Khapra Beetle
Trogoderma granarium Everts
Order Coleoptera
Family Dermestidae
Introduction
The khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium, is considered one of the most important
stored product pests worldwide. It is a serious pest of stored products under hot, dry
conditions. The khapra beetle is spread by commerce and trade of infested goods and
containers. Beetle larvae are able to crawl into cracks and crevices of packing material
and enter diapause for extended periods of time, maintaining its presence in very low
numbers. It can live without food for long periods and survive on foods of low moisture
content.
The khapra beetle is endemic to the area extending from Burma to west Africa and
limited by the 35 parallel to the north and the equator to the south. It first was found in
California in 1953, which began a massive control and eradication effort until 1966,
costing an estimated $15 million. Isolated infestations have been found in several states
throughout the U.S (California, Maryland, Michigan, New Jersey, New York,
Pennsylvania, and Texas). Discovery leads to an immediate quarantine of suspected
goods and an expensive eradication and control effort. All infestations in the U.S. have
been eradicated. The khapra beetle has a tolerance to many surface insecticides and
fumigants. It is estimated that 67% of the continental U.S. has suitable climate for the
beetle.
Identification
The khapra beetle is oblong-oval and densely hairy. Adult males are 1.4-2.3 mm
long, 0.75-1.1 mm wide; brown to black with indistinct reddish brown markings on
elytra. Adult females are 2.1-3.4 mm long, 1.7-1.9 mm wide, lighter in color. The head is
small with 11-segmented antennae and a club of three to five segments that fits into a
groove in the side of the pronotum.
Eggs are milky white and turn pale yellow, cylindrical (0.7 by 0.25 mm), one end
rounded, the other pointed with spine-like projections. Larvae are yellowish white with
brown head and body hairs. Mature larvae are ~ 6 mm long and 1.5 mm wide, golden to
reddish brown in color with more body hairs and proportionally shorter tail. Most
specimens collected are in larval form and need special preparation to enable
identification by an insect taxonomist.
Life Cycle
Mated females live 4-7 days, while unmated females live from 20-30 days. Males
live 7-12 days. Adults have wings but do not fly. Adults feed very little. Mating occurs
about five days after emergence. Egg laying is temperature dependent, beginning
immediately at 40C, but is delayed by a few days at cooler temperatures. No eggs are
produced at 20C. Females lay an average of 50 to 90 eggs which are loosely scattered in
host material. Eggs hatch in 3 to 14 days. Complete development from egg to adult varies
from 26 to 220 days and is dependent on temperature, with optimum temperature for
development at 35C. If the temperature falls below 25C for a period of time or if larvae
are very crowded, they may enter diapause. Larvae can survive temperatures below -8C.
In diapause, larvae can molt but are inactive and can remain in this condition for years.
Development can occur at a relative humidity as low as 2%.
Hosts
The khapra beetle is associated with man and human dwellings. The larvae feed
on a wide variety of stored products and dried foods but prefer whole grain and cereal
products. Any dried plant and animal material with proteinaceous content, such as dried
seeds, grains, fruits, spices, and gums is a suitable host. It can also occur in grain stores,
food stores, malthouses, seed processing plants, fodder production plants, dried milk
factories, merchant stores, and stores of used packing materials.
Damage
The major damage of the khapra beetle is the loss of stored grain. Typically,
young larvae feed on damaged seed, while older larvae feed on whole grains. Larvae
attack the embryo point or a weak place in the pericarp of grain or seed. The khapra
beetle can cause significant weight loss (weight loss between 5-30%, extreme cases of
70%) when left undisturbed in stored grain. Damage also may lead to significant
reduction in seed viability. Severe infestations may cause unfavorable changes in
chemical composition. Additionally, the beetle can damage dry commodities of animal
origin. Large numbers of larval skins and setae may cause dermatitis and/or allergic
reactions. While feeding, the beetle contaminates grain with body parts and setae which
are known to cause gastrointestinal irritation. Larvae can move in and out of sacked
material and weaken the sacks.
Control
Airport and maritime port interceptions are vital defenses against the introduction
of the khapra beetle. Detection procedures include trapping and visual inspection. Signs
of infestation include the larvae and cast skins, although larvae must be identified by
microscopic examination.
Eradication programs utilize fumigants and surface sprays with deep penetration
capability. Also, heat treatment has proved to be effective. Populations are monitored by
using pheromone and larval traps. Preventive measures include good sanitation practices
and exclusion.
The khapra beetle is spread mainly through international trade; therefore,
inspection at ports and entry points is vital. High risk areas that should be checked first
include the following (USDA Fact Sheet, 1993):
1) cracks in walls and floors
2) behind loose paint or rust
3) along pallet, and the end-grain of pallet wood
4) seams and ears of burlap bags
5) low light areas
6) trash from cleaning equipment, and the equipment itself.
If you suspect the khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium, please contact your
local cooperative extension agent or your local NPDN diagnostic lab.
Acknowledgements
Photographs for this presentation can be found at http://bugwood.org, a database
which maintains an archive for images that can be used in educational activities, and
http://www.padil.gov.au. The photographs used in this presentation were provided by the
following:
Ministry of Agriculture and Regional Development Archives, Hungary,
www.forestryimages.org
Graham, R. (2006) http://www.padil.gov.au
Clemson University - USDA Cooperative Extension Slide Series,
www.forestryimages.org
Joseph Berger, www.forestryimages.org
Steve Dewey, Utah State University, www.forestryimages.org
Larry R. Barber, USDA Forest Service, www.ipmimages.org
Larry Claflin, Kansas State University, http://www.pdis.org/ImageLibrary
Map provided by the following:
European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO)
http://www.eppo.org/QUARANTINE/insects/Trogoderma_granarium/TROGGA_map.ht
m
We thank Lyle Buss, University of Florida and Will Lanier, Montana State University for
their editorial review.
Selected References
Harris, D. L. 2006. Khapra beetle. Featured Creatures. UF Department of Entomology
and Nematology and FDACS-DPI.
http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/urban/beetles/khapra_beetle.htm
ISSG, Global Invasive Species Database. Trogoderma granarium.
http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=142&fr=1&sts=
USDA. 1993. Fact Sheet - Khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium Everts.
http://ceris.purdue.edu/napis/pests/khb/facts.txt
USDA. 1998. Pest Risk Assessment: Khapra Beetle.
http://ceris.purdue.edu/napis/pests/khb/freg/khb98pra.html
Handout developed to accompany the Khapra Beetle
Trogoderma granarium Everts (Coleoptera: Dermestidae)
NPDN First Detector Training Module.
Authors: Ellis, A.M., and A.C. Hodges, University of Florida, SPDN
Publication Number: 0009
Publication Date: January 2007
