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MODULE 7
Sub Module 7.14

MATERIAL HANDLING

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Contents
SHEET METAL WORK ............................................................................. 1
MARKING OUT ...................................................................................... 2
BENDING AND CALCULATION OF BEND ALLOWANCE .......................... 3
FORMING OF SHEET METAL PARTS....................................................... 8
INSPECTION OF SHEET METAL WORK ................................................... 9
BONDING PRACTICES .......................................................................... 11
INSPECTION METHODS ....................................................................... 14

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MODULE 7
Sub Module 7.14.1

SHEET METAL

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SHEET METAL WORK

While the majority of metals can be rolled into sheet form,
consideration is confined here solely to the working with sheets
of the light alloys, which are encountered on aircraft and, in
particular, those formed from aluminium alloy ingots.
Safe working procedures were covered adequately, in the
Workshop and Hangar Safety Section of the SAFETY
PRECAUTIONS topic, but there are several additional points,
which need highlighting, with regard to working with sheets of
aluminium alloy.
By definition, sheets of aluminium alloy are comparatively thin in
cross-section and, as such, they not only pose a health hazard,
through cuts, when being handled but they are, also, prone to
buckling and creasing if handled carelessly.
Large sheets of aluminium alloys are, usually stored upright, on
their longest edge and supported, clear of the floor, in a wooden
framework so they are protected from damage and corrosion.
Care must be taken when removing a large sheet from its
storage rack a task which normally involves at least two
persons and good communication between the carriers is
important so that the task is completed in a safe manner and no
damage is done to the sheet metal.

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Some sheets are covered, on one or both surfaces, with a thin

protective plastic membrane and, if possible, it may be
beneficial to leave at least the underneath protection in place
while the marking out is done, to minimise the possibility of the
surface sustaining undesirable scratch marks. If no protective
membrane is applied to the sheet, then care must be taken over
the condition of the surface of the table, or workbench, upon
which the sheet is to be laid for the marking out procedures.
Other factors, which should be considered (as with all work)
concern the requirements to ensure that:

Material wastage is kept to a minimum

The task is done correctly, first time, so that valuable time,
also, is not wasted.

The first point is usually obvious, due to the cost of the materials
involved, but the second point quite often gets forgotten, when
work is being done, but the actual labour costs far outweigh the
material costs on a high percentage of tasks.
Repair or modification drawings must be studied very carefully,
to ensure there is no doubt about the data and dimensions
provided, so that the marking out is correctly done and the
approved metal is shaped in exactly the manner that the
designer of the drawing intended.

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MARKING OUT
Having carefully studied all the data and dimensions on the
relevant drawing, the technician, after confirming that the
correct metal (to the appropriate heat-treatment standard) is
being used, can proceed with marking out the pattern for the
part which is being formed.
Firstly the overall dimensions of the part must be computed and,
where necessary, a bare outline drawn on the large sheet, so
that the metal can be cut and, thus, allow an easier, smaller
piece upon which to work.
It must be remembered that, the metal should be cut so that any
identification markings remain on the larger piece, for future
users of the sheet and that scribers must only be used to mark
lines which are going to be removed from the surface.
Scribed lines penetrate the aluminium cladding of Alclad alloys,
which can lead not only to subsequent corrosion, but also can
create stress raisers and the initiation of cracks in the material.

In some instances it may be advantageous to rub chalk on the

surface or to apply a thin coat of zinc chromate, to make it
easier to distinguish the marking out lines, which (if they are not
going to be removed) should be made with a soft pencil.
Once the outline is completed, the sheet may be (carefully)
moved to the squaring shears, or guillotine and the outline cut
from the main sheet. The square edge, created by the squaring
shears, will make the use of such tools as engineers squares,
combination sets and Vernier protractors etc. easier, to achieve
parallel and appropriately angled lines during completion of the
marking out.
Note: Before any centre punch marks are made (for the location
of the centres of radii or holes) it must be confirmed that they
are in the required location.
The punch should be only lightly tapped with a hammer (or a
suitably adjusted automatic centre punch used), so that the
punch marks do not distort the thin metal sheet.

The drawing of the outline is achieved by establishing a datum

line or point on the surface of the metal and taking all
dimensions from the datum so that errors, due to chaining of
dimensions, are eliminated.
The drawing surface of the metal should be cleaned of any
protective oil (or plastic membrane) before marking out
commences and the sheet should be laid flat on a clean, firm
workbench or table in good lighting conditions.
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BENDING AND CALCULATION OF BEND ALLOWANCE

As previously stated, the sheet metal used for aircraft
construction and repair, is generally formed from an ingot of
aluminium alloy that has been processed through a series of
rollers.
This process reduces the thickness of the material to a
dimension that meets the requirements of the design drawing.
As a result of this process, the metal assumes a grain structure,
which can easily be detected in a sample of sheet aluminium
alloy.
When planning any sheet metal work process, the orientation of
the metal is to be taken into account so that any bends formed
will, where practical and achievable, be made across the grain.
Where, however, strength is required along the length of a long,
channel section, then, regardless of any bends, the grain should
flow along the length of the channel.
Great care must be taken, before bending aluminium alloy, to
ensure that it is of the correct designation and heat-treatment
standard. The subject of the heat-treatments of aluminium
alloys was discussed fully in Module 6 Materials and
Hardware in the topic on AIRCRAFT MATERIALS NONFERROUS.

Some alloys must be subjected to either an annealing, or to a

solution treatment procedure before (and, again, after) bending
but, as this is, usually, beyond the scope of maintenance
technicians, mention of it is merely made here to draw attention
to its requirement and for the need for vigilance when bending
sheets of aluminium alloy.
Bending of aluminium alloys is achieved either by the use of:

Specially-shaped bending bars: used for small pieces and

larger angles and between which, the sheet is clamped, in a
vice, while the metal is bent, by hitting with a hide-faced or
similarly soft-headed hammer
A large, free standing, bending machine (or bending brake):
in which the metal sheet is clamped and the bend made, in
one movement, by means of a hinged bending leaf.

Caution must also be exercised when forming a bend, using the

bending bars and soft-headed hammer method, because too
many blows with the hammer will cause work-hardening of the
metal, or the metal, in the bend, will become too thin and
stretched. Subsequent cracking of the metal will result from
these faults
For this reason the bending brake is preferred but, in a similar
manner to the squaring shears, only the approved thicknesses
of metals should be bent in these machines, as any distortion
will destroy the accuracy of the bends.

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Square (or sharp) angles, in aluminium alloys, are only formed

by adhesive, casting, extrusion or welding methods. Whether it
be the bending bars or the bending brake method, which is
used to bend aluminium alloy sheet, the bend will always be
formed around a radius, as it is not possible to create square
angles by bending without cracking the metal.
It is recommended that the radii of bends, in aircraft-grade,
aluminium alloy sheets, be not less than three times the
thickness (3t) of the metal, in sheets thicker than 22 SWG (0.7
mm) and should, preferably, be greater if possible.
It is, therefore, usual to create bends, in sheets of 20 SWG (0.9
mm), of not less than 3 mm (3 x 0.9 mm = 2.7 mm) radius and
bends in sheets of 18 SWG (1.2 mm), of not less than 4 mm (3
x 1.2 mm = 3.6 mm) radius.

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t = 1.2 mm

A
L1
Y = 76.2 mm

As an example, if it were required to form a right angled curve

(10 mm radius) in an 18 SWG aluminium alloy sheet, to provide
two legs, effectively 76.2 mm (3 in) in length (refer to Fig. 1), it
can be seen that the actual length of metal involved is obviously
less than 2 x 76.2 mm (6 in). The total length of the metal,
required for the curve, is deduced by using the formula:
LT = L1 + BA + L2
Where LT = Total Length of Metal Required
L1 = X (r + t)
L2 = Y (r + t)
BA = Bend Allowance
X and Y = Effective Lengths of Unbent Sections
r = Radius of Bend
t = Thickness (SWG) of Metal

X = 76.2 mm

r = 10.0 mm

B
L2

Total Length of Metal in a Curve

Fig. 1
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The lengths of both L1 and L2 can be found by subtracting the

sum of the radius and the metal thickness from the effective
lengths of the unbent sections. In this instance, therefore, the
lengths are both 76.2 11.2 = 65 mm.
To calculate the length of metal in the bend (Bend Allowance) it
is necessary to consider the fact that, when metal is bent, the
metal on the inside of the bend will be compressed while that on
the outside of the bend will be subjected to tension or stretching
so that the length of metal on the inside and outside of the bend
will be different.
It may, however, be considered that there is a neutral line (at
approximately half thickness) where the compression and
tensile forces cancel out. It is this line which is taken, to
calculate the length of the arc of the circumference of the circle,
which would be described by the radius of the curve. The Bend
Allowance is, thus calculated, using the formula:
BA = 2 (r + t)
360
Where r = Radius of Bend
t = Thickness of Metal
= Angle of Bend

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Sub Module 7.14 Material Handling

However, as curves are normally shown as radii, in engineering

drawings, the previously given formula is preferred here.
Substituting figures, in the preferred formula, it will be seen that
the bend allowance equates to 16.65 mm (0.66 in). When this
figure is added to lengths L1 and L2, it can be seen that the total
length of metal, required to form the curve, is only 146.65 mm
(5.77 in) and not 152.4 mm (6 in).
In a simple, single curve, this represents a saving in metal of
only 5.75 mm (0.23 in) but, in a multiple bend component, and
with larger radii involved, considerable savings of metal can be
made by using these formulas to calculate the correct amount of
metal required to forms bends in sheet metal.
Table 1 shows data relating to bend allowances for forming 90
curves of various radii in both 20 SWG and 18 SWG metals.
Using the preferred formula, the student should be able to
calculate the bend allowances and enter them in the empty
spaces in the table.

Note: Some books use the formula:

BA = (D + t)
360
Where D = the diameter of the circle
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Table 1
BEND ALLOWANCES (BA) FOR A 90 BEND
Inside Bend Radius
3 mm
4 mm
5 mm
Inside Bend Radius
4 mm
5 mm
6 mm

BA - 20 SWG (0.9 mm)

BA - 18 SWG (1.2 mm)

When the total length of sheet metal, required to form a curve,

has been calculated, it will be necessary to draw the
development (refer to Fig. 2) of the intended shape, so that the
bend lines can be seen.
Unbent
Section
65

Bend
Allowance
16.65

Unbent
Section
65

Bend Lines

Development of Shape
Fig. 2
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An additional line must be drawn on the development drawing

before the metal is placed in the bending brake. This line (refer
to Fig. 3), is referred to as the sighting line or the brake
reference line.

Sub Module 7.14 Material Handling

Clamping Nib

Bend Lines

It is drawn at a distance, equal to the radius of the curve (in this

instance, using the figure of 10 mm from the previous example),
parallel to, but away from, the bend line, which is under the
clamping nib of the bending brake and towards the bend line
which is free of the clamping nib.
The sighting line, as the name implies, is then used, to align
with the front of the clamping nib and, in this way, allowance is
made for the thickness of the metal in the formation of the
curve.

Sighting Line

Metal to be Bent

Brake Bed

Hinge Point

Bend Leaf Bends

Counter-clockwise

Use of Sighting or Brake Reference Line

Fig. 3

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FORMING OF SHEET METAL PARTS

Once the marking out has been verified as being correct, the
forming of the final shape of the sheet metal component can be
achieved by the use of appropriate cutting and, if necessary,
bending tools.
Cutting
While metal-cutting tools were discussed in the earlier topic on
TOOLS, mention is made here of the manner in which the
relevant tools should be used when working with sheet
aluminium alloys.
The squaring shears has already been used to produce a
convenient size upon which to work and, of course, to provide
an accurate straight edge from which to make measurements.
Note: The squaring shears must only be used to cut metal of the
approved thickness (recommended by its manufacturer) and
must never be used on sheets (or strips) of metal thicker than
those specified. The alignment of the blade will be distorted and
the accuracy of its cut will be degraded if this caution is ignored.

Care must be taken when drilling aluminium sheet, due to the

danger of cutting enlarged holes in the soft, thin metal and to
the tendency to distortion, caused by the application of too great
a weight on unsupported aluminium sections. Twist drills must
be of the correct type and size, with accurately-ground points,
and their passage, through the metal, must be carefully
controlled at all times. Off cuts of scrap wood should be placed
behind (or underneath) sheet metal parts while drilling is in
progress and both the backing piece and the part must be firmly
held, to prevent movement during the drilling procedures.
Similarly, scrap wood should be used, as backing, when hacksawing or filing sheet metal and protection must be given,
against possible damage, when such components are held in
the jaws of vices, by the use of soft vice clamps.
Obviously fine-toothed hacksaws (32 tpi) and second cut and/or
smooth files (used with long, smooth strokes), are the cutting
tools, used in the shaping of sheet metal parts. Files, as
discussed in the TOOLS topic, must be regularly cleaned, to
prevent the build up of pinnings, and the use of file cards and
chalk, for this task, has also been, earlier, mentioned.

When using shears (whether squaring or the hand type), then

the cut must be made slightly above the line. This allows for
filing down to the line, which will eliminate the possibility of
stress raisers being formed at the edges of the metal, due to the
shearing action of the various types of shears.

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INSPECTION OF SHEET METAL WORK

As far as aircraft maintenance technicians are concerned, the
inspection of sheet metal work is confine to visual or assisted
visual methods. Personnel who have approval may also perform
dye penetrant procedures in the search for cracks in suspect
areas.
Specially trained and approved NDT personnel may use Eddy
Current, Ultrasonic or Radiographic procedures to detect faults
in aluminium alloy sheet metal work.

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MODULE 7
Sub Module 7.14.2

COMPOSITE AND NON - METALLIC

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BONDING PRACTICES
Bonding, by the use of adhesives, is the third method of
achieving permanent joints between surfaces, to be considered
in this part of the course.
Comprehensive coverage of adhesives and sealants is provided
in Module 6 - (Materials and Hardware), along with details of
composite materials, the detection of typical defects and the
methods used in their repair, therefore consideration here will
be limited merely to a summary of:

Bonding terminologies
Methods of bonding
The inspection and testing of bonded joints.

Bonding, in the aerospace industry, is employed to form

permanent joints between materials ranging from composites,
fabrics, metals and metal alloys, to plastics, - all of which are
referred to as adherends.
The surface texture of a particular adherend, the type of joint
required, and the manner in which loads are applied to the joint
will dictate the type of adhesive to be used, and the method to
be employed, in effecting the joint.
Synthetic resins (and some elastomers) are mainly used as
adhesives in the bonding of aircraft structures and associated
components and, while most of them are used at the
manufacturing stages, some may well be used, by aircraft
servicing technicians, during routine maintenance tasks.
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WARNING: CONTROLLED VENTILATION, PROTECTIVE

CLOTHING, AND ANTI-FIRE/EXPLOSION PRACTICES, ARE
ABSOLUTELY ESSENTIAL, WHEN WORKING WITH
ADHESIVES AND SEALANTS.
ALTHOUGH MANY OF THE ADHESIVES IN CURRENT USE
ARE SUPPLIED IN FILM FORM, SOME ARE LIQUIDS OR
PASTES, FROM WHICH, TOXIC AND FLAMMABLE
VAPOURS ARE EMITTED, PRIOR TO CURING.
MANY OF THE NECESSARY, SURFACE PREPARATION
SOLVENTS,
ALSO
GIVE
OFF
TOXIC/FLAMMABLE
VAPOURS.
The warning is reproduced from Module 6 (Materials and
Hardware), where it also states that the two major groups of
adhesives, are:

Flexible adhesives: used where some flexing or slight

relative movement, of the joint is required, and where high
load-carrying properties are not paramount. These
adhesives are, generally, based on flexible plastics or
elastomers
Structural adhesives: used in applications where high loads
must be carried without excessive creep and which are
relatively rigid without being excessively hard or brittle.
These adhesives are based on resins (commonly of the
epoxy or of the polyester types).

Note: Another group of adhesives is the two-polymer type,

which has a reasonably even balance of resin and elastomer.
This results in a flexible, yet fairly strong, adhesive.
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BONDING METHODS
While the two major groups of adhesives are designated as
flexible or structural, they are further classified as being of the
thermoplastic or of the thermosetting types. Each types
characteristics will influence the method employed in its use as
a bonding agent.

Contact adhesives are also applied to both surfaces to be joined

but, with these adhesives, the solvent is allowed to evaporate
until the adhesive feels tacky, when the surfaces are, then,
brought into contact and a complete joint is achieved.

Thermoplastic adhesives

Thermosetting adhesives

Thermoplastic materials are those which soften on heating and

harden when cooled but will, again soften and harden as often
as the heat/cool cycle is repeated.

Thermosetting materials (thermosets), once set, cannot be

reformed by the application of heat and they create permanent
heat-resisting bonds.

Thermoplastic adhesives consist of thermoplastic materials

(which may be either acrylic-, cellulose-, epoxy-, rubber- or
vinyl-based), in solution with a volatile solvent and which may
surface of adherends in the form of:

Thermosetting adhesives consist of epoxy- and phenolic-based

materials in addition to polyesters, polyurethanes, and silicones.
Thermosets require a curing process (which is achieved by the
application of heat), to cause them to harden.

Direct application adhesives

Contact (or impact) adhesives.

Direct application adhesives, are spread over the area of both

surfaces of the joint before the joint is closed and the solvent
continues to evaporate. This method can create problems if the
joint area is large, as all of the solvent may not evaporate and a
weak joint will result.

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The heat can be obtained by placing the components being

joined into an oven or into an autoclave (a pressurised oven).
Alternatively, the adhesive in the joint can be heated by the
chemical (exothermic) reaction of a hardening agent, which is
added to the adhesive, prior to the joint being made.
Thermosetting adhesives are the types most widely used in the
aerospace industry.

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INSPECTION OF BONDED JOINTS

The inspection of bonded joints may be done (as discussed in
Module 6) visually, usually in good lighting conditions and,
possibly, with the aid of magnifying glasses or small
microscopes.
Delamination and de-bonding of aircraft honeycomb panels and
control surfaces may be detected by percussion (ring) testing or
coin tapping, while more sophisticated methods, such as
ultrasonic and radiographic procedures, may be used by
suitably trained and approved personnel.
Where repairs are done to composite structures, then samples
of the adhesives used are kept for testing, while peel tests are
done on adhesives which are used to attach de-icing or antiicing elements to the leading edges of propellers or flying
control surfaces.

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INSPECTION METHODS

Visual inspection

Today's composite inspection techniques and non-destructive

testing (NDT) methods typically involve the use of multiple
methods to accurately determine the airworthiness of an aircraft
structure. Fortunately, many metal inspection and NDT methods
transfer to composite applications. Composite structures require
ongoing inspection intervals along with non-scheduled damage
inspection and testing.

Visual inspection is the most frequently used inspection method

in aviation. Ideally, pilots, ground crew and maintenance
technicians visually inspect the aircraft on a daily basis. Where
composite materials are concerned visual inspection is
generally used to detect resin-rich areas, resin starvation, edge
delamination, fiber breakage, cracks, blistering, and other types
of surface irregularities. A strong light and magnifying glass are
useful tools for visual inspection. In extremely critical cases a
small microscope is helpful in determining whether the fibers in
a cracked surface are broken, or if the crack affects the resin
only. Shining a strong light through the structure, called
backlighting, helps in the identification of cracked or broken
fibers, and, in some cases, delamination. The delaminated area
may appear as a bubble, an indentation in the surface, or a
change in color if viewed from the side opposite the light.
However, backlighting does not detect entrapped water. In
addition, to properly inspect a composite using the backlight
method, you must strip the surface of all paint.

When a composite structure is damaged, it must first be

thoroughly inspected to determine the extent of the damage,
which often extends beyond the immediate apparent defect.
Proper inspection and testing methods help determine the
classification of damage, which is, whether the damage is
repairable or whether the part must be replaced. In addition,
classifying the damage helps to determine the proper method of
repair. The manufacturer's structural repair manual outlines
inspection procedures, damage classification factors, and
recommended repair methods.
Some of the more common composite inspection and testing
methods are visual inspection, tap testing, and ultrasonic testing
along with several other more advanced NDT methods.

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Many times, visual inspection alone is not adequate to

accurately determine the soundness of a composite structure. In
the case of visually inspecting a sandwich structure, many times
core crush is not evident from the surface. The surface may not
show any residual damage and may have sprung back to its
original shape and location, which is one of the main problems
with inspecting composite materials. Internal damage is not
always evident from the surface, which further necessitates the
use of additional, more advanced methods of inspection when
damage is suspected.
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The maintenance technician is generally the first person to

assess damage using visual inspection techniques. After this
initial inspection, more often than not advanced forms of
inspection and testing may be required to determine the extent
of the damage.

Sub Module 7.14 Material Handling

Ultrasonic inspection
Ultrasonic inspection is the most common instrumental NDT
method used on composites today. An ultrasonic tester is useful
for detecting internal damage such as delaminations, core
crush, and other subsurface defects.

Taptest / ring test

This is one of the simplest methods used to detect damage in
bonded parts. The laminated part is tapped with a coin or small
metallic object, such as a ring or a tap hammer to detect
delamination. The tap test is an acoustic test, one in which you
listen for sound differences in the part, and is not the most
accurate test method. The tap test detects delaminations close
to the surface in addition to transitions to different internal
structures. A properly prepared, undamaged laminated area
produces a sharp, even pitch as compared to a delaminated
area, which produces a dull sound. However, changes in the
thickness of the part, reinforcements, fasteners and previous
repairs may give false readings when using the tap test.
Tap testing will not indicate subsurface delamination if the
defect is well below the surface, especially in thick laminated
parts. Thus tap test should be limited to near surface inspection
of bond-line defects. Inspection of the bond-line by tap testing
becomes less and less effective as the depth of the bond-line
from the surface increases. (Fig. A)

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Two common methods of ultrasonic testing are the Pulse echo

and through transmission methods (Refer Fig. B)
In the pulse echo method, the tester generates ultrasonic
pulses, sends them through part, and receives the return echo.
The echo patterns are displayed on an oscilloscope. An
advantage to the pulse echo method is that it only requires
access to one side of the structure. However, near-surface
defects do not readily allow sound to pass through them,
making it difficult to detect defects located under the first defect.
The pulse echo method works well on laminates because they
do not reduce the magnitude of sound waves as much as a
bonded core structure.
The through transmission method uses two transducers. One
transducer emits ultrasonic waves through the part and the
other receives them. Defects located at multiple levels
throughout the structure are more easily detected because the
receiver, located on the backside of the part, receives the
reduced amount of sound waves that pass through the defects.
The ratio of the magnitudes of sound vibrations transmitted and
received determines the structure's reliability.

For Training Purpose Only

Rev. 00
Mar 2014

PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC)

Category A/B1

Module 7 - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Sub Module 7.14 Material Handling

Testing bonded-core structures usually requires the through

transmission method due to the fact that sound waves reduce in
magnitude as they travel through the sandwich structure. To
effectively test this type of structure, the use of a receiver on the
backside of the part dramatically increases the likelihood of
detecting a defect. (Fig. C)

ISO 9001:2008 Certified

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M7/03
7.14 - 16

For Training Purpose Only

Rev. 00
Mar 2014

PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC)

Module 7 - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Category A/B1

Sub Module 7.14 Material Handling

Radiography

Dye penetrant

Radiography or x-ray inspection is used to detect differences in

the thickness or physical density compared to the surrounding
material of a composite. It can be used to detect surface as well
as internal cracks. Radiography also detects entrapped water
inside honeycomb core cells. In addition to detecting the actual
defect, it can also detect the extent and size of the damage,
unlike ultrasonic or tap testing. X-ray inspection will also detect
foreign objects in the composite structure if the object's density
is different from the composite structure.

Dye penetrant successfully detects cracks and other defects in

metallic surfaces, but should not be used on composite
structure unless called for by the manufacturer of that particular
part. If a dye penetrant is used on the composite structure and
allowed to sit on the surface, the wicking action of the fibers
may absorb the penetrant. Absorbed penetrant does not allow
fibers to bond to new material. The entire area affected by the
dye penetrant would have to be removed before a patch could
be applied, which could extend the damaged area of the part to
a size that would make the part unserviceable.

Thermography
Acoustic emission testing
Thermography locates flaws by temperature variations at the
surface of a damaged part. Heat is applied to the part and the
temperature gradients are measured using an infrared camera.
Thermography requires knowledge of the thermal conductivity
of the test specimen and a reference standard for comparison
purposes.

ISO 9001:2008 Certified

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M7/03
7.14 - 17

Another nondestructive testing technique used to detect

composite defects is acoustic emission testing. Presently, this
type of test is more commonly found in production facilities
rather than in maintenance. Acoustic emission testing is a
comparison test. Thus to detect flaws a good test sample must
be available to compare the test results of the composite
structure. It measures the sounds of a structure and any
subsequent defects. Basically, acoustic emission testing picks
up the "noise" of the defect and displays it on an oscilloscope.
This type of testing detects entrapped water, cracks,
delamination, and other subsurface flaws.

For Training Purpose Only

Rev. 00
Mar 2014