core)
VSS (core)
power pad
I/O power pad
I/O pads (pad-limited) I/O pad
(core-limited)

I/O circuit

(a)

m1
jumper

I/O pad
(core-limited)

(b)

Pad-limited and core-limited die.

(a) A pad-limited die. The number of pads determines the die size.
(b) A core-limited die: The core logic determines the die size.
(c) Using both pad-limited pads and core-limited pads for a square die.

(c)

m1
jumper

12

SECTION 16

FLOORPLANNING AND PLACEMENT

core-limited
pad pitch

pad-limited
pad pitch

I/O circuit and

ESD
protection
core power
ring
VDD (core)

ASICS... THE COURSE

I/O pad power ring

pad-cell
bounding box

VSS (core)

pad-limited I/O pad

pad-limited VSS
core-power pad

VSS (pad ring)

VDD (pad ring)
southeast
corner

core-limited
I/O pad
core-limited VDD
core-power pad

(a)

bonding
pad

two-pad corner pad

format changer:
core-limited to
pad-limited

(b)

package-pin spacing
chip die

package pin
bond wire
lead frame

outline of
chip core

bond-wire
angle

off-grid pads
lead-frame
wires (not
all shown)

stagger
bond

solder bump (not

shown on all pads)
minimum
lead-frame pitch
(c)

(d)

Bonding pads.
(a) This chip uses both pad-limited and core-limited pads.
(b) A hybrid corner pad.
(c) A chip with stagger-bonded pads.
(d) An area-bump bonded chip (or flip-chip). The chip is turned upside down and solder
bumps connect the pads to the lead frame.

ASICs... THE COURSE

16.1 Floorplanning

I/O
circuits

cell-based ASIC
custom I/O pad
2 4mA output
driver cells in
parallel I/O cell
slot

4mA output
driver cell
I/O-cell
pitch

bonding
pad

I/O circuit
(not shown
for all slots)

bonding pad

(a)
gate-array
pads are
fixed

output cell
pitch
4mA output
pad

(b)

empty pad
slot
8mA output pad cell
pad

(c)

Gate-array I/O pads.

(a) Cell-based ASICs may contain pad cells of different sizes and widths.
(b) A corner of a gate-array base.
(c) A gate-array base with different I/O cell and pad pitches.

13

14

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FLOORPLANNING AND PLACEMENT

ASICS... THE COURSE

(a)

(b)

standard-cell area

A
horizontal
channel

A
B

layer
crossing

m2
m1

vertical
channel
VDD
(m2)

VSS
(m1)

VDD
(m1)

All power rails run in m1 parallel to spine.

m1/m2 via

VSS
(m1)

signal
(m2)

m1

signals need to
change layers

m2

m2
m1
(c)

(d)

Power distribution.
(a) Power distributed using m1 for VSS and m2 for VDD.
This helps minimize the number of vias and layer crossings needed but causes problems in
the routing channels.
(b) In this floorplan m1 is run parallel to the longest side of all channels, the channel spine.
This can make automatic routing easier but may increase the number of vias and layer
crossings.
(c) An expanded view of part of a channel (interconnect is shown as lines).
If power runs on different layers along the spine of a channel, this forces signals to change
layers.
(d) A closeup of VDD and VSS buses as they cross.
Changing layers requires a large number of via contacts to reduce resistance.

ASICs... THE COURSE

16.1 Floorplanning

15

16.1.6 Clock Planning

Key terms and concepts: clock spine clock skew clock latency taper hot-electron wearout
phase-locked loop (PLL) is an electronic flywheel jitter

A.1

A1

2
main
branch

B1

side
branches

skew

CLK

clock spine

E2

D1

F.1 F.2

D3

m1

E1
B2

D2
clockdriver
cell

m2

A.2

F1

m2
m1

clock
spine

CLK

clockdriver
cell

base cells

block
connector
(b)

(a)

clock-driver cell
CLK

A1, B1, B2

buffer chain
1

C1

C2

Cn

CL

D1, D2, E1

CLK

D3, E2, F1

D2

clock
spine

taper

F1
latency

(c)

skew

(d)

Clock distribution.
(a) A clock spine for a gate array.
(b) A clock spine for a cell-based ASIC (typical chips have thousands of clock nets).
(c) A clock spine is usually driven from one or more clock-driver cells.
Delay in the driver cell is a function of the number of stages and the ratio of output to input
capacitance for each stage (taper).
(d) Clock latency and clock skew. We would like to minimize both latency and skew.

16

SECTION 16

FLOORPLANNING AND PLACEMENT

ASICS... THE COURSE

clock-buffer cell
(a)

C1

C2
1
I/O pad

(b)

C1

CL

D1, D2, E1

taper

flip-flop

A.2

B1, B2

D3, E2

2
1

A1

2
CLK

taper

A.1

F.2
F1

clock spine
inside block A

8
9

inside
flip-flop
F.1

10

CLK'

A.2

CLK

clock tree inside block F

(c)

A clock tree.
(a) Minimum delay is achieved when the taper of successive stages is about 3.
(b) Using a fanout of three at successive nodes.
(c) A clock tree for a cell-based ASIC
We have to balance the clock arrival times at all of the leaf nodes to minimize clock skew.

ASICs... THE COURSE

16.2 Placement

17

16.2 Placement
Key terms and concepts: Placement is more suited to automation than floorplanning. Thus we
need measurement techniques and algorithms.
16.2.1 Placement Terms and Definitions
Key terms and concepts: row-based ASICs over-the-cell routing (OTC routing) channel
capacity feedthroughs vertical track (or just track) uncommitted feedthrough (also built-in
feedthrough, implicit feedthrough, or jumper) double-entry cells electrically equivalent
connectors (or equipotential connectors) feedthrough cell (or crosser cell) feedthrough pin or
feedthrough terminal spacer cell alternative connectors must-join connectors logically
equivalent connectors logically equivalent connector groups fixed-resource ASICs

A
channel
density
=7

feedthrough using
logic cell

feedthrough cell
(vertical capacity=1)

m2
m1

(b)
(a)
channel
height=15

over-the-cell routing in m2
(c)

Interconnect structure.
(a) A two-level metal CBIC floorplan.
(b) A channel from the flexible block A. This channel has a channel height equal to the
maximum channel density of 7 (there is room for seven interconnects to run horizontally in
m1).
(c) A channel that uses OTC (over-the-cell) routing in m2.

18

SECTION 16

FLOORPLANNING AND PLACEMENT

ASICS... THE COURSE

(a)
gate-array base
= 36 blocks by 128 sites
= 4608 sites

(b)

1 block = 128 sites

16
16

site or base cell

logic cells (macros)
column

88

channel
routing
row

3 columns

base cells

logic cell

(c)
unused space
channel A (density=10)
m2

2-row-high channel
(horizontal capacity=14)
channel B (density=5)
single row channel
(horizontal capacity =7)

m1

fixed channel height

channel C (density=7)
feedthrough (vertical capacity= 3)

Gate-array interconnect.
(a) A small two-level metal gate array (about 4.6k-gate).
(b) Routing in a block.
(c) Channel routing showing channel density and channel capacity.
The channel height on a gate array may only be increased in increments of a row. If the interconnect does not use up all of the channel, the rest of the space is wasted. The interconnect in the channel runs in m1 in the horizontal direction with m2 in the vertical direction.

ASICs... THE COURSE

16.2 Placement

19

16.2.2 Placement Goals and Objectives

Key terms and concepts: Goals: (1) Guarantee the router can complete the routing step (2)
Minimize all the critical net delays (3) Make the chip as dense as possible Objectives: (1)
Minimize power dissipation (2) Minimize crosstalk between signals
16.2.3 Measurement of Placement Goals and Objectives
Key terms and concepts: trees on graphs (or just trees) Steiner trees rectilinear routing
Manhattan routing Euclidean distance Manhattan distance minimum rectilinear Steiner tree
(MRST) complete graph complete-graph measure bounding box half-perimeter measure
(or bounding-box measure) meander factor interconnect congestion maximum cut line cut
size timing-driven placement metal usage

20

SECTION 16

FLOORPLANNING AND PLACEMENT

ASICS... THE COURSE

expanded view of part of flexible block A

A

terminal

channels

A.19
Y

A.211

A.43
250

terminal name

Z
A.25
(a)

W1 2 3 4 5 6 7
X
1
2
3
Y
4
5
6
7
Z
50
(c)

cell instance name

rows of
standard
cells

50

(b)
W
2

8 X

10 Y

minimum
rectilinear
Steiner tree

12
L=16

L=15

14
50

Steiner
point

(d)

Placement using trees on graphs.

(a) A floorplan.
(b) An expanded view of the flexible block A showing four rows of standard cells for placement (typical blocks may contain thousands or tens of thousands of logic cells).
We want to find the length of the net shown with four terminals, W through Z, given the
placement of four logic cells (labeled: A.211, A.19, A.43, A.25).
(c) The problem for net (W, X, Y, Z) drawn as a graph.
The shortest connection is the minimum Steiner tree.
(d) The minimum rectilinear Steiner tree using Manhattan routing.
The rectangular (Manhattan) interconnect-length measures are shown for each tree.

ASICs... THE COURSE

16.2 Placement

(a)

Interconnect-length measures.
(a) Complete-graph measure.
(b) Half-perimeter measure.

28 26 24 22
30 42 40
2
44
20
34
4
18
36
6
16
39
8 10 12 14

20

18

16
10 12 14

half-perimeter measure
L=28/ 2= 14

L=44/2=22

expanded view of part of flexible block A

terminal

35 7 3

complete-graph measure

28 26 24 22

(b)

rows of standard
cells
row 1
row 2

7 53 7
cut
size
=5
terminals

channel 4

channel
height =
channel
capacity

row 3
row 4

(a)

maximum
cut line

feedthrough
cells
(b)

built-in
channels
feedthrough

Interconnect congestion for a cell-based ASIC.

(a) Measurement of congestion.
(b) An expanded view of flexible block A shows a maximum cut line.

21

22

SECTION 16

FLOORPLANNING AND PLACEMENT

ASICS... THE COURSE

16.2.4 Placement Algorithms

Key terms and concepts: constructive placement method variations on the min-cut algorithm
eigenvalue method seed placements min-cut placement bins eigenvalue placement
algorithm connectivity matrix (spectral methods) quadratic placement disconnection matrix
(also called the Laplacian) characteristic equation eigenvectors and eigenvalues

ASICs... THE COURSE

16.2 Placement

16.2.5 Eigenvalue Placement Example

-0.8

B
3

-0.4

C
A

-0.6

-0.2

0.2

0.6

logic
cell

0.4

0.8

(b)

(a)
0.6
0.4
(c)

0.2
B

-0.2
-0.4

cell
abutment
box

-0.6

2
-1

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

cell 3

-0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

cell 1
connector

(d)

channel

A
m2
m1

cell 2

cell 4

cell abutment box

Eigenvalue placement.
(a) An example network.
(b) The one-dimensional placement.
The small black squares represent the centers of the logic cells.
(c) The two-dimensional placement.
The eigenvalue method takes no account of the logic cell sizes or actual location of logic
cell connectors.
(d) A complete layout.
We snap the logic cells to valid locations, leaving room for the routing in the channel.

23

24

SECTION 16

FLOORPLANNING AND PLACEMENT

ASICS... THE COURSE

16.2.6 Iterative Placement Improvement

Key terms and concepts: iterative placement improvement interchange or iterative exchange
pairwise-interchange algorithm -optimum neighborhood exchange algorithm neighborhood
-neighborhood force-directed placement methods Hookes law force-directed interchange
force-directed relaxation force-directed pairwise relaxation

source
module

=2 swap

trial destination module

=3 swap

1-neighborhood of
module 1

2-neighborhood of
module 1

10 11 12

10 11 12

10 11 12

13 14 15 16
(a)

13 14 15 16

13 14 15 16

(b)

(c)

10 11 12

13 14 15 16
(d)

Interchange.
(a) Swapping the source logic cell with a destination logic cell in pairwise interchange.
(b) Sometimes we have to swap more than two logic cells at a time to reach an optimum
placement, but this is expensive in computation time.
Limiting the search to neighborhoods reduces the search time.
Logic cells within a distance of a logic cell form an -neighborhood.
(c) A one-neighborhood.
(d) A two-neighborhood.

ASICs... THE COURSE

16.2 Placement

spring
A

H
(a)

(5, 4)

(2, 2)
(2, 2)
H

(b)

(1 , 0)

(c)

(d)

Force-directed placement.
(a) A network with nine logic cells.
(b) We make a grid (one logic cell per bin).
(c) Forces are calculated as if springs were attached to the centers of each logic cell for
each connection.
The two nets connecting logic cells A and I correspond to two springs.
(d) The forces are proportional to the spring extensions.

force
vector
P

Trial swap P with nearest

neighbors in direction of force
vector.
(a)

Repeat process,
forming a chain.

(b)

Force-directed iterative placement improvement.

(a) Force-directed interchange.
(b) Force-directed relaxation.
(c) Force-directed pairwise relaxation.

Move P to
location
that
minimizes
force
vector.

Move P to
location
that
minimizes
force
vector

Swap is accepted if
destination module moves
to -neighborhood of P.
(c)

25

26

SECTION 16

FLOORPLANNING AND PLACEMENT

ASICS... THE COURSE

16.2.7 Placement Using Simulated Annealing

Key terms and concepts:
1. Select logic cells for a trial interchange, usually at random.
2. Evaluate the objective function E for the new placement.
3. If E is negative or zero, then exchange the logic cells. If E is positive, then exchange the
logic cells with a probability of exp(E/T).
4. Go back to step 1 for a fixed number of times, and then lower the temperature T according
to a cooling schedule: Tn+1 =0.9 Tn, for example.
16.2.8 Timing-Driven Placement Methods
Key terms and concepts: zero-slack algorithm primary inputs arrival times actual times
required times primary outputs slack time

ASICs... THE COURSE

16.2 Placement

1/2/1

0/1/1

primary
input

3/4/1
1

critical path
9/10/1 Y

0/1/1

(a)
2/4/2
1

primary
output

1/2/1
B

7/10/3

4/6/2

5/6/1
4

7/10/3

5/8/3

0/3/3
1/4/3
1

3/6/3
2

arrival/required/slack
gate delay

0/0/0

primary
input

1.5/1.5/0
1+0.5

4/4/0
1+1

2+0.5

10/10/0

6/6/2

primary
output

3+1

1.5/1.5/0
B

10/10/0 Y

0/0/0

(b)
4/4/0
1+ 0.5

1+1.5

2+0

6/6/0
4+0

10/10/0

8/8/0

0/0/0
6/6/0
2+0
2.5/2.5/0
2+1.5
1+1.5
arrival/required/slack
gate delay + net delay

1+0

The zero-slack algorithm.

(a) The circuit with no net delays.
(b) The zero-slack algorithm adds net delays (at the outputs of each gate, equivalent to
increasing the gate delay) to reduce the slack times to zero.

27

28

SECTION 16

FLOORPLANNING AND PLACEMENT

ASICS... THE COURSE

16.2.9 A Simple Placement Example

maximum
cut line (y) =4

C
wire
length= 1

capacity of
each bin
edge=2

routing length =7
maximum cut (x and y) =2
C

cut line=2

B H

cut line=1

total routing length=8

(a)

(b)

(c)

Placement example.
(a) An example network.
(b) In this placement, the bin size is
equal to the logic cell size and all
the logic cells are assumed equal
size.
(c) An alternative placement with a
lower total routing length.
(d) A layout that might result from
the placement shown in b.

cell
connector
cell A

cell B

cell E

m1

(d)
cell C

cell D

cell F

The channel densities correspond to

the cut-line sizes.
Notice that the logic cells are not all
the same size (which means there
are errors in the interconnect-length
estimates we made during placement).

channel
density=2

m2

channel
density=1
cell H

cell I

cell G

cell abutment
box

16.3 Physical Design Flow

Key terms and concepts:
Because interconnect delay now dominates gate delay, the trend is to include placement
within a floorplanning tool and use a separate router.
1. Design entry. The input is a logical description with no physical information.

ASICs... THE COURSE

16.3 Physical Design Flow

29

2. Initial synthesis. The initial synthesis contains little or no information on any interconnect
loading.The output of the synthesis tool (typically an EDIF netlist) is the input to the floorplanner.
3. Initial floorplan. From the initial floorplan interblock capacitances are input to the synthesis
tool as load constraints and intrablock capacitances are input as wire-load tables.
4. Synthesis with load constraints. At this point the synthesis tool is able to resynthesize the
logic based on estimates of the interconnect capacitance each gate is driving. The synthesis
tool produces a forward annotation file to constrain path delays in the placement step.
5. Timing-driven placement. After placement using constraints from the synthesis tool, the
location of every logic cell on the chip is fixed and accurate estimates of interconnect delay
can be passed back to the synthesis tool.
6. Synthesis with in-place optimization (IPO).The synthesis tool changes the drive strength
of gates based on the accurate interconnect delay estimates from the floorplanner without
altering the netlist structure.
7. Detailed placement. The placement information is ready to be input to the routing step.

VHDL/Verilog
netlist

increasing
accuracy of
wire-load
estimates

1 design entry

A
2 initial synthesis
A
B

chip

3 initial floorplan

C1

error

0
B C2
wire
loads

interconnect
load

C1

synthesis with load

4 constraints
A

C2
5 timing-driven placement

C2

B
A
C3

A
x8

A.nand1 A.inv1

C3

synthesis
with in-place
optimization

C3
A
C4

7 detailed placement
block

Timing-driven floorplanning and placement design flow.

C4

30

SECTION 16

FLOORPLANNING AND PLACEMENT

ASICS... THE COURSE

16.4 Information Formats

16.4.1 SDF for Floorplanning and Placement
Key terms and concepts: standard delay format (SDF) back-annotation forward-annotation
timing constraints

(INSTANCE B) (DELAY (ABSOLUTE

(INTERCONNECT A.INV8.OUT B.DFF1.Q (:0.6:) (:0.6:))))

(TIMESCALE 100ps) (INSTANCE B) (DELAY (ABSOLUTE

(NETDELAY net1 (0.6)))

(TIMESCALE 100ps) (INSTANCE B.DFF1) (DELAY (ABSOLUTE

(PORT CLR (16:18:22) (17:20:25))))

(TIMESCALE 100ps) (INSTANCE B) (

TIMINGCHECK
(PATHCONSTRAINT A.AOI22_1.O B.ND02_34.O (0.8) (0.8)))

(TIMESCALE 100ps) (INSTANCE B) (

TIMINGCHECK
(SUM (AOI22_1.O ND02_34.I1) (ND02_34.O ND02_35.I1) (0.8)))

(TIMESCALE 100ps) (INSTANCE B) (TIMINGCHECK

(DIFF (A.I_1.O B.ND02_1.I1) (A.I_1.O.O B.ND02_2.I1) (0.1)))

(TIMESCALE 100ps) (INSTANCE B) (TIMINGCHECK

(SKEWCONSTRAINT (posedge clk) (0.1)))

16.4.2 PDEF
Key terms and concepts: physical design exchange format (PDEF)

(CLUSTERFILE
(PDEFVERSION "1.0")
(DESIGN "myDesign")
(DATE "THU AUG 6 12:00 1995")

ASICs... THE COURSE

16.5 Summary

31

(VENDOR "ASICS_R_US")
(PROGRAM "PDEF_GEN")
(VERSION "V2.2")
(DIVIDER .)
(CLUSTER (NAME "ROOT")
(WIRE_LOAD "10mm x 10mm")
(UTILIZATION 50.0)
(MAX_UTILIZATION 60.0)
(X_BOUNDS 100 1000)
(Y_BOUNDS 100 1000)
(CLUSTER (NAME "LEAF_1")
(WIRE_LOAD "50k gates")
(UTILIZATION 50.0)
(MAX_UTILIZATION 60.0)
(X_BOUNDS 100 500)
(Y_BOUNDS 100 200)
(CELL (NAME L1.RAM01)
(CELL (NAME L1.ALU01)
)
)
)

16.4.3 LEF and DEF

Key terms and concepts: library exchange format (LEF) design exchange format (DEF)

16.5 Summary
Key terms and concepts: Interconnect delay now dominates gate delay Floorplanning is a
mapping between logical and physical design Floorplanning is the center of design operations
for all types of ASIC Timing-driven floorplanning is an essential ASIC design tool Placement
is an automated function

32

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FLOORPLANNING AND PLACEMENT

ASICS... THE COURSE

ASICs...THE COURSE (1 WEEK)

ROUTING

17

Key terms and concepts: Routing is usually split into global routing followed by detailed
routing.
Suppose the ASIC is North America and some travelers in California need to drive from
Stanford (near San Francisco) to Caltech (near Los Angeles).
The floorplanner decides that California is on the left (west) side of the ASIC and the
placement tool has put Stanford in Northern California and Caltech in Southern California.
Floorplanning and placement define the roads and freeways. There are two ways to go:
the coastal route (Highway 101) or the inland route (Interstate I5usually faster).
The global router specifies the coastal route because the travelers are not in a hurry and
I5 is congested (the global router knows this because it has already routed onto I5 many
other travelers that are in a hurry today).
Next, the detailed router looks at a map and gives indications from Stanford onto
Highway 101 south through San Jose, Monterey, and Santa Barbara to Los Angeles and
then off the freeway to Caltech in Pasadena.

17.1 Global Routing

Key terms and concepts: Global routing differs slightly between CBICs, gate arrays, and FPGAs,
but the principles are the same A global router does not make any connections, it just plans
them We typically global route the whole chip (or large pieces) before detail routing There are
two types of areas to global route: inside the flexible blocks and between blocks
17.1.1 Goals and Objectives
Key terms and concepts: Goal: provide complete instructions to the detailed router Objectives:
Minimize the total interconnect length Maximize the probability that the detailed router can
complete the routing Minimize the critical path delay

SECTION 17

ROUTING

ASICS... THE COURSE

The core of the Viterbi decoder chip after placement.

You can see the rows of standard cells; the widest cells are the D flip-flops.

ASICs... THE COURSE

17.1 Global Routing

The core of the Viterbi decoder chip after the completion of global and detailed routing.
This chip uses two-level metal.
Although you cannot see the difference, m1 runs in the horizontal direction and m2 in the
vertical direction.

SECTION 17

ROUTING

ASICS... THE COURSE

17.1.2 Measurement of Interconnect Delay

Key terms and concepts: lumped-delay model lumped capacitance as interconnect delay
becomes more important other, more complex models, are used

A Vd V1
(a)

V2

V2 B

R2

1X

4X
V3

V4 C

V0

1X
0.1mm V1 V2

A
(b)

m2

Vd

t =0

R pd

R1
Vd

V1

C2
i2
R3

R4

V3

C1

V4

C3

i1

i3

C4
i4

B
0.1mm

2mm

pull-down
resistance of
inverter A

resistance of
interconnect
segments

1mm
V3

(c)

V4

Measuring the delay of a net.

(a) A simple circuit with an inverter A driving a net with a fanout of two.
Voltages V1, V2, V3, and V4 are the voltages at intermediate points along the net.
(b) The layout showing the net segments (pieces of interconnect).
(c) The RC model with each segment replaced by a capacitance and resistance.
The ideal switch and pull-down resistance Rpd model the inverter A.
17.1.3 Global Routing Methods
Key terms and concepts: sequential routing order-independent routing order dependent
routing hierarchical routing (top-down or bottom-up)
17.1.4 Global Routing Between Blocks
Key terms and concepts: use of the channel-intersection graph

ASICs... THE COURSE

17.1 Global Routing

26

9
5

A
2
B 1
5

11

15
6

11

5
6

11

4
16
D

16

16

F
6

15
(a)

(b)

11
(c)

Global routing for a cell-based ASIC formulated as a graph problem.

(a) A cell-based ASIC with numbered channels.
(b) The channels form the edges of a graph.
(c) The channel-intersection graph. Each channel corresponds to an edge on a graph
whose weight corresponds to the channel length.
17.1.5 Global Routing Inside Flexible Blocks
Key terms and concepts: track landing pad pick-up point, connector, terminal, pin, or port
area pick-up point horizontal tracks routing bins (or just bins, also called global routing cells or
GRCs)
17.1.6 Timing-Driven Methods
Key terms and concepts: use of timing engine path or node based
17.1.7 Back-annotation
Key terms and concepts: RC information huge files database problem

SECTION 17

ROUTING

ASICS... THE COURSE

9
A1

A1

A1

2
B1

E1

B1

E1

B1

E1

5
8

7
4

D1

F1

D1

F1

D1

F1

6
terminal
(a)

minimum delay
from A1 to D1

minimum-length tree
(b)

(c)

Finding paths in global routing.

(a) A cell-based ASIC showing a single net with a fanout of four (five terminals). We have to
order the numbered channels to complete the interconnect path for terminals A1 through
F1.
(b) The terminals are projected to the center of the nearest channel, forming a graph. A
minimum-length tree for the net that uses the channels and takes into account the channel
capacities.
(c) The minimum-length tree does not necessarily correspond to minimum delay. If we wish
to minimize the delay from terminal A1 to D1, a different tree might be better.

ASICs... THE COURSE

17.1 Global Routing

sea-of-gates array

one block

one column
base cells
channel routing
m2

block

m1
fixed channel height
(b)
base
cells
base cell used by
macro (logic cell)

(a)

(c)

pitch of vertical
tracks (m2)
pitch of
horizontal
tracks (m1)
electrically
equivalent
connectors

m1

base cell used for

routing

1
2
3
4

inverter
macro

base-cell
outline

6
7

feedthrough
connector
(d)

(e)

Gate-array global routing.

(a) A small gate array.
(b) An enlarged view of the routing. The top channel uses three rows of gate-array base
cells; the other channels use only one.
(c) A further enlarged view showing how the routing in the channels connects to the logic
cells.
(d) One of the logic cells, an inverter.
(e) There are seven horizontal wiring tracks available in one row of gate-array base cells
the channel capacity is thus 7.

SECTION 17

ROUTING

ASICS... THE COURSE

input output feedthrough

poly
VDD

m1

pdiff
abutment
box
ndiff

output

via1

abutment
box
connector

GND
input

via1 stacked
over contact
(a)

m1

contact

contact
m2

GND

VDD

connector

connector
(b)

(c)

A gate-array inverter
(a) An oxide-isolated gate-array base cell, showing the diffusion and polysilicon layers.
(b) The metal and contact layers for the inverter in a 2LM (two-level metal) process.
(c) The routers view of the cell in a 3LM process.

ASICs... THE COURSE

17.1 Global Routing

north
tracks =12
capacity=4

global route for net 1:

C3-north; B3-east; B4-east; B5-east

vertical feedthroughs

base cells

A
channel

C
west
tracks =14
capacity=7

1 2 f f f 3 4 5 f 6

connectors
vertical feedthroughs

f 6

east
tracks =14
capacity=7

south
tracks=12
capacity=4

(a)

logic cells
1 2 f f f 3 4

global cell
edge
B5-east &
B6-west

routing bins
or global
routing
cells (GRC)

(b)

Global routing a gate array.

(a) A single global-routing cell (GRC or routing bin) containing 2-by-4 gate-array base cells.
For this choice of routing bin the maximum horizontal track capacity is 14, the maximum
vertical track capacity is 12.
The routing bin labeled C3 contains three logic cells, two of which have feedthroughs
marked 'f'.
This results in the edge capacities shown.
(b) A view of the top left-hand corner of the gate array showing 28 routing bins.
The global router uses the edge capacities to find a sequence of routing bins to connect the
nets.

10

SECTION 17

ROUTING

ASICS... THE COURSE

17.2 Detailed Routing

Key terms and concepts: routing pitch (track pitch, track spacing, or just pitch) via-to-via (VTV)
pitch (or spacing) via-to-line (VTL or line-to-via) pitch line-to-line (LTL) pitch. stitch waffle via
stacked via Manhattan routing preferred direction preferred metal layer phantom
blockage map on-grid off-grid trunks branches doglegs pseudoterminals tracks (like
railway tracks) horizontal track spacing track spacing column column spacing (or vertical
track spacing)

via-to-via pitch
m1
3

via-to-line or
line-to-via
pitch

line-to-line pitch

6.5

via1
4
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

The metal routing pitch.

(a) An example of -based metal design rules for m1 and via1 (m1/m2 via).
(b) Via-to-via pitch for adjacent vias.
(c) Via-to-line (or line-to-via) pitch for nonadjacent vias.
(d) Line-to-line pitch with no vias.

ASICs... THE COURSE

17.2 Detailed Routing

m2

m2

m2

m2

m2

via
m1
m1
via1

(a)

cut

(b)

m3

m1
contact

(c)

stacked
contact and
via1
(d)

via2

(e)

m1

stacked
contact, via1,
and via2
(f)

Vias
(a) A large m1 to m2 via. The black squares represent the holes (or cuts) that are etched in
the insulating material between the m1 and 2 layers.
(b) A m1 to m2 via (a via1).
(c) A contact from m1 to diffusion or polysilicon (a contact).
(d) A via1 placed over (or stacked over) a contact.
(e) A m2 to m3 via (a via2).
(f) A via2 stacked over a via1 stacked over a contact. Notice that the black square in parts
bc do not represent the actual location of the cuts. The black squares are offset so you
can recognize stacked vias and contacts.

11

12

SECTION 17

ROUTING

ASICS... THE COURSE

m2

m2
1

m1
1

m1

via channel 5

1 2

channel 5
vias

2
F

2
m2

m1
1

m1

channel 4
(a)

m2

channel 4
(b)

An expanded view of part of a cell-based ASIC.

(a) Both channel 4 and channel 5 use m1 in the horizontal direction and m2 in the vertical
direction. If the logic cell connectors are on m2 this requires vias to be placed at every logic
cell connector in channel 4.
(b) Channel 4 and 5 are routed with m1 along the direction of the channel spine (the long
direction of the channel). Now vias are required only for nets 1 and 2, at the intersection of
the channels.

ASICs... THE COURSE

17.2 Detailed Routing

5. track location blocked

by m2 inside cell
6. off-grid
connector

1. electrically
equivalent connectors;
router can connect to
top or bottom and use
connectors as a
feedthrough

7. connector
with no
equivalent

m2
8. feedthrough
between
equivalent
connectors
with internal jog

m2

2. equivalent
connectors; router can
connect to top or
bottom but cannot use
as a feedthrough

10. cell
abutment box
9. routing
grid
3. must-join connectors,
router must connect
to top and bottom

4. internal
connector

The different types of connections that can be made to a cell.

This cell has connectors at the top and bottom of the cell (normal for cells intended for use
with a two-level metal process) and internal connectors (normal for logic cells intended for
use with a three-level metal process).
The interconnect and connections are drawn to scale.

13

14

SECTION 17

ROUTING

ASICS... THE COURSE

vacant
terminal

unused
terminal
m2

4 horizontal
tracks

logic cell

m1
0

10 10 7
trunk or
segment

m1

(a)

m2
horizontal track
pitch=8

pseudoterminal
1

0 0
via1

6 0
branch

(b)

m1

expanded
view of
channel
4

net
exiting
channel

via1
m2

cell
abutment
box

connector,
terminal, port,
or pin

=
via1

+
m1

+
m2

contact

(c)
vertical track
pitch=8

Terms used in channel routing.

(a) A channel with four horizontal tracks.
(b) An expanded view of the left-hand portion of the channel showing (approximately to
scale) how the m1 and m2 layers connect to the logic cells on either side of the channel.
(c) The construction of a via1 (m1/m2 via).

ASICs... THE COURSE

17.2 Detailed Routing

15

17.2.1 Goals and Objectives

Key terms and concepts: Goal: to complete all the connections between logic cells Objectives:
The total interconnect length and area The number of layer changes that the connections have
to make The delay of critical paths
17.2.2 Measurement of Channel Density
Key terms and concepts: local density global density channel density

10 10 7

m2
m1
via1
4

local density=3
local density=2
local density=1

local density
=global density or
channel density=4

The definitions of local channel density and global channel density.

Lines represent the m1 and m2 interconnect in the channel to simplify the drawing.
17.2.3 Algorithms
Key terms and concepts: restricted channel-routing problem
17.2.4 Left-Edge Algorithm
Key terms and concepts: left-edge algorithm (LEA)
17.2.5 Constraints and Routing Graphs
Key terms and concepts: vertical constraint vertical-constraint graph directed graph
horizontal constraint horizontal-constraint graph vertical-constraint cycle (or cyclic constraint)
dogleg router overlap overlap capacitance coupling capacitance overlap capacitance
channel-routing compaction

16

SECTION 17

ROUTING

ASICS... THE COURSE

Segments sorted
by their left edge.
1

2
3

(a)

Net 6 has 3 terminals.

5
6
7

Left edge of segment 7

connects to top
of channel.

8
9
10
Left edge of segment 6
connects to bottom
of channel.
7

3
2

(b)

10
9

Segments assigned to tracks by their left edges.

0

10 10 7

m2
m1

(c)

via1

Left-edge algorithm.
(a) Sorted list of segments.
(b) Assignment to tracks.
(c) Completed channel route (with m1 and m2 interconnect represented by lines).

ASICs... THE COURSE

17.2 Detailed Routing

10 10 7
m2

(a)

m1
via1
1

Thus, the global channel density=4.

2

10

10

9
3
The set of 4 nodes,
(3, 6, 5, 7), is the
largest completely
connected loop.

(b)

(c)

Routing graphs.
(a) Channel with a global density of 4.
(b) The vertical constraint graph. If two nets occupy the same column, the net at the top of
the channel imposes a vertical constraint on the net at the bottom. For example, net 2 imposes a vertical constraint on net 4. Thus the interconnect for net 4 must use a track above
net 2.
(c) Horizontal-constraint graph. If the segments of two nets overlap, they are connected in
the horizontal-constraint graph. This graph determines the global channel density.

The addition of a dogleg, an

extra trunk, in the wiring of a
net can resolve cyclic vertical
constraints.

2
doglegmore
than one trunk
per net

m2
m1 via1
2

0
(a)

2
(b)

0
(c)

17

18

SECTION 17

ROUTING

ASICS... THE COURSE

17.2.6 Area-Routing Algorithms

Key terms and concepts: grid-expansion maze-running line-search Lee maze-running
algorithm wave propagation Hightower algorithm line-search algorithm (or lineprobe algorithm) escape line escape point
The Lee maze-running algorithm.
The algorithm finds a path from source (X) to
target (Y) by emitting a wave from both the
source and the target at the same time.
Successive outward moves are marked in
each bin.
Once the target is reached, the path is found
by backtracking (if there is a choice of bins
with equal labeled values, we choose the bin
that avoids changing direction).

4 4

4 3

(The original form of the Lee algorithm uses a

single wave.)

Hightower area-routing algorithm.

(a) Escape lines are constructed from source
(X) and target (Y) toward each other until they
hit obstacles.
(b) An escape point is found on the escape
line so that the next escape line perpendicular to the original misses the next obstacle.

source
X escape line

escape line target Y

The path is complete when escape lines from

source and target meet.
(a)

escape
point
X

Y
intersection
of escape
lines
(b)

17.2.7 Multilevel Routing

Key terms and concepts: two-layer routing 2.5-layer routing three-layer routing
reserved-layer routing unreserved-layer routing HVH routing VHV routing multilevel
routing cell porosity

ASICs... THE COURSE

17.3 Special Routing

m2 routing pitch
16

interconnect to
channel above

m2

7
m1 and
m3

5
2

logic-cell
abutment box

3
6

19

10

10

8
m1
routing
pitch

connector
exiting
channel

16

2
1

m3
routing
pitch
=
via1

+
m1

8
4

+
m2

=
contact

via2

+
m2

+
m3

0
9

=
contact

+
via1

via2

Three-level channel routing.

In this diagram the m2 and m3 routing pitch is set to twice the m1 routing pitch.
Routing density can be increased further if all the routing pitches can be made equala difficult process challenge.
17.2.8 Timing-Driven Detailed Routing
Key terms and concepts: the global router has already set the path the interconnect will follow
and little can be done to improve timing reduce the number of vias alter the interconnect width
to optimize delay minimize overlap capacitance gains are small high-frequency clock nets
are chamfered (rounded) to match impedances at branches and control reflections at corners.
17.2.9 Final Routing Steps
Key terms and concepts: unroutes rip-up and reroute engineering change orders (ECO) via
removal routing compaction

17.3 Special Routing

Key terms and concepts: clock and power nets

20

SECTION 17

ROUTING

ASICS... THE COURSE

17.3.1 Clock Routing

Key terms and concepts: clock-tree synthesis clock-buffer insertion activity-induced
clock skew

B1

B2

E1

E1

B1

E2

B2
D1

CLK

jog

A1

A1

E2

D1

CLK
D2

D2

D3

F1

(a)

D3

F1

(b)

Clock routing.
(a) A clock network for a cell-based ASIC.
(b) Equalizing the interconnect segments between CLK and all destinations (by including
jogs if necessary) minimizes clock skew.

ASICs... THE COURSE

17.4 Circuit Extraction and DRC

21

17.3.2 Power Routing

Key terms and concepts: power-bus sizing metal electromigration power simulation mean
time to failure (MTTF) metallization reliability rules maximum metal-width rules (fat-metal
rules) die attach power grid end-cap cells routing bias flip and abut
Metallization reliability rules for a typical 0.5 micron (=0.25m) CMOS process.
Layer/contact/via
m1
m2
m3
0.8m square m1 contact to
diffusion
0.8m square m1 contact to poly
0.8m square m1/m2 via (via1)
0.8m square m2/m3 via (via2)

Current limit
1mA m1
1mA m1
2 mA m1

Metal thickness
7000
7000
12,000

Resistance
95m/square
95m/square
48m/square

0.7 mA

11

0.7mA
0.7mA
0.7mA

16
3.6
3.6

17.4 Circuit Extraction and DRC

Key terms and concepts: circuit-extraction design-rule check Dracula deck design rule violations

22

SECTION 17

ROUTING

ASICS... THE COURSE

17.4.1 SPF, RSPF, and DSPF

Key terms and concepts: standard parasitic format (SPF) regular SPF reduced SPF detailed
SPF
Parasitic capacitances for a typical 1m (=0.5 m) three-level metal CMOS process.
Element
poly (over gate oxide) to substrate
poly (over field oxide) to substrate
m1 to diffusion or poly
m1 to substrate
m2 to diffusion
m2 to substrate
m2 to poly
m2 to m1
m3 to diffusion
m3 to substrate
m3 to poly
m3 to m1
m3 to m2
n+ junction (at 0V bias)
p+ junction (at 0V bias)

Area/fFm2
1.73
0.058
0.055
0.031
0.019
0.015
0.022
0.035
0.011
0.010
0.012
0.016
0.035
0.36
0.46

#Design Name : EXAMPLE1

#Date : 6 August 1995
#Time : 12:00:00
#Resistance Units : 1 ohms
#Capacitance Units : 1 pico farads
#Syntax :
#N <netName>
#C <capVal>
# F <from CompName> <fromPinName>
# GC <conductance>
# |
# REQ <res>
# GRC <conductance>
# T <toCompName> <toPinName> RC <rcConstant> A <value>
# |

Fringing/fFm1
NA
0.043
0.049
0.044
0.038
0.035
0.040
0.046
0.034
0.033
0.034
0.039
0.049
NA
NA

ASICs... THE COURSE

17.4 Circuit Extraction and DRC

RBC

23

Y1(s)

C_1
C

CC

Y(s)
A_1

RAB

CA

lumped-C

B_1
CB

(c)
Y2(s)

(a)

R
R3

C_1

A
Y1(s), Y2(s), or
Y3(s)

lumped-RC
V(A_1)

A_1

R4

C3
(d)
B_1

Y3(s)

+
V(A_1)

C4

R
A
PI segment

(b)

C2

C1

(e)

The regular and reduced standard parasitic format (SPF) models for interconnect.
(a) An example of an interconnect network with fanout. The driving-point admittance of the
interconnect network is Y(s).
(b) The SPF model of the interconnect.
(c) The lumped-capacitance interconnect model.
(d) The lumped-RC interconnect model.
(e) The PI segment interconnect model (notice the capacitor nearest the output node is labeled C2 rather than C1). The values of C, R, C1, and C2 are calculated so that Y1(s), Y2(s),
and Y3(s) are the first-, second-, and third-order Taylor-series approximations to Y(s).
# RPI <res>
# C1 <cap>
# C2 <cap>

24

#
#
#
#
N
C

SECTION 17

ROUTING

ASICS... THE COURSE

GPI <conductance>
T <toCompName> <toPinName> RC <rcConstant> A <value>
TIMING.ADMITTANCE.MODEL = PI
TIMING.CAPACITANCE.MODEL = PP
CLOCK
3.66
F ROOT Z
RPI 8.85
C1 2.49
C2 1.17
GPI = 0.0
T DF1 G RC 22.20
T DF2 G RC 13.05

* Design Name : EXAMPLE1

* Date : 6 August 1995
* Time : 12:00:00
* Resistance Units : 1 ohms
* Capacitance Units : 1 pico farads
*| RSPF 1.0
*| DELIMITER "_"
.SUBCKT EXAMPLE1 OUT IN
*| GROUND_NET VSS
* TIMING.CAPACITANCE.MODEL = PP
*|NET CLOCK 3.66PF
*|DRIVER ROOT_Z ROOT Z
*|S (ROOT_Z_OUTP1 0.0 0.0)
R2 ROOT_Z ROOT_Z_OUTP1 8.85
C1 ROOT_Z_OUTP1 VSS 2.49PF
C2 ROOT_Z VSS 1.17PF
*|LOAD DF2_G DF1 G
*|S (DF1_G_INP1 0.0 0.0)
E1 DF1_G_INP1 VSS ROOT_Z VSS 1.0
R3 DF1_G_INP1 DF1_G 22.20
C3 DF1_G VSS 1.0PF
*|LOAD DF2_G DF2 G
*|S (DF2_G_INP1 0.0 0.0)
E2 DF2_G_INP1 VSS ROOT_Z VSS 1.0
R4 DF2_G_INP1 DF2_G 13.05
C4 DF2_G VSS 1.0PF
*Instance Section
XDF1 DF1_Q DF1_QN DF1_D DF1_G DF1_CD DF1_VDD DF1_VSS DFF3
XDF2 DF2_Q DF2_QN DF2_D DF2_G DF2_CD DF2_VDD DF2_VSS DFF3
XROOT ROOT_Z ROOT_A ROOT_VDD ROOT_VSS BUF

ASICs... THE COURSE

17.4 Circuit Extraction and DRC

25

.ENDS
.END

.SUBCKT BUFFER OUT IN

* Net Section
*|GROUND_NET VSS
*|NET IN 3.8E-01PF
*|P (IN I 0.0 0.0 5.0)
*|I (INV1:A INV A I 0.0 10.0 5.0)
C1 IN VSS 1.1E-01PF
C2 INV1:A VSS 2.7E-01PF
R1 IN INV1:A 1.7E00
*|NET OUT 1.54E-01PF
*|S (OUT:1 30.0 10.0)
*|P (OUT O 0.0 30.0 0.0)
*|I (INV:OUT INV1 OUT O 0.0 20.0 10.0)
C3 INV1:OUT VSS 1.4E-01PF
C4 OUT:1 VSS 6.3E-03PF
C5 OUT VSS 7.7E-03PF
R2 INV1:OUT OUT:1 3.11E00
R3 OUT:1 OUT 3.03E00
*Instance Section
XINV1 INV:A INV1:OUT INV
.ENDS

17.4.2 Design Checks

Key terms and concepts: design-rule check (DRC) phantom-level DRC hard layout Dracula
deck layout versus schematic (LVS)
17.4.3 Mask Preparation
Key terms and concepts: maskwork symbol (M inside a circle) copyright symbol (C inside a
circle) kerf scribe lines edge-seal structures Caltech Intermediate Format (CIF, a public
domain text format) GDSII Stream (Calma Stream, Cadence Stream) fab mask shop grace
value sizing or mask tooling tooling specification mask bias birds beak effect glass masks or
reticles spot size critical layers optical proximity correction (OPC)

26

SECTION 17

ROUTING

ASICS... THE COURSE

INV1

OUT

(0,10)

INV1

(10,0)

IN
(20,0)

(30,0)

OUT:1

INV1:A

R1

C4

INV1:OUT
OUT
R2
A

OUT
(0,0)

instance
pin name
subnode

net
name

OUT:1

IN

instance
name
pin
name

m2

C1

C3

C2

R3
OUT
C5

(a)

(b)

The detailed standard parasitic format (DSPF) for interconnect representation.

(a) An example network with two m2 paths connected to a logic cell, INV1. The grid shows
the coordinates.
(b) The equivalent DSPF circuit corresponding to the DSPF file in the text.

17.5 Summary
Key terms and concepts:
Routing is divided into global and detailed routing.
Routing algorithms should match the placement algorithms.
Routing is not complete if there are unroutes.
Clock and power nets are handled as special cases.
Clock-net widths and power-bus widths must usually be set by hand.
DRC and LVS checks are needed before a design is complete.