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What are the 7 principal functions of the
skeletal system?
Support, protection, body movement,
hemopoiesis (blood formation), Mineral
storage, hormone production, fat storage
Compact bone
Outer, dense white osseous tissue,
smooth and solid
Spongy bone
Loosely organized osseous tissue
enclosed by compact bone
Diaphysis
Shaft; surrounds marrow cavity
Epiphysis
Ends of a bone; spongy bone
Epiphysis plate
Region of bone growth in children
(hyaline cartilage)
Epiphysis line
Transparent line in adult bone; left after
bone growth ends
Articular cartilage
Hyaline cartilage that caps epiphysis and
facilitates movement between two bones
Medullary cavity
Space filled with either red or yellow
bone marrow
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Red bone marrow
Hemopoietic bone marrow (youth:
entire marrow; adulthood: only skull,
ribs, vertebrae, sternum, pelvis, head
humerus and femur)
Yellow bone marrow
Stores fat
Periosteum
White, double layered membrane;
covers external surface of bone; has
many bloo vessels and nerves and is a
point of tendon attachment
Endosteum
Delicate connective tissue membrane;
lines medullary cavity, trabeculae, canals
Osteoblast
Bone forming cells
Osteocytes
Maintain healthy bone
Osteoclasts
Bone remodeling cells
Osteon
Unit of one central canal and its lamellae
Lamellae
Layers of matrix arranged around a
central canal
Central canal
Blood and nerve supply for living
osseous tissue
Lacunae
Contain osteocytes
Canaliculi
Connections between lacunae containing
cytoplasmic extensions of osteocytes
Endochondral ossification
Process in which bone develops from a
preexisting cartilaginous model
Bony collar
Perichondrium starts producing
osteoblasts around middle of cartilage
model
Primary ossification center
Enlargement and death of chondrocytes
in middle of cartilage model
Vascular invasion
Blood vessels penetrate bony collar and
invade primary ossification center
Primary marrow cavity
Center of model is hollowed out and
filled with blood and stem cells
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Secondary ossification center
Epiphysis of model is hollowed out and
filled with blood and stem cells
Condyle
A rounded knob
Head
The prominent expanded end of a bone,
sometimes rounded
Crest
A narrow ridge
Epicondyle
A projection superior to a condyle
Line
Slightly raised, elongated ridge
Process
Any bony prominence
Protuberance
A bony out growth or protruding part
Spine
A sharp, slender or narrow process
Trochanter
Two massive processes unique to the
femur
Tubercle
A small, rounded process
Tuberosity
A rough surface
Alveolus
A pit or socket
Fossa
A shallow, broad, or elongated basin
Fovea
A small pit
Sulcus
A groove for a tendon, nerve, or blood
vessel
Canal
A tubular passage or tunnel in a bone
Fissure
A slit through a bone
Foramen
A hole through a bone usually round
Meatus
An opening into a canal
Sinus
An air-filled space in a bone
Cartlilage doesn't contain what?
blood vessels and nerves
What is the name of the dense irregular
connective tissue surrounds cartilage?
Perichondrium
Cartilage contains cells called _____
which live in cavities called _____, and
________
Chondrocytes, lacunae, extracellular
matrix
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What are the three types of Cartilage
and examples of where you would find
it?
Hyaline cartilage (Nose, costal and
larynx cartilage)
Elastic cartilage (Ear and epiglottis)
Fibrocartilage (intervertebral discs and
meniscus)
What is the Axial Skeleton?
Cranium, Rib cage, and Vertebral
column
What is the Appendicular Skeleton?
Upper limbs, Lower Limbs, Pectoral,
Pelvic Girdle
Osteogenic cells
Mitotically active stem cells in
periosteum and endosteum
Osteoblasts
Bone forming cells, reponsible for bone
growth; secrete matrix
Osteocytes
Mature bone cells that maintain and
monitor the bone matrix
Osteoclasts
Giant, multinucleate cells for bone
resorption (break down the bone)
Osteon
Structural unit o compact bone (elongate
cylinder)
Concentric lamellae
Hollow tubes of matrix arranged around
one central canal
Central canal
Runs through ceter of osteon; contains
blood vessels and nerves
Perforating canal
Run at right angles to central conal;
conatins blood vessels and nerves
Lacunae
Small cavities that house osteocytes
Canaliculi
Hairlike canals that connect neighboring
lacunae (communication)
Circumferential lamellae
Lamellae that extend around entire
surface of diaphysis
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What is the chemical composistion of
bone?
/Organic components: Cells and
matirx (Flexibility and strength
/Inorganic components:
hydroxyapatites= mineral salts, mainly
calcium phosphate crystals (Hard and
compresssional strength)
Endochondral ossification
process in which bone forms by
replacing hyaline cartilage models
Intermembranous ossification
process in which bone forms from
fibrous membranes
Primary ossification center
region in middle of shaft; endochondral
ossification begins here
Bone collar
forms around diaphysis of hylaline
cartilage model
Secondary ossification center
appear in epiphyses after medullary
cavities have formed in diaphyses
Epihyses ossify
Plates and articular cartilages
Interstitial growth
Bone growth in lngth of long bones at
epiphyseal plates
Appositional growth
bone growth in width of bones
(throughtout life)
What three hormones regulate bone
growth?
Thyroid hormone, Growth hormone and
Testosterone/ Estrogen
What are the two hormones that
regulate blood calcium levels?
Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin
Calcitonin
Lowers blood calcium levels
Wolff's Law
Bone grows or remodels in response to
demands/stress placed on it.
What are the four stages of Bone
Repair?
1. Hematoma forms (mass of clotted
blood)
2. Fibrocartilaginous callus forms
3. Bony callus forms
4. Bone remodeling occurs
The integumentary system is composed
of ___ and its ___, ____ and ____.
Skin, glands, hair and nails
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What are the 6 functions of the skin?
Protection, Body Temperature
Regulation, Making Vitamin D,
Cutaneous Sensation, Blood Reservoir,
and Excretion through sweat.
The two layers of the skin are called ___
and ___.
Epidermis and dermis
Stratified keratinized squamous
epithelium is found in the ___.
Epidermis
Dense irregular and elastic connective
tissue with blood vessels, nerves,
receptors, etc. ____
Dermis
Subcutaneous layer, not actually part of
the skin
Hypodermis
Adipose and loose connective tissue with
blood vessels and nerves
Hypodermis
Stratum basale
Lowest layer of the epidermis
The stratum basale is a single layer of
what cuboidal main cell type that is
firmly attached to the dermis?
Keratinocytes
The stratum basale sits on the ___ and
is ___ active
Basement membrane; mitotically
Stratum corneum
Upper layer of the epidermis that
contains up to 20-30 layers of dead,
flattened keratinocytes
Hypodermis
Subcutaneous layer is not part of the
skin and binds the skin to underlying
muscles.
What are the 3 components of the
hypodermis?
loose connective tissue (areolar),
adipose tissue, blood vessels and nerves
What are the 3 main parts of the hair?
Shaft, root and bulb
What supplies blood for nutrition of
cells growing in the bulb region?
hair papilla
What contracts involuntary when you're
scared or cold?
Piloerector muscle
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Nails are ______.
Scaly cells that are heavily keratinized
What is resposible for nail growth?
Nail matrix
What are the 3 types of cutaneous
glands?
Sebaceous, sudiferous, ceruminous
Sebaceous gland
associated with hair follicle; secretes
sebum; lubricates and waterproofs the
stratum corneum (oil)
Eccrine sweat gland
Widely distributed over body; cooling
Apocrine sweat gland
Open via hair follicle; in axillary and
pubic regions; and odoriferous
Ceruminous gland
Found in the external ear; water and
bacteria repellent; secretes cerumen
(wax)
Which stratum consists of several layers
of kerationcytes united by desomes?
Spinosum
Which stratum is thin, about 4 to 6 lyers,
cells accumulate keratin granules and
lamellar granules, which make the skin
water resistant?
Granulosum
Which stratum will you only find in
thick skin, few rows of flat, dead
keratinocytes?
Lucidum
The statum corneum consits essentially
of flat membranous sacs filled with
what?
Protein
Apoptosis
Controlled cellular suicide
What are the cells of the dermis?
Fibroblasts, Macrophages, and
occasionally mast cells and WBC (White
Blood Cells)
The dermis provides what for the
epidermis?
Blood supply
What does the dermis contain?
Nerve fibers and lymphatic vessels
The dermis contains what epidermal
derivatives?
Hair follicles, oil and sweat glands
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What are the two layers of the dermis?
Papillary layer and reticular layer
Papillary layer consists of what?
Loose Areolar connective tissue with
collagen and elastic fibers
The reticular layer is strong and resilient
and is made of what?
Dense irregular connective tissue which
also contains lots of collagen and elastic
fibers.
The papillary layer has dermal papillae
which form the base of what?
Dermal ridges
Skin marrkings include what?
Cleavage lines (Important for surgeons)
and Flexure lines (Hand)
The reticular layer is the leather of the
skin and if its fibers are torn can cause
what?
Scars
What pigments contribute to skin color?
Melanin, Carotene, and Hemoglobin
Blue skin color, due to low _____ of
hemoglobin
Oxygenation
Red skin color, due to fever,
hypertension, _____, allergy
Erythema
White skin color, due to anemia, low BP,
fear, anger
Pallor
Yellow skin color due to _____ disorder
Jaundice
What Epidermal tissue sheath folds
down from epidermis into dermis?
Hair follicles
What type of cutaneous gland contains
the eccrine and apocrine sweat glands?
Sudoriferous gland (Sweat)
Mammary glands
Modified apocrine gland in breast tissue
(secrete milk)
What does a keratinocyte?
A cell that produces keratin, the fibrous
protein that helps give the epidermis its
protective properties.
What is a melanocyte?
A cell that produces the pigment
melanin, protection against UV damage.
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What are the layers of the stratums from
superficial to deep?
Stratum corneum, Stratum lucidum,
Stratum granulosum, Stratum spinosum,
and Stratum basale
The dermal papillae are what?
Indentions in the epidermis that
contain: capillary loops, nerve endings
(pain receptors) and touch receptors.
Meissner's (tactile) corpuscle are what?
Touch receptors
Pacinian (lamellated) corpuscle
Larger receptors for vibration and
pressure.
Eponychium
Nail cuticle
What are the three types of skin cancer?
Basal cell Carcinoma (Most Common),
Squamous cell Carcinoma (2nd Most
Common), and Melanoma (Most
Dangerous
First degree burn
Epidermal damage; red, swollen,
(edema) and pain
Second degree burn
Epidermal and upper dermal damage;
blisters appear
Third degree burn
Entire skin; skin is gray-white, cherry
red, or blackened, not painful (nerve
endings destroyed) or swollen and skin
grafting usually need
How can you estimate loss of fluids due
to burns?
Using the "Rule of Nine"
Histology
The study of tissues
Tissues
Groups of cells of common origin and
function
Epithelial tissue
Cover body surfaces or line a body cavity
Connective tissue
Connect, bind and support
Nervous tissue
Initiate and transmit impulses
Muscular tissue
Contractile tissues
What 3 things compose tissue?
Cells, fibers and ground substance
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Fibers and ground substance are
collectively called what?
Matrix
What three things you do to get a tissue
ready for microscopy?
Fixation, Sectioning, Staining
The layering of epithelial tissue can be
____or ____
Simple, Stratified
The cell shape of epithelial tissue can be
____, ____ or ____.
Squamous, cuboidal or columnar
What is the basement membrane made
of?
Glycoprotein plus collagenous and
reticular fibers
Simple squamous epithelium can be
found ____
In the inner lining of blood vessels,
external lining of organs such as the
lungs
Simple cuboidal epithelium can be
found ____
In the kidney tubules
Simple columnar epithelium can be
found ____
In the epithelium of the small intestines
pseudostratified columnar epithelium
can be found ___
In the trachea and bronchus
Stratified squamous epithelium that is
keratinized can be found ____
In the skin
Stratified squamous epithelium that isn't
keratinized can be found ____
In the esophagus and vagina
Transitional Epithelium can be found
____
Lining of the bladder
What are the 3 types of fibers found in
connective tissue
Elastic, collagenous and reticular fibers
What are the loose fibrous connective
tissues?
Areolar tissue, reticular tissue and
adipose tissue
What are the dense connective tissues?
Dense regular connective tissue, Elastic
connective tissue and dense irregular
conective tissue
Areolar tissue is found ___
In the hypodermis and messentery
Reticular tissue is found ____
In the spleen and lymph nodes
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Adipose tissue is found ___
In the breasts and surrounding organs
Dense regular tissue (white fibers) is
found ___
In tendons and ligaments
Dense regular tissue (yellow fibers) is
found ___
In the vocal cords
Dense irregular tissue is found ___
In the skin (dermis- reticular layer)
perichondrium, periosteum, etc.
Elastic connective tissue can be found
___
The walls of large arteries
What are the Supportive connective
tissues?
Hyaline cartilage and compact bone
Hyaline cartilage is found ___
In the costal cartilage and trachea
Elastic Cartilage can be found ___
On the flexible skeleton of the ear
Fibrocartilage can be found ____
In the intervertebral discs, meniscus
Compact bone is found ___
In the skeleton
What is the fluid connective tissue?
Blood
Blood is found ___
matrix: liquid plasma
cells: formed elements
What special structures are found in
areolar tissue?
Fibroblast, collagenous and elastic fibers
What special structures are found in
adipose tissue?
Adipose cells, fat storage
What special structures are found in
dense regular connective tissue (white
fibers)?
Collagenous fibers and fibroblast
(nucleus)
What special structures are found in
cartilage?
Chondrocyte and Lacuna
What special structures are found in
bone?
Osteocyte, central canal, lamella and
canaliculi
Gland
Cell or organ that secretes or excretes
substances
Endocrine gland
Gland that has no duct and secretes
hormones directly into blood
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Exocrine gland
Gland that secretes by way of duct to
body surface or organ cavity
Serous gland
Exocrine gland that secretes thin, watery
secretion
Mucous gland
Exocrine gland that secretes thick,
mucus secretion
Mixed gland
Exocrine gland that contains serous and
mucous cells
Where can the endocrine glands be
found?
Thyroid gland and islet cells of pancreas
Where can the exocrine glands be
found?
Sweat gland, mammary glands and acini
of pancreas
Where can the serous glands be found?
Sweat glands and pancreas
Where can the mucous glands be found?
Tongue, roof of mouth and respiratory
passages
Where can the mixed glands be found?
Salivary glands
Merocrine glands
Exocrine glands that secrete by
exocytosis
Holocrine glands
Exocrine glands that accumulate
products and then rupture.
Apocrine glands
Exocrine glands that accumulate
products, but only apex ruptures
What is an example and the functions of
the cutaneous membrane?
Skin; protection
What is an example and the functions of
the mucous membrane?
Digestive tract and respiratory passages;
to make protect from chemical and
physical abrasion and make things easier
to move
What is an example and the functions of
the serous membrane?
Stomach, peritoneum and pleurae; make
them moist/ secretes serous fluid
What two things are unicellular glands
that secrete mucus
Mucous Cells and Goblet cells
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What are the 3 Stages of tissue repair?
1. Inflammation
2. Organization
3.Regeneration and Fibrosis (Scarring)
axial skeleton (80) & appendicular
skeleton (126)
two divisions of the skeleton
skull bones, auditory ossicles, hyoid
bone, ribs, sternum, and bones of the
vetebral column
the axial skeleton consists of:
upper & lower limbs, and the bones
forming the girdles
the appendicular skeleton consists of:
frontal, parietal (2), occipital, sphenoid,
ethmoid, temporal (2)
name the 8 cranial bones
2 nasal bones, 2 maxillae, 2 zygomatic,
the mandible, 2 lacrimal, 2 palatine, 2
inferior nasal conchae, vomer
name the 14 facial bones
supraorbital margin
superior to the orbits, the frontal bone
thickens and forms:
supraorbital foramen
within the supraorbital margin, slightly
medial to its midpoint is a hole called:
supraorbital notch
if the supraorbital foramen is
incomplete, we refer to this as:
zygomatic process of temporal bone
projects from the temporal bone;
articulates with the temporal process of
the zygomatic bone
zygomatic process of temporal bone &
temporal process of zygomatic bone
two processes that form the zygomatic
arch
temperomandibular joint (TMJ)
the mandibular fossa of the temporal
bone and the articular tubercle
articulate with the mandible to form:
mastoid process
point of attachment for several neck
muscles
styloid process
serves as a point of attachment for
muscles and ligaments of the tongue &
neck
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coratid foramen
a foramen contained in the temporal
bone that the carotid artery passes
jugular foramen
a foramen contained in the temporal
bone that is a passageway for the juglar
vein and cranial nerves
foramen magnum
the inferior part of the bone that is the
opening through which the spinal cord
connects to the lower brain
medulla oblongata
inferior part of the brain that connects
with the spinal cord within the forman
magnum
occipital condyles
oval processes with convex surfaces on
either side of the foramen magnum;
articulate with the depressions on C1 to
form atlanto-occipital joint
alanto-occipital joint
allows your head to nod
hypoglossal foramen
allows the passage pf the hypoglossal
nerve, which innervates the tongue from
beneath; superior to each occipital
condyle
external occipital protuberance
a relatively prominent midline
projection on the posterior surface of
the occiptal bone
superior and inferior nuchal lines
two curved ridges that extend laterally
from the protuberance; allows the
attachment point for muscles
sella turcica
part of the sphenoid bone that is the
cube-like medial portion whose superior
surface is called the;
sella turcica
bony projection that surrounds and
protects the pituitary gland
greater wings
part of the sphenoid bone that projects
laterally from the body of the sphenoid;
and form the antero-lateral body of the
cranium
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lesser wings
part of the sphenoid bone; smaller and
form a ridge of bone anterior
ethmoid bone
major supporting structure of the nasal
cavity
superior & middle nasal conchae
scroll shaped projections on the lateral
walls of the nasal cavity; they increase
vascular & mucus membrane surface
area in the nasal cavities, which aids in
the snese of smell, and warm, moisten
and filter incoming air
nasal bones
paired bones which meet at the midline
of the nose and form the bridge of the
nose
maxillae
unite to form the upper jawbone; they
articulate with every bone of the face
except the mandible
palantine process
a horizonontal projection of the maxilla
that forms the anterior 3/4 of the hard
palate
zygomatic bones
bone that forms the prominences of the
cheek and part of the lateral wall and
floor of each orbit
lacrimal bones
bones that are line and small and form
part of the medial wall of each orbit
lacrimal sac
gathers tears and passes them to the
nasal cavity
lacrimal fossa
a groove that houses the lacrimal sac
vomer
a rougly triangular bone on the floor of
the nasal cavity; it forms the inferior
portion of the nasal septum
sutures
immovable joints found only between
skull bones
fontanels
mesenchyme filled spaces ina pre-born
pr new born infant skull commonly
called "soft spots"
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hyoid bone
a single "u-shaped" bone which is
suspended from the styloid process of
the temporal bone by ligaments and
muscles; it supports the tongue, and
commonly fractured during
strangulation; located in anterior of neck
between the mandible and larynx
33
# of vertebrae during early development
26
# of vertebrae in adults
7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 1 fused
sacral, & 1 fused coccyx
describe the vertebral column
thoracic & sacral
name the 2 convex curves of the
vertebral
cervical and lumbar
name the 2 concave curves of the
vertebral
body of vertebrae
the thick, disc-shaped anterior portion
which is the weight bearing portion
vertebral arch
include the pedicle and laminae; goes
together with the body to surround the
spinal cord
tranverse process
in the thoracic region, the articulation
site for the ribs
spinous process
in the lumbar region, is for muscle
attachment
superior and inferior articular processes
are for connecting the vertebrae
together
thorax
refers to entire chest
thoracic cage
skeletal part of the thorax
sternum, costal cartilages, ribs, and the
bodies of thoracic vertebrae
parts of the thoracic cage
sternum (or breastbone)
flat, narrow bone located in the center of
the anterior thoracic wall; it is composed
of 3 parts: manubrium, body, xiphoid
process
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ribs
12 pairs; gives structural support to the
sides of the thoracic cavity; they increase
in length from 1-7 and then decrease in
length from 7-12
true ribs
the first 7 pair of the ribs; each have a
piece of costal cartilage attaching them
to the sternum
false ribs
the last 5 pairs of ribs
floating ribs
rib 11 & 12 are flase ribs but also have
another name because they do not
attach to the sternum at all
hyaline cartilage
type of cartilage that makes up costal
cartilage
atlas
term for C1 cervical vertebrae
axis
term for C2 cervicle vertebrae
clavicle & scapula
each human has 2 pectoral girdles
consisting of which 2 bones:
clavicle
anterior bone that articulates with the
manubrium
scapula
articulates with the clavicle and with the
humerus; DOES NOT articulate with the
vertebral column
sternal end
rounded medial end of clavicle
acromial end
broad, flat lateral end of clavicle
scapula
large, triangular, flat bone situated in the
superios part of the posterior thorax at
the level of the 2nd and 7th rib
spine
prominent ridge on the posterior side of
the scapula
acromion
the lateral end of the spine; a flattened
process
glenoid cavity
inferior to the acromion; accepts the
head of the humerus
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body
the flattened triangular part of the
scapula bone
medial border
edge of scapula that is closer to the
vertebral column
scapular notch
a prominent indentation along the
superior border of the scapula
30
# of bones in the upper limb
humerus, radius, ulna, 8 carpals, 5
metacarpals, & 14 phalanges
the 30 bones in the upper limb are:
humerus
the longest and largest bone in the upper
limb; articulates proximally with the
scapula and distally at the elbow with 2
bones: ulna & radius
head
the proximal end of the humerus that is
rounded and articulates with the glenoid
cavity
anatomical neck
distal to the head of the humerus;
visable as an oblique groove
greater tubercle
lateral projection distal the anatomical
neck of the humerus
lesser tubercle
projects anteriorly from humerus; distal
to anatomical neck
surgical neck
the place where the bone consticts to
form the shaft; distal to tubercles
capitulum
a rounded knob on the lateral aspect of
the bone that articulates with the head
of the radius
trochlea
located medially to the capitulum and
articulates with the ulna
coronoid fossa
an anterior depression (receives the
head of the radius when forearm is
flexed) ; located on humerus
olecranon fossa
a posterior depression of humerus
(receives the olecranon of the ulna when
the forearm is extended)
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medial and lateral epicondyles
rough projections on either side of the
distal end of the humerus where
tendons of muscles of the forearm attach
ulna
located on the medical aspect of the
forearm (pinky side) and is longer than
the radius
olecranon
at the proximal end of the ulna; forms
the prominence of the elbow
coronoid process
an anterior projection of the ulna that
receives the trochlea of the humerus
trochlear notch
a large curved area between the
olecranon and the coronoid process that
forms part of the elbow
radial notch
on the lateral side of the coronoid
process of the ulna; receives the head of
the radius
ulnar tuberosity
inferior to the coronoid process of the
ulna to which the biceps brachii muscles
attach
styloid process
located on the posterior side of the distal
end of the ulna (attachment of
ligaments)
radius
located on the lateral aspect of the
forearm (thumb side)
head of radius
the proximal end of the radius that
articulates with the capitulum of the
humerus and the radial notch of the
ulna
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