Darcys law
Groundwater Hydraulics
Outline
Properties Aquifer Storage
Darcys Law
Hydraulic Conductivity
Heterogeneity and Anisotropy
Refraction of Streamlines
Generalized Darcys Law
Aquifer Storage
Storativity (S) - ability of
an aquifer to store water
Change in volume of
stored water due to
change in piezometric
head.
Volume of water released
(taken up) from aquifer
per unit decline (rise) in
piezometric head.
Unit area
Unit decline
in head
Released
water
Aquifer Storage
Fluid Compressibility (b)
Aquifer Compressibility (a)
Confined Aquifer
Water produced by 2
mechanisms
1. Aquifer compaction due to
increasing effective stress
2. Water expansion due to
decreasing pressure
Unconfined aquifer
Water produced by draining
pores
V ag
S = r g(a + fb )
S = Sy
Unconfined Aquifer Storage
Storativity of an
unconfined aquifer (Sy,
specific yield) depends
on pore space drainage.
Some water will remain
in the pores - specific
retention, Sr
Sy = f Sr
Unit area
Unit decline
in head
Released
water
Porosity, Specific Yield, & Specific Retention
Sr f S y
Confined Aquifer Storage
Storativity of a confined
aquifer (Ss) depends on
both the compressibility
of the water (b) and the
compressibility of the
porous medium itself
(a).
Unit area
Unit decline
in head
Released
water
Example
Storage in a sandstone aqufier
f = 0.1, a = 4x10-7 ft2/lb, b = 2.8x10-8 ft2/lb, g = 62.4 lb/ft3
ga 2.5x10-5 ft-1 and gbf 1.4x10-7 ft-1
Solid
Fluid
2 orders of magnitude more storage in solid
b = 100 ft, A = 10 mi2 = 279,000,000 ft2
S = Ss*b = 2.51x10-3
If head in the aquifer is lowered 3 ft, what volume is released?
V = SAh = 2.1x10-6 ft3
Darcy
http://biosystems.okstate.edu/Darcy/English/index.htm
Darcys Experiments
Discharge is
Proportional to
hL
P1/g
Area
Head difference
Coefficient of
proportionality is
h1
Q
z1
QA
Sand
column
Datum
plane
K = hydraulic conductivity
h1 h2
h2
,A
Length
P2/g
Ar
ea
Inversely proportional to
z2
Q
Q = -KA
h2 - h1
L
Q = -KA
Dh
L
Darcys Data
35
Flow, Q (l/min)
Set 1, Series 1
30
Set 1, Series 2
25
Set 1, Series 3
Set 1, Series 4
20
Set 2
15
10
5
0
0
10
Gradient (m/m)
15
20
Hydraulic Conductivity
Has dimensions of velocity [L/T]
A combined property of the medium and the fluid
Ease with which fluid moves through the medium
= cd2
=
=
=
intrinsic permeability
density
dynamic viscosity
specific weight
Porous medium property
Fluid properties
Hydraulic Conductivity
Groundwater Velocity
q - Specific discharge
Discharge from a unit crosssection area of aquifer
formation normal to the
direction of flow.
v - Average velocity
Average velocity of fluid
flowing per unit crosssectional area where flow is
ONLY in pores.
Q
A
Q
Af
Example
h1 = 12m
K = 1x10-5 m/s
f = 0.3
Find q, Q, and v
h2 = 12m
/
10m
Flow
Porous medium
5m
L = 100m
dh = (h2 - h1) = (10 m 12 m) = -2 m
J = dh/dx = (-2 m)/100 m = -0.02 m/m
q = -KJ = -(1x10-5 m/s) x (-0.02 m/m) = 2x10-7 m/s
Q = qA = (2x10-7 m/s) x 50 m2 = 1x10-5 m3/s
v = q/f = 2x10-7 m/s / 0.3 = 6.6x10-7 m/s
Hydraulic Gradient
Gradient vector points in the direction of greatest rate of increase of h
Specific discharge vector points in the opposite direction of h
Well Pumping in an Aquifer
Hydraulic gradient
y
Circular hydraulic
head contours
K, conductivity,
Is constant
Specific discharge
x
Well, Q
h1
h2
h3
h1 < h2 < h3
Aquifer (plan view)
Validity of Darcys Law
We ignored kinetic energy (low velocity)
We assumed laminar flow
We can calculate a Reynolds Number for the flow
rqd10
NR =
m
q = Specific discharge
d10 = effective grain size diameter
Darcys Law is valid for NR < 1 (maybe up to 10)
Specific Discharge vs Head Gradient
Re = 10
Re = 1
Experiment
shows this
Darcy Law
predicts this
a
tan-1(a)=
q
(1/K)
Estimating Conductivity
Kozeny Carman Equation
Kozeny used bundle of capillary tubes model to derive an
expression for permeability in terms of a constant (c) and
the grain size (d)
2
k cd
2
d
180(1 f ) 2
f3
Kozeny Carman eq.
So how do we get the parameters we need for this
equation?
Measuring Conductivity
Permeameter Lab Measurements
Darcys Law is useless unless we can measure the
parameters
Set up a flow pattern such that
We can derive a solution
We can produce the flow pattern experimentally
Hydraulic Conductivity is measured in the lab with a
permeameter
Steady or unsteady 1-D flow
Small cylindrical sample of medium
Measuring Conductivity
Constant Head Permeameter
Flow is steady
Sample: Right circular cylinder
Length, L
Area, A
Continuous Flow
head difference
Constant head difference (h) is
applied across the sample
producing a flow rate Q
flow
Darcys Law
Q = KA
b
L
Overflow
A
Outflow
Q
Sample
Measuring Conductivity
Falling Head Permeameter
Flow rate in the tube must equal that in the column
2
Qtube = prtube
dh
dt
2
Qcolumn = prcolumn
K
Initial head
h
L
Final head
rtube L dh
= dt
r
column K h
2
flow
Outflow
Q
Sample
Heterogeneity and Anisotropy
Homogeneous
Properties same at every
point
Heterogeneous
Properties different at every
point
Isotropic
Properties same in every
direction
Anisotropic
Properties different in different
directions
Often results from stratification
during sedimentation
Khorizontal Kvertical
www.usgs.gov
Example
a = ???, b = 4.673x10-10 m2/N, g = 9798 N/m3,
S = 6.8x10-4, b = 50 m, f = 0.25,
Saquifer = gabb ???
Swater = gbfb
% storage attributable to water expansion
%storage attributable to aquifer expansion
Layered Porous Media
(Flow Parallel to Layers)
Piezometric surface
h
h1
h2
datum
b1
K1
Q1
b b2
K2
Q2
b3
K3
Q3
W
Layered Porous Media
(Flow Perpendicular to Layers)
Piezometric surface
h1
h2 h
h3
K1
b
K2
K3
Q
Q
L1
L2
L
L3
Example
Flow Q
Find average K
Flow Q
Find average K
Example
Anisotrpoic Porous Media
General relationship between specific
discharge and hydraulic gradient
K is symmetric, i.e., Kij = Kji.
Principal Directions
Often we can align the
coordinate axes in the
principal directions of
layering
Horizontal conductivity
often order of
magnitude larger than
vertical conductivity
K xx = K yy = K Horiz >> K zz = KVert
q x K xx
q y = - 0
qz 0
0
K yy
0
h
x
h
qy = -K yy
y
h
qz = -K zz
z
qx = -K xx
0 x
h
0
y
K zz h
z
Groundwater Flow Direction
Water level
measurements from
three wells can be used
to determine
groundwater flow
Head Gradient, J
direction
Groundwater
Contours
hi
h1(x1,y1)
hi > hj > hk
hj
hk
h3(x3,y3)
z
y
Groundwater
Flow, Q
h2(x2,y2)
x
Groundwater Flow Direction
Head gradient =
Magnitude of head gradient =
Angle of head gradient =
Groundwater Flow Direction
Head Gradient, J
h1(x1,y1)
h3(x3,y3)
z
Equation of a plane in 2D
3 points can be used to
define a plane
Groundwater
Flow, Q
h2(x2,y2)
x
Set of linear equations can be solved for a,
b and c given (xi, hi, i=1, 2, 3)
Groundwater Flow Direction
Negative of head gradient in x direction
Negative of head gradient in y direction
Magnitude of head gradient
Direction of flow
Example
Find:
y
Well 2
(200 m, 340 m)
55.11 m
Magnitude of head gradient
Direction of flow
Well 1
(0 m,0 m)
57.79 m
Well 3
(190 m, -150 m)
52.80 m
Contour Map of Groundwater Levels
Contours of
groundwater level
(equipotential lines)
and Flowlines
(perpendicular to
equipotiential lines)
indicate areas of
recharge and discharge
Refraction of Streamlines
Vertical component of
velocity must be the same
on both sides of interface
qy1 = qy2
K1
q1
q1 cos q1 = q2 sin q 2
Head continuity along
interface
h1 = h2 @ y = 0
So
K1 tan q1
=
K 2 tan q 2
K2
K 2 K1
Upper Formation
q2
Lower Formation
Summary
Properties Aquifer Storage
Darcys Law
Darcys Experiment
Specific Discharge
Average Velocity
Validity of Darcys Law
Hydraulic Conductivity
Permeability
Kozeny-Carman Equation
Constant Head Permeameter
Falling Head Permeameter
Heterogeneity and Anisotropy
Layered Porous Media
Refraction of Streamlines
Generalized Darcys Law
Darcys Law
Examples
Example
a = ???, b = 4.673x10-10 m2/N, g = 9798 N/m3,
S = 6.8x10-4, b = 50 m, f = 0.25,
Saquifer = gabb ???
Swater = gbfb = (9798 N/m3)(4.673x10-10 m2/N)(0.25)(50 m)
= 5.72x10-5
percent of storage coefficient attributable to water expansion
= Swater /S = 5.72x10-5 /6.8x10-4 *100 = 8.4%
percent of storage coefficient attributable to aquifer
expansion
= Saquifer /S = 1 (Swater /S ) = 91.6%
Example
Flow Q
K h,A =
K1z1 + K 2 z2 (2.3 m / d)(15 m) + (12.8 m / d)(15 m)
=
= 7.55 m / d
z1 + z2
(15 m) + (15 m)
Flow Q
K v,A =
Example
z1 + z2
(15 m) + (15 m)
=
= 3.90 m / d
z1 z2
15 m
15 m
+
+
K1 K 2 2.3 m / d 12.8 m / d
Example
Well 2
(200, 340)
55.11 m
Well 1
(0,0)
57.79 m
= -5.3 deg
Well 3
(190, -150)
52.80 m
