ALCOHOLS

Alcohol Oxidation with Potassium Dichromate

:
Potassium dichromate oxidises 1o and 2o alcohols and gets reduced to green Cr3+ ion.
In case of 3o alcohols the bright orange colour of dichromate ion remains as it is indicating no
reaction.
The colour change can be used to indicate a reaction. If the orange colour changes to green or
blue green a reaction has occurred.

Hemiacetal
:
It is the product of nucleophilic addition of an aldehyde or ketone to an alcohol. 1 molecule of
alcohol adds to 1 molecule of aldehyde or ketone to yield hemiacetal.
Formula: RCR'(OR")(OH). OR" has been supplied by the alcohol whereas R and R' originally
belong to the aldehyde or ketone. If it is an aldehyde, then one of the two i.e. R or R' must be H.
PS: Hemi means half. Hemiketal name is no longer in use by IUPAC, it was used in the past to
distinguish between aldehydes & ketones.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
:
It would be impossible to make accurate measurements of certain pairs of properties, since any
technique used for measuring one of them will disturb the system and will cause the
measurement of the other one to be imprecise. For instance the method used to measure the
position of the particle will result in an uncertainty in the precision of the measurement of the
momentum of the particle.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Faraday's Laws of Electrolysis
:
1st Law: The weight of a given element liberated at an electrode is proportional to the quantity of
electricity passed through the solution.
2nd Law: The weights of different elements liberated by same quantity of electricity are
proportional to the equivalent weights of the elements.
3rd Law: It is known experimentally that 1F (96500 C) always liberates 1g equivalent of a
substance.

FUNCTIONS
Even & Odd Function
:
Even Function: If a function f is such that f(-x)=f(x), then the function f is called even
function.
Odd Function: If a function f is such that f(-x)=-f(x), then the function f is called odd function.

Period of constant function

:
Constant function is a special case of periodic function. Period of constant function can be any
positive real number except zero.

INTEGRATION
Cauchy-Bunyakovsky Inequality
:

Leibnitz's Rule
:
A simplified situation arises when f depends only on t, making the partial derivative term zero.

Walli's Formula
:

Multiply the above result by only when both n and m are even (treat o as even).

KINEMATICS
Inclined Plane Projectile Range
:
Click here!

LINEAR MOMENTUM COLLISION

Conservation of Linear Momentum
:
Conservation of linear momentum (COLM) is applicable to a system experiencing no net
external force.

It says that internal forces alone cannot change the momentum of the system. In other words, the
momentum of the system is conserved in the absence of external forces.

A typical example is that of a bullet fired from the gun. Initially, the bullet is inside the gun and
the momentum of the system (gun + bullet) is zero. Now, when the gun fires the bullet, the bullet
has forward momentum. However, the forces between the bullet and the gun are internal forces.
So, the overall momentum must be zero later as well. So, the gun moves backwards and has
backwards momentum. This ensures the overall zero momentum of the system.

PERIODIC TABLE
What does G represent in Newland's Law of Octaves?
:
H1 F8 Cl 15 Co & Ni 22 Br 29 Pd 36 I 42 Pt & Ir 50
Li 2 Na 9 K 16 Cu 23 Rb 30 Ag 37 Cs 44 Os 51
G3 Mg 10 Ca 17 Zn 25 Sr 31 Cd 38 Ba & V 45 Hg 52
Bo 4 Al 11 Cr 19 Y 24 Ce & La 33 U 40 Ta 46 Tl 53
C5 Si 12 Ti 18 In 26 Zr 32 Sn 39 W 47 Pb 54
N6 P 13 Mn 20 As 27 Di & Mo 34 Sb 41 Nb 48 Bi 55
O7 S 14 Fe 21 Se 28 Ro & Ru 35 Te 43 Au 49 Th 56
Ans: Berilium. The full form of G is glucinum

PROBABILITY
Bayes' Theorem
:
While may be interesting to think about the future outcome of an event, many times
it is important to know the likelihood of something once an event has happened.
Let B1, B2, …, Bn be n mutually exclusive and exhaustive events in a sample space S. Let A be

any event in S intersecting every Bi, (i = 1,2,…,n) and . Then

Think of it as A has happened and one of the Bs must have happened. So, here we are interested
to know the probability that after A has happened what are the chances of a specific B
happening.

Conditional Probability
:

Here, event A has taken place before B.

Here, event B has taken place before A.

Rainbow
:
Imagine a circle (in fact a water droplet). When the light ray hits it from the left, it gets
transmitted (refracted). It goes inside it hitting the outer surface and gets totally internally
reflected. Finally, it gets refracted again from the first surface and reaches observer's eyes.
Observer sees rainbow.

Not all the rays follow this process. Total internal reflection can take place twice or more than
twice. If total internal reflection takes twice, the rainbow seen by the observer is called
secondary rainbow. More total internal reflections can take place causing more rainbows
however, one seldom sees them as the energy get further reduced.

Hydrocarbon Combustion
:

Iodometry vs Iodimetry
:
Iodometry is the volumetric detemination of iodine by titrating with standard solution of hypo
(sodium thiosulphate) using starch as an indicator.

Iodimetry is the process of titrating with the standard iodine solution.

Total internal reflection

:
Total internal reflection is an optical phenomenon. When light crosses materials with
different refrective indices, the light beam bends at the boundary surface (i.e., refraction). At a
certain angle of incidence (the critical angle C), the light stops crossing the boundary but
instead reflects back internally at the boundary surface. This occurs only at a high refractive
index/low refractive index boundary, not the other way around. For example it does occur when
passing from glass to air, but does not occur when passing from air to glass.
At the glass/air boundary what happens depends on the angle (i is the angle of incidence).

i<C i>C

the ray splits.

All of the ray reflects from the boundary.
Some part of the ray reflects off the boundary,
None passes through.
and some refracts as it passes through.

This physical property makes diamond so expensive, optical fibre useful and the rainbow in the
sky.

Leaving Group
:
Excellent TsO-, NH3
Very Good I-, H2O
Good Br-
Fair Cl-
Poor F-
Very Poor HO-, NH2-, RO-

Multinomial Theorem
:
Note: Multinomial theorem is not included in JEE syllabus.

In the expansion, (a+x)n=............... there are a and x - two of them - hence the name binomial
expansion. If we have (x1+x2+x3+........+xm)n expansion, then this expansion is called multinomial
expansion.

The summation is taken over all combinations of the indices n1 through nm such that n1 + n2 + n3
+ ... + nm = n.

The numbers, are called multinomial coefficients.

Example, (a+b+c)2=a2+b2+c2+2ab+2bc+2ca.

Application in combinations: The multinomial coefficients are the number of ways of depositing
n distinguished objects in m baskets, with n1 in the first, and so on.

Point of Inflexion
:
Point of inflexion is where the function crawls, i.e. it moves very slowly upwards or downwards.
It appears as if the function has stagnated. Consider the function x3-6x2+12x-8 whose graph is
shown below which looks stagnated around x-coordinate 2 which is the point of inflexion:
Resonance
:
In some cases electrons are not localised to a particular bond but revolve around a larger space.
This concept is called resonance. The following diagrams illustrate this point.
Benzene:

Ethanoate Ion:

Phenoxide Ion:
Conservation Of Mechanical Energy
:
Conservation of mechanical energy (COME) is valid when there are no dissipative/non-
conservative forces present. COME is different from conservation of energy (COE) which is
generally true in all cases in classical Physics including those involving dissipative/non-
conservative forces.

Volume Strength Hydrogen Peroxide

:
Volume strength (or volume %) is a term referring to the volume of oxygen gas liberated
from one volume of H2O2 solution (at 0oC and 1 atm.). The use of this term has become
somewhat outdated.

Eudiometry
:
It is the process of determining various constituents in a gaseous mixture by using an instrument
called Eudiometer.

wire-gauze.PNG

What is the role of asbestos in Wire Gauze?

:
In short the answer is even distribution of heat. Bit more.... asbestos has ill health effects due to
which ceramic is used these days. Both of these evenly distribute heat from the burner to the
sample.

Conservation of Angular Momentum

:
Conservation of angular momentum (COAM) is applicable to a system experiencing no net
external torque.

It says that internal torques alone cannot change the angular momentum of the system. In other
words, the angular momentum of the system is conserved in the absence of external torques.

Alkyl Halide Nucleophilic Substitution/Elimination

:
Primary: Generally SN2 is better than E2. E2 is favoured by strong bulky base with heating as
bulky base finds is harder to reach C than H due to steric hindrance

Secondary: SN2 is favoured over E2 if nucleophile is weak base and the solvent is polar and
aprotic. E2 is favoured over SN2 if strong base is used in protic solvent. Heating further favours
E2 over SN2. Reactions can go via SN1 and E1 mechanisms in protic solvents.

Tertiary: E2 is almost exclusive in the presence of strong base and protic solvent.

Peptides
:
These are compounds in which an amide bond connects the amino group of one alpha amino acid
and the carboxyl group of another alpha amino acid. Such amide bond is called peptide bond.
Peptide bond has planar geometry due to resonance imparting partial double bond character.