Physics and its
Laws in Anesthesia
Rashelle Lopez-Salvatierra, MD
Introduction
Physics is a natural sciences attempt to describe
the fundamental laws of world around us.
Introduction
As anaesthesiologists we deal with liquids and
gases under pressure at varying temperatures and
volumes. These inter relationships are simple,
measurable and their understanding ensures a safe
outcome for the patient.
Simple mechanics
Simple mechanics
Simple mechanics
Energy
the capacity to do work (joules, J)
Work
is the result of a force acting upon an object to cause
its displacement in the direction of the force applied
(joules,J).
or
J = FD
J is work, F is force and D is distance travelled in the
direction of the force.
Simple mechanics
Joule
The work done when a force of one newton
moves one metre in the direction of the force is one
joule.
It can be shown that work is given by pressure
x volume. This enables indices such as work of
breathing to be calculated simply by studying the
pressure-volume curve
Simple mechanics
P = F/A
or
F = PA
and
V = DA
or
D = V/A
so
J = FD
becomes
J = (PA).(V/A)
or
J = PV
Where P is pressure, F is force, A is area, V is volume, D is
distance and J is work
Simple mechanics
Watt
the power expended when one joule of
energy is consumed in one second is one watt.
Importance: if a pressure volume loop for a
resp cycle is plotted, the work of breathing may
be found. If the resp rate is now measured then
the power may be calculated.
Power for resp. = 700 1000 mW
Basal Metabolic Rate = 80 W
Hydrostatic pressure
This can be used to convert Kpa and mmhg
Thus,
760 mmHg = 101.4 Kpa
7.49 mmhg = 1 Kpa
Gauge pressure
When unknown pressure is measured relative
to atmospheric pressure the value obtained is
referred to as gauge pressure.
- blood pressure
- airway measurements
Absolute pressure
An absolute pressure measurement includes
the effect of atmosphere, and is therefore equal to
sum of atmospheric pressure plus the gauge
pressure.
Barometric pressure is an absolute pressure
measurement
Force required when injecting a
syringe
In order for fluid to pass out of the barrel of the
syringe the same pressure must be developed in
the syringe.
Then the force required to depress the plunger will
be dependent on the cross-sectional area of the
syringe barrel,
Force = pressure x cross sectional area
Force required when injecting a
syringe
Force required when injecting a
syringe
Force required when injecting a
syringe
Applications:
Thumb pressure produce a force of 25 N at
the end of syringe.
For a 2 ml sy. pressure generated is 500kPa
For a 20 ml sy pressure generated is
100kPa
Even this is 6 times more than SBP of 16kPa
(120 mmHg).
So during Biers block, pressure in the vein
during rapid injection can exceed systolic
pressure, particularly if a vein adjacent to
the cuff is present.
Another typical e.g. is formation of bed sores.
Suppose 20 kg of patient wt comes in contact
with 10 * 10 cm and the pressure developed will be
19.6 kPa.
this is more than systolic pressure and there is
a risk of ischemia and bed sores at this pressure
point.
Similar concepts are applied for pressure relief
valves and exp. valves of anaesthetic breathing
systems.
Law of La Place
Tension may be defined as the internal force generated by a structure
La Place Law states that for cylinders, T = Pr (where T = wall
tension, P = pressure of fluid within the cylinder, r = radius
Tension Pressure Radius
Gases, liquids and solids
Freezing point: at any given pressure, the transition
between solid and liquids occurs at a fixed
temperature.
Boiling point: transition between liquid and gas.
Changes in ambient pressure causes boiling and
freezing temperature to vary.
Critical temperature:
gases can be liquefied by increasing the
pressure or cooling.
however , there is a temperature above which
any gas cannot be liquefied by increasing pressure.
This is critical temperature.
Critical pressure
minimum pressure at critical temperature
required to liquefy a gas
Critical volume
volume occupied by 1 mole a gas at critical
pressure and critical temperature
Vapours and gases
Gas: Substance which is normally in gaseous state at
room temperature and atmospheric pressure.
Vapour: gaseous substance which is normally in
liquid form at room temperature and atmospheric
pressure, since its critical temperature is above the
room temperature
Vapour formed from liquid by evaporation.
Occurs at surface of liquid and the concentration
of vapour increases.
Continues till there is a equilibrium when no
further increase in vapour concentration is
possible.
This is called saturated vapour pressure.
SVP increases with temperature.
The temp at which SVP is equal to atm pressure it
is called boiling point.
Important: Vapour pressure depends only on the
liquid and temperature. Not affected by ambient
pressure. (and is practically independent of total environmental
pressure)
Vaporization
Vapor Pressures at 200C
Isoflurane
Enflurane
Halothane
Desflurane
Sevofurane
239mmHg
175mmHg
243mmHg
669mmHg
157mmHg
The Bernoulli principle
Daniel Bernoulli,Swiss
8 Feb 1700 17 Mar 1782
An increase in the flow velocity of an
ideal fluid will be accompanied by a
simultaneous reduction in its pressure.
The Venturi effect
The effect by which the introduction of a constriction to
fluid flow within a tube causes the velocity of the fluid to
increase, therefore, the pressure of the fluid to fall.
Working of a nebulizer
In this case, gas as the driving fluid enters by the
central tube, entrains liquid from a side tube breaks
it up into droplets suitable for inhalation.
Friction between the oxygen moving at high speed
and the air pulls more air along with the flow of
oxygen, an effect known as jet entrainment.
The law of conservation of energy .
The fluid has potential energy due to the
pressure driving it in the direction of flow and
kinetic energy because it is moving.
Gain in kinetic energy, potential energy
decreases so that total remains same
Results in a increase in velocity and reduction in
pressure.
Importance : resultant drop in pressure
applications such as nebulizers and Venturi masks.
Coanda Effect
If a constriction occurs at bifurcation because
of increase in velocity and reduction in the pressure,
fluid (air, blood) tends to stick to one side of the
branch causing maldistribution.
Coanda Effect
Application:
1. Mucus plug at the branching of tracheobronchial tree may cause maldistribution of
respiratory gases.
2. Unequal flow may result because of
atherosclerotic plaques in the vascular tree
3. Fluid logic used in ventilators employs this
principle to replace valves or mobile parts.
Heat transfer
Heat energy can be transferred by
Conduction metal , fixed mean position, by
vibration
Convention liquids and gases, convention current or
bulk movement
Radiation infrared radiation, can in vacuum in
absence of any medium or continuity. E.g. sun to
earth.
Importance heat loss suffered by patient during
prolonged periods of anaesthesia and sedation.
Humidity
Amount of water present in atmosphere
Absolute humidity
Relative humidity
Hygroscopic material
One that attracts moisture from the atmosphere
Importance : the main location of hygroscopic
medium is inside heat and moisture exchange (HME)
filters.
Kinetic Theory of Gases
GAS MOLECULES are:
Widely separated (negligible molecular volume)
In constant motion (diffusion)
In constant striking (pressure)
IDEAL (PERFECT) GAS, obeys the 3 assumptions
VOLUME
GAS
TEMP
PRESSURE
The gas laws
Robert Boyle
(1627-1691). , Ireland
Boyles law
The gas laws
Application in anaesthetic practice
Oxygen cylinder of volume 10 L, molybdenum steel 138
bars.
So how much oxygen is stored ?
P1V1
=
P2V2
138*10
=
1*V2
So,
V2
=
1380 L
The gas laws
Jacques Charles
(1746-1823)
Critical Temperature
the temperature above which a gas cannot be liquefied whatever pressure is applied
Critical Pressure the pressure needed to liquefy a gas at its critical temperature
N.B.
in T
in P needed
CO2
N2O
O2
31oC
36.5 oC
-116oC
(C.P = 74 atm)
The gas laws
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
(1778-1850)
Gay-Lussacs law
for a given mass of a gas, at a
constant:
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUME
V T(oA)
V 1/P
P x V =Const.
V=T x Const. (K)
P1xV1= P2xV2
V/T = K
Boyles law
Charles' law
P T
Gay-Lussacs law
The gas laws
Medical gases are stored in clyinders having a
constant volume and high pressures (138 Barr in a
full oxygen/air cylinder). If these are stored at high
temperatures, pressures will rise causing
explosions.
Molybdenum steel can withstand pressure till 210
bars. Weakening of metal in damaged cylinders are
at a greater risk of explosion due to rise in
temperature.
Gas contents in a cylinder
From ideal gas equation, the pressure exerted by
any gas is dependent on the number of moles
present.
Therefore in a fixed volume such as cylinder, the
pressure is a measure of amount of gas contained.
Applies to gas e.g. O2 or CO2 cylinder but not to
vapour like full nitrous, where liquid and gas
phases are present.
Perfect gas
A gas that completely obeys all three gas laws.
or
A gas that contains molecules of infinitely small
size, which, therefore, occupy no volume
themselves, and which have no force of attraction
between them.
Avogadros hypothesis
Amadeo Avogadro
(1776-1856) Italy
Equal volumes of gases, under the same conditions
of temperature and pressure, contain equal
numbers of molecules.
Avogadros number
The universal gas equation
This equation may be used in anaesthetics when
calculating the contents of an oxygen cylinder.
- constant room temp
- fixed internal volume,
- R is a constant
Only variables now are P and n so that
Pn
Therefore pressure gauge acts as a content gauge
for gases measure of amount of O2 left in a
cylinder.
We cannot use a nitrous oxide cylinder pressure
gauge in the same way is that these cylinders
contain both vapour and liquid and so the gas laws
do not apply.
Then how to find out the quantity of Nitrous
oxide.
N2O is stored in cylinder as liquid.
Exists partly as liquid and partly as gas.
So customary to weigh the cylinder along with
its contents.
From known cylinder wt. and measured wt.
amount of N2O and usage is found out using
Avogadros hypothesis
Heat and temperature
Heat
The form of energy that passes between two
samples owing to the difference in their
temperatures.
Temperature
The property of matter which determines
whether the heat energy will flow to or from
another object of a different temperature
Fluids
Fluids are gases or liquids.
Flow is the quantity passing a point in a unit time
represented by Q.
Flow can be
Laminar
Turbulent
Flow changes from laminar to turbulent and is halved
when the Reynolds number which is a product of certain
factors crosses the value of 2000.
Reynolds number
Reynolds number
It is dimensionless and has no units.
When
Re < 2000 laminar
Re > 2000 turbulent
Points to remember:
Viscosity is the important property of laminar flow
Density is the important property of turbulent flow
Reynolds number of 2000 delineates laminar from
turbulent flow
Laminar Flow
A steady flow greatest at the centre and
slowest at the periphery of tube.
Physical property effecting laminar flow is
viscosity to which it is inversely proportional.
Law applicable Hagen Poiseuilles law
Viscosity
Viscosity may be thought of as stickiness of the
fluid
Viscosity will affect the flow of fluids through a tube:
the more viscous the fluid, the slower the flow.
Coefficient of viscosity
Jean Lonard
Marie
Poiseuille
22 Apr 1797
26 Dec 1869
Gotthilf Heinrich
Ludwig Hagen
(Mar 3, 1797 Feb 3, 1884
Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow describes the situation in which
fluid flows unpredictably with multiple eddy
currents and is not parallel to the sides of the
tube through which it is flowing.
Facilitated by corners, irregularities and sharp
angles etc.
Affected by density of gas.
Turbulent Flow law applicable
Daltons law of partial pressures
John Dalton 1766-1844
- states that if a mixture of gases is placed in a
container then the pressure exerted by each gas
(partial pressure) is equal to that which it would
exert if it alone occupied the container.
- Thus in any mixture of gases (alveolar, fresh
inspired gases, air ) the partial pressure exerted
by each gas is proportional to its fractional
concentration.
P =P1 + P2 + P3
Daltons law of partial pressures
The proportion of the pressure exerted by a gas in
the total pressure is important and is equated with
the volume it occupies.
If a pressure exerted by a gas is 50 % of the total
pressure exerted by all gases in that container, then
it will occupy exactly 50 % of its volume.
Adiabatic compression or
expansion of gases
Adiabatic, when applied to expansion or
compression of a gas, means that energy is not
added or removed when the changes occur.
Compression of gas temperature rises
Expansion of gas temperature falls
Adiabatic compression or
expansion of gases
Practical application:
Compression of gases will require added cooling
In cyroprecipitate expansion of gas in the probe low
temp in probe tip
Application
1. Undersized ETT tremendous decrease in flow
of gases
2. Wide bore and curved rather than sharp angles
should be preferred.
3. In resp tract obst, Heliox mix given to reduce
density and improve the flow
4. Laminar flow during quiet breathing changed
to turbulent during speaking and coughing
leading to dsypnoea
Application
5. In flow meter at low flows, Hagen Poiseuilles
Law applies laminar, while at higher flows, law
applicable to turbulent flow.
6. Numerical value for critical value in l/min for O2 +
N2O is same as ID of ETT in mm. Flow changes to
turbulent from laminar.
Capacitors and capacitance
Capacitor
A device that stores electrical charge.
Consists of two conducting plates separated by non
conducting material dielectric.
Capacitance
The ability of a capacitor to store electric
charge (farads, F).
Inductors and inductance
Inductor
An inductor is an electric component that
opposes changes in current flow by the generation
of an electromotive force.
Current does not flow immediately, but increases slowly in
step with the built up of magnetic lines of force.
Inductors tends to block AC but pass DC, because reactance
of inductors increases with frequency
Inductance
Inductance is the measure of the ability to
generate a resistive electromotive force under the
influence of changing current
Defibrillators
Charging
When charging the defibrillator, the switch is
positioned so that the 5000 V DC current flows only
around the upper half of the circuit. It, therefore,
causes a charge to build up on the capacitor plates
Defibrillators
Discharging
When discharging, the upper and lower
switches are both closed so that the stored charge
from the capacitor is now delivered to the patient.
The inductor acts to modify the current waveform
delivered .
Osmosis and colligative properties
Osmole:
one osmole is an amount of particles
equal to Avogadro's number
Osmolarity: The amount of osmotically active
particles present per litre of solution(mmol/l)
Osmolality: The amount of osmotically active
particles present per kilogram of solvent (mmol/kg)
Raoults law
10 May 1830 - 1 Apr 1901
The depression of freezing point or reduction
of the vapour pressure of a solvent is proportional to
the molar concentration of the solute.
Surface tension
The force per unit length acting across any
line in the surface and tending to pull the surface
apart across the lines.
In the surface layer, some of the forces of
attraction between the molecules act in a
direction parallel to the surface of the liquid and
result in the liquid surface behaving as though a
shin were present
Surface Tension
H2O
Hg
t
t
gravity
gravity
Solubility and diffusion
Henrys law
12 Dec 1774 2 Sept 1836
The amount of gas dissolved in a liquid is
directly proportional to the partial pressure of the
gas in equilibrium with the liquid.
Solubility and diffusion
21 Dec 1805 16 Sept 1869
Solubility and diffusion
Applications:
1. Flow meters: each gas with its own phy property must
pass through its own calibrated flow meter.
2. Rate of diffusion is slower in liquids and thus local
anaesthetics, if not injected in close proximity to the
nerve fibre will not be effective.
3. Helium, a lighter gas is used in airway obstruction to
improve diffusion and gas exchange
Solubility and diffusion
Application:
1. Alveolar capillary membrane Co transfer test
2. Anaesthetic vapour diffusing into breathing circuits
and later acting as Vaporizers at the time of
discontiuation of anaesthetic.
3. N2O diffusion into cuff of ETT
4. Diffusion of N2O into air filled cavities
Solubility and diffusion
Blood: gas solubility coefficient
the ratio of the amount of substance in equal
volume phases of blood and gas in a closed system
at equilibrium and at standard temperature and
pressure
Solubility and diffusion
Oil: gas solubility coefficient
the ratio of the amount of substance present
in equal volume phases of oil and gas in a closed
system at equilibrium and at standard temperature
and pressure
Highest lipid solubility greatest potency as
anaesthetics.
Basis for Meyer Overton theory of anaesthesia.
N2O
Ether
Halothane -
224,
1.4
65
Application : Halothane very potent and needs lesser
concentration in alveoli and brain
Solubility and diffusion
Bunsen solubility coefficient
the volume of gas, corrected to standard
temperature and pressure, that dissolves in one unit
volume of liquid at the temperature concerned
where the partial pressure of the gas above the
liquid is one atmosphere.
Solubility and diffusion
Ostwald solubility coefficient
The volume of gas that dissolves in one unit
volume of liquid at the temperature concerned.
The Ostwald solubility coefficient is, therefore,
independent of the partial pressure.
Solubility and diffusion
Solubility co-efficient
Higher the solubility, easier it is for the gas to
diffuse, e.g. Carbon dioxide is 20 times more
diffusible than oxygen and thus diseases affecting
gas exchange in alveoli affect oxygenation rather
than CO2
Solubility and diffusion
Membrane area & thickness
Diffusion is inversely proportional to the
thickness of membrane and directly proportional to
the membrane area across which diffusion has to
take place.
Cardiac output
measurement
The Fick principle
The total uptake or release of a substance by
an organ is equal to the product of the blood flow to
the organ and the arterio-venous concentration
difference of the substance.
Adolf Eugen Fick
(1829-1901)
Spectrophotometry basic
concepts
Definition:
Radiation is of different wavelengths. If
radiation is passed through a solution, different
wavelengths are absorbed by different substances.
Beers law and
Lamberts law
Beers law
Absorption of radiation by a given thickness and
concentration of a solution is the same as twice the
thickness with half the concentration.
Lamberts law
Equal thickness absorb equal amounts of radiation.
Both laws say that the absorption of radiation depends on
Johann Heinrich Lambert
the amount of a particular substance. This has been
(17281777)
utilised in pulse oximetry.
Pulse oximetry
The concentration and molar extinction
coefficient are constant.
The only variable becomes path length, which
alters as arterial blood expands the vessels in a
pulsatile fashion.
