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THE EARTHS INTERIOR

THE EARTHS INTERIOR
Just as a child may shake an unopened present in an attempt to discover the
contents of a gift, so man must listen to the ring and vibration of our Earth in an
attempt to discover its content. This is accomplished through seismology, which
has become the principle method used in studying Earth's interior. Seismos is a
Greek word meaning shock; akin to earthquake, shake, or violently moved.
Seismology on Earth deals with the study of vibrations that are produced by
earthquakes, the impact ofmeteorites, or artificial means such as an explosion. On
these occasions, a seismograph is used to measure and record the actual
movements and vibrations within the Earth and of the ground.
Scientists categorize seismic movements into four types of diagnostic waves that
travel at speeds ranging from 3 to 15 kilometers (1.9 to 9.4 miles) per second. Two
of the waves travel around the surface of the Earth in rolling swells. The other two,
Primary (P) or compression waves and Secondary (S) or shear waves, penetrate
the interior of the Earth. Primary waves compress and dilate the matter they travel
through (either rock or liquid) similar to sound waves. They also have the ability to
move twice as fast as S waves. Secondary waves propagate through rock but are
not able to travel through liquid. Both P and S waves refract or reflect at points
where layers of differing physical properties meet. They also reduce speed when
moving through hotter material. These changes in direction and velocity are the
means of locating discontinuities.
Seismic discontinuities aid in distinguishing divisions of the Earth into inner core,
outer core, D", lower mantle, transition region, upper mantle, and crust (oceanic
and continental). Lateral discontinuities also have been distinguished and mapped
through seismic tomography but shall not be discussed here.

INNER CORE
The Inner Core is the final layer of the earth. It is a solid ball
made of metal. To learn about what metal the inner core is
made of, read this section about the inner core. You can also

learn how hot the inner core is, how thick it is and some
interesting facts about the inner core. The Inner Core is about
1250 km thick and is the second smallest layer of the earth.
Although it is one of the smallest, the Inner Core is also the
hottest layer. The Inner Core is a solid ball composed of an
element named Ni Fe. Ni for Nickel and Fe for Ferrum also
known as Iron. The Inner Core is about 5000-6000
degrees Celsius. It melts all metal ores in the outer core
causing it to turn into liquid magma.

OUTER CORE
The Outer Core is the second to last layer of the Earth. It is a magma
like liquid layer that surrounds the Inner Core and creates Earth's
magnetic field. In this section you will learn about how Earth's
magnetic field is created, how hot it is, how thick the Outer Core is and
a few interesting facts about the Outer Core. The Outer Core is about
4000-5000 degrees Celsius. The Inner Core is so hot it causes all the
metal in the Outer Core to melt into liquid magma. The Outer Core is
composed of iron and some nickel. There is very few rocks and iron and
nickel ore left in the Outer Core because of the Inner Core melting all
the metal into liquid magma. The Outer Core is about 2200 km thick. It
is the second largest layer and made entirely out of liquid magma.
Because the outer core moves around the inner core, Earth's
magnetism is created.

MANTLE
The interior of Earth, similar to the other terrestrial planets, is chemically
divided into layers. The mantle is a layer between the crust and the outer core.
Earth's mantle is a silicate rocky shell with an average thickness of 2,886
kilometers (1,793 mi). The mantle makes up about 84% of Earth's volume. It is
predominantly solid but in geological time it behaves as a very viscous fluid.
The mantle encloses the hot core rich in iron and nickel, which makes up about
15% of Earth's volume. Past episodes of melting and volcanism at the
shallower levels of the mantle have produced a thin crust of crystallized melt
products near the surface, upon which we live. Information about structure and
composition of the mantle either result from geophysical investigation or from
direct geoscientific analyses on Earth mantle derived xenoliths and on mantle
exposed by mid-oceanic ridge spreading.
Two main zones are distinguished in the upper mantle: the
inner asthenosphere composed of plastic flowing rock of varying thickness, on
average about 200 km (120 mi) thick, and the lowermost part of
the lithosphere composed of rigid rock about 50 to 120 km (31 to 75 mi)
thick. A thin crust, the upper part of the lithosphere, surrounds the mantle and
is about 5 to 75 km (3.1 to 46.6 mi) thick. Recent analysis of
hydrous ringwoodite from the mantle suggests that there is between one and
three times as much water in the transition zone between the lower and upper
mantle than in all the world's oceans combined.
In some places under the ocean the mantle is actually exposed on the surface
of Earth. There are also a few places on land where mantle rock has been
pushed to the surface by tectonic activity, most notably the Tablelands region

of Gros Morne National Park in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and

Labrador and St. John's Island, Egypt or Zabargad in the Red Sea.

EARTHS CRUST
The crust of the Earth is composed of a great variety of igneous, metamorphic,
and sedimentary rocks. The crust is underlain by the mantle. The upper part of the mantle is
composed mostly of peridotite, a rock denser than rocks common in the overlying crust. The
boundary between the crust and mantle is conventionally placed at the Mohorovii
discontinuity, a boundary defined by a contrast in seismic velocity. The crust occupies less
than 1% of Earth's volume.[1]
The oceanic crust of the sheet is different from its continental crust.

The oceanic crust is 5 km (3 mi) to 10 km (6 mi) thick[2] and is composed primarily

of basalt, diabase, and gabbro.

The continental crust is typically from 30 km (20 mi) to 50 km (30 mi) thick and is
mostly composed of slightly less dense rocks than those of the oceanic crust. Some of
these less dense rocks, such as granite, are common in the continental crust but rare to
absent in the oceanic crust.

Both the continental and oceanic crust "float" on the mantle. Because the continental crust is
thicker, it extends both to greater elevations and greater depth than the oceanic crust. The
slightly lower density of felsic continental rock compared to basaltic oceanic rock contributes
to the higher relative elevation of the top of the continental crust. As the top of the
continental crust reaches elevations higher than that of the oceanic, water runs off the
continents and collects above the oceanic crust. Because of the change in velocity of seismic
waves it is believed that beneath continents at a certain depth continental crust (sial)
becomes close in its physical properties to oceanic crust (sima), and the transition zone is
referred to as the Conrad discontinuity.
The temperature of the crust increases with depth, reaching values typically in the range
from about 200 C (392 F) to 400 C (752 F) at the boundary with the underlying mantle.
The crust and underlying relatively rigid uppermost mantle make up the lithosphere.
Because of convection in the underlying plastic (although non-molten) upper mantle
and asthenosphere, the lithosphere is broken into tectonic plates that move. The
temperature increases by as much as 30 C (about 50 F) for every kilometer locally in the
upper part of the crust, but the geothermal gradient is smaller in deeper crust.[3]

Plates in the crust of Earth

Partly by analogy to what is known about the Moon, Earth is considered to have
differentiated from an aggregate ofplanetesimals into its core, mantle and crust within about
100 million years of the formation of the planet, 4.6 billion years ago. The primordial crust
was very thin and was probably recycled by much more vigorous plate tectonics and
destroyed by significant asteroid impacts, which were much more common in the early
stages of the solar system.
Earth has probably always had some form of basaltic crust, but the age of the oldest oceanic
crust today is only about 200 million years. In contrast, the bulk of the continental crust is
much older. The oldest continental crustal rocks on Earth have ages in the range from about
3.7 to 4.28 billion years [4][5] and have been found in the Narryer Gneiss Terrane in Western
Australia, in the Acasta Gneiss in the Northwest Territories on the Canadian Shield, and on
other cratonic regions such as those on the Fennoscandian Shield. Some zircon with age as
great as 4.3 billion years has been found in the Narryer Gneiss Terrane.
The average age of the current Earth's continental crust has been estimated to be about 2.0
billion years.[6] Most crustal rocks formed before 2.5 billion years ago are located in cratons.
Such old continental crust and the underlying mantle asthenosphere are less dense than
elsewhere in Earth and so are not readily destroyed by subduction. Formation of new
continental crust is linked to periods of intense orogeny; these periods coincide with the
formation of the supercontinents such as Rodinia, Pangaea andGondwana. The crust forms in
part by aggregation of island arcs including granite and metamorphic fold belts, and it is
preserved in part by depletion of the underlying mantle to form buoyant lithospheric mantle

Precautionary Measures Before Volcanic Eruptions

Here are precautionary measures before volcanic eruptions:
1. Each one should be aware of the dangers that volcanic eruptions pose to
lives and be prepared to face whatever circumstances the eruption may bring.
2. Prepare all necessary things to bring once evacuation is needed. Those in
danger zones are warned when to evacuate. Once given the signal refrain from
saying you will be all right. Refusing to evacuate will pose more serious
problems.

3. Store as much food, water, light sources and batteries that are very useful in
case of emergency.
4. Volcanic eruptions have ash falls so be prepared for masks or anything to
cover nose and mouth.
5. Prioritize the safety of kids before other things. If you have relatives or
friends who are far from the volcano, take your children there until such time
that your place is safe