Chapter 1:

Site Exploration
Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar Institute of Technology
Faculty of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
Wubete M.
Mar,2016

Outline

Purpose of Soil Exploration

Different methods

Test trenches and Pits

Auger and Wash Boring

Rotary Drilling

Soil Sampling (Disturbed and Undisturbed)

Geophysical Methods

Site Exploration
Investigation of a site for obtaining information about the
subsurface conditions that underlain a proposed structure
Determination of surface and subsurface soil conditions and
features in an area of proposed construction that may influence
the design and construction and address the expected post
construction problems.
It consists of determining the profile of the natural soil deposits
at the site, taking the soil samples and determining the
engineering properties of soils. It also includes in-situ testing of
soils.
3

Scope of Exploration
Simple visual examination of the soil at the surface or from
shallow test pits

Detailed study of soil and groundwater to a reasonable

depth( influence zone) by sampling from boreholes and insitu and laboratory tests

Purpose of Exploration
The site exploration provides first hand information for;
Selection of alternative construction site or choice of
most economical site
Design of foundations
to decide the type and depth
Estimating the load bearing capacity and
probable settlement
Contractors to quote realistic and competitive
tenders
Planning construction techniques.
Groundwater location
5

Purpose of Exploration
Selection

of

appropriate

construction

equipment

and

materials (especially for excavation and foundations).

Study of environmental impacts (EI) of the proposed
construction.
Selection of the most suitable and economical route for
highways with respect to soil conditions.
The investigation of the cases where failure has occurred, to
know the causes and design of remedial works
Need for any suitable soil improvements

Common Steps in Site Exploration

Desk Study

Site Reconnaissance

Field Investigations
a)
b)

Preliminary Ground Investigation

Detailed Ground Investigation

Laboratory Testing
Report Writing

Follow up Investigations during design & construction

Appraisal of performance
7

Reconnaissance
Its purpose is to estimate the type of soils and rock likely to be
encountered and is accomplished by:
Collection of data about the project
Visual inspection of the site condition (topography) and
nearby existing structures
Geologic study: Geological map, Area Photographs
Collecting and studying the existing document from
previous experience with similar or adjacent sites.

Reconnaissance

Cracks, sticking doors and windows in existing light building

Expansive soils

Potential Stability Problems

10

11

What can you detect from photo inspection?

12

Preliminary Site Investigation

A few borings or a test pit to establish the stratification,
types of soil to be expected, and possibly the location of the
groundwater level and its fluctuation.
Depth of bed rock , If the initial borings indicate the upper
soil is loose or highly compressible.
Establish

subsurface

profile

(depth,

thickness

and

composition of subsurface strata).

Estimate of engineering properties of the soil from index
properties

13

Preliminary Site Investigation

Initial selection of foundation possibilities.
This step may be sufficient to establish the foundation criteria
for small projects

14

Detailed Site Investigation

If the preliminary

site investigation get feasible, detailed

investigation is undertaken
Additional borings are required
Determine the specific appropriate engineering properties of
the

site

soil

(strength,

compressibility

and

hydraulic

conductivity)
More sounding field tests undertaken to obtain information
which shall be sufficient for final design

15

Methods of Site Exploration

The methods to determine the sequence, thickness and lateral
extent of the soil strata and, where appropriate the level of bedrock.
The common methods include
Test pits /trenches
Boring (and sampling) or drilling
Insitu Tests
Laboratory Tests etc
16

Test Pits and Trenches

The excavation of test pits is a simple , cheapest and reliable
method.
The depth is limited to 4-5m only.
The in-situ conditions are examined visually
It is easy to take good undisturbed soil samples from a pit
than a bore hole
Block samples can be cut by hand tools and tube samples
can be taken from the bottom of the pit.
Trenches are useful in investigating subsurface conditions
where lateral variations in material conditions are expected
17

** Block Samples
Block samples are cut by hand from material exposed in trial pits
and excavations.
Sample cutting should be done as quickly as possible to prevent
excessive moisture loss, should be protected from rain and direct
sunlight.
Protect the sides with aluminum foil or grease proof paper and
coated with wax and cover with muslin.

18

Sample Labeled, Moisture Control and Transportation

Seal with wax to control

Vertical transportation to prevent

water content of samples

moisture migration

Whats wrong with this sampling?

Boring
Boring refers to advancing a hole in the ground.
Boring is required for the following:
To obtain representative soil and rock samples for
laboratory tests.
To identify the groundwater conditions.
Performance of in-situ tests to assess appropriate soil
characteristics.

21

Boring
Some of the common types of boring are as follows
Auger boring
Wash boring
Percussion boring
Rotary drilling

22

23

Auger Boring
Hand Auger

Mechanical Auger

Hand Auger
It is the simplest method of boring used for small projects in soft
cohesive soils.
For hard soil and soil containing gravels boring with hand auger
becomes difficult.
It can be used for depths up to 3 to 5m..
The length of the auger blade varies from 0.3-0.5m.
The auger is rotated until it is full of soil, then it is withdrawn
to
24
remove the soil and the soil type present at various depths is noted.
24

Auger Boring
The soil samples collected in this manner are disturbed samples and
can be used for classification test.
Generally, it is suitable for all types of soils above water table but
suitable only for clays below the water table.
Auger boring may not be possible in very soft clay or coarse
sand because the hole tends to collapse when auger is removed.
Soils with boulders and cobbles are difficult to investigate.

25

25

Auger Boring

26

26

Mechanical Auger
Mechanical Auger means power operated augers. The power
required to rotate the auger depends on the type and size of
auger and the type of soil.
Downwards pressure can be applied hydraulically, mechanically
or by dead weight
a.

Continuous Flight Auger

b.

Hollow-stem

auger

plugged

during advancing bore

c.

Plug

removed

and

sampler

inserted

a
a

d. Truck mounted auger boring

b
c

machine

27

 The most common method is to use continuous flight augers.

Continuous flight augers can be solid stem or hollow stem with
internal diameter of 75-150mm.
Hollow stem augers are used when undisturbed samples are
required. Plug is withdrawn and sampler is lowered down and driven
in to the soil below the auger.
If bed rock is reached drilling can also take place through the hollow
stem.
As the auger acts as a casing it can be used in sand below water
table. The possibility of rising sand in to the stem by hydrostatic
pressure can be avoided by filling the stem with water up to the
water table
28

There is a possibility that different soil types may become

mixed as they rise to the surface and it may be difficult to
determine the depths of changes of strata. Experienced
driller can however detect the change of strata by the
change of speed and the sound of drilling.
Disadvantages of auger:
The soil samples a re highly disturbed
It becomes difficult to locate the change in strata

29

Wash boring
Water with high pressure pumped through hollow boring rods is
released from narrow holes in a chisel attach to the lower end of the
rods. The soil is loosened and broken by the water jet and the updown moment of the chisel.
The soil particles are carried in suspension to the surface between
the rock and the borehole sites.
The rods are raised and drop for chopping action of the chisel by
means of winch.
This method best suits in sandy and clayey soils and not in very hard
soil strata (i.e. boulders) and rocks.
Wash boring can be used in most type of soil but the progress is
slow in coarse gravel strata.

30

30

Wash boring

31

31

Rotary Boring/ Drilling

Primarily intended for investigation in rock, but also used in
soils.
The drilling tool, (cutting bit or a coring bit) is attached to the
lower end of hollow drilling rods
The coring bit is fixed to the lower end of a core
Water or drilling fluid is pumped down the hollow rods and
passes under pressure through narrow holes in the bit or
barrel
The drilling fluid cools and lubricates the drilling tool and
carries the loose debris to the surface between the rods and
the side of the hole.

32

Advantages
The advantage of rotary drilling in soils is
The progress is much faster than with other investigation
methods
Disturbance of the soil below the borehole is slight.

Limitations
The method is not suitable if the soil contains a high percentage
of gravel/cobbles, as they tend to rotate beneath the bit and are
not broken up.
The natural water content of the material is liable to be
increased due to contact with the drilling fluid
33

Site Exploration Range

No hard-and-fast rule exists for determining the number
of borings or the depth to which the test borings are to be
advanced.
For most buildings, at least one boring at each corner and
one at the center should provide a start for investigation in
rock, but also used in soils.
Depending on the uniformity of the subsoil, additional test
borings may be made

34

How Many Borings?

Conventionally, the number (density) of borings will
increase:
As soil variability increases
As the loads increase
For more critical/significant structures

35

Numbers of Borings
Guideline for trial pits and boring layout (Teng)

7.5

36

How many bore holes?

Proposed site for a multistory shopping complex

bore hole
120 m

Not enough bore holes; soil profile and

properties not well defined..

37

How Many Bore Holes?

120 m

Too many bore holes and blows the budget.

38

How many bore holes?

trial pit

120 m

About right?

39

Depth of Borings
According to Tomlinson
i. For widely spaced strip of pad foundation, Boring depth depth(D)
1.5B
ii. For Raft Foundations, depth(D) 1.5B, B-width of foundation
iii. For closely spaced strip or pad foundations where there is
overlapping of the zones of pressure, D 1.5 width of building
iv. For group of piled foundation on soil, D 1.5 width of pile group.
The depth being measured from a depth of two-thirds of the
length of piles
v. For piled foundation on rock, D 3.0m inside bedrock.
40

Depth of Borings
According to EBCS 7,1995
BH

BH

DB

a.For structures on

DB

b.For structures on footing,

mat foundation,

c.For structures piled foundation,

D B 3m pile length from the surface

41

Depth of Investigation
Based on Pressure Bulb

Pile group

Isolated footing

Stress contours

Must explore to the depth to which the soil

will be significantly stressed (perhaps to
10% of the applied stress). This is of the

Soil stressed to greater depth due

order of twice the width of the loaded area.

to interaction between piles and

due to shaft friction
42

Depth of InvestigationBased on Pressure Bulb

43

Depth of Investigation -Based on Pressure Bulb

Closely spaced strip on pad footings44

Depth of Investigation -Based on Pressure Bulb

45

Minimum boring depth, D

ASCE(1972)
1. Determine the net increase in the effective stress Ds and the
vertical effective stress s0

2. Determine D1 when Ds= q/10

3. Determine D2 when Ds= s0 /20
4. Find D = min(D1 and D2)

46

Sowers and Sowers(1970)

Rough estimate of min. depth of borings, D( unless bedrock is
encountered) is as follows:
1. D = 3S 0.7

for light steel or narrow concrete building

2. D = 6S 0.7

for heavy steel or wide concrete building

Where D = approximate depth of boring for preliminary

investigation

S = number of stories

47

Stabilization of bore Holes

Two problems that are common to the drilling of holes

i. Caving of the sides of the hole

Caused by the release of the stresses caused by the
removal of overburden material from the hole
Holes drilled above the water table may not cave in even
in sandy soil due to the presence of apparent cohesion
present between particles
Caving in sandy soils cannot be avoided below the water
table.
Holes drilled in cohesive soil may remain stable even up to
considerable depth below the water table.

48

Stabilization of bore Holes

Caving in fine sandy and silty soils below water table can be
minimized to certain extent by use of drilling mud

a. Drilling mud Bentonite( pure form of thixotropic

clay) mixed with water. i.e. Bentonite Slurry, which has
the following properties
Supports the excavation by exerting hydrostatic pressure
on the wall
Provide

almost instantaneously a membrane with low

permeability
b. Use of casing pipe
49

Stabilization of bore Holes

Caving of the sides of the hole can be prevented by

a. Drilling mud Bentonite( pure form of thixotropic

clay) mixed with water. i.e. Bentonite Slurry, which has
the following properties
Supports the excavation by exerting hydrostatic pressure
on the wall
Provide

almost instantaneously a membrane with low

permeability
b. Use of casing pipe
50

Stabilization of bore Holes

Regained strength of a partially thixotropic material

Heaving of the bottom of the hole can be prevented by

a. Keeping the water table in the hole sufficiently above the
water table outside the hole to counteract the inflow
51

Soil Sampling & Sample Disturbance

There are 2 main categories of soil samples:
-

Undisturbed samples .
The soil structure, and particle size distribution should be preserved
to its original Insitu stratum.

The water content of the samples are also tried to be

preserved as far as possible, to truly represent site conditions.
These samples are required for carrying out tests in lab.: shear

strength, consolidation, permeability, compressibility, Insitudensity and water content

52

Soil Sampling & Sample Disturbance

-

Disturbed samples.
The particle size distribution should be preserved to its original Insitu
stratum (representative), though the soil structure may be seriously
disturbed

The water content of the samples may have also changed. If it

is permissible, the water content should also be preserved.
Collected as drilling or digging progress for soil identification
and classification(Index Properties).
Tests that can be conducted: Chemical Analysis, Atterbergs
Limit, Sieve analysis, Sp.Gravity, compaction etc.
53

Soil Sampling & Sample Disturbance

-

Disturbance of samples is due to.

The change in state of stress as the sample is retrieved

from the soil
Resistance against the sides of the sample
During transportation to the laboratory
As the sample is retrieved from sampling tube
Evaporation of moisture from the sample due to improper
sealing
54

Sample Disturbance
The degree of disturbance can be expressed in terms of area ratio

To reduce side friction on

sample as tube is pushed into
the soil

55

Sample Disturbance

Area ratio is the ratio of the volume

of soil displaced to the volume of
collected sample

56

Soil Sampling & Sample Disturbance

Good quality samples necessary.

AR 10%

The disturbance is considered negligible

soil

O.D.2 I .D.2
AR
100 (%)
2
I .D.
area ratio

sampling tube

Thicker the wall, greater the disturbance.

57

Sample Disturbance
The soil sample can be considered undisturbed If the area ratio is less
than or equal to 10% , the disturbance is considered negligible
However , area ratio have to be much more than 10 % for very stiff
or hard clay soils to prevent the edges of the sampling tube from
getting distorted during sampling
Inside clearance allows for elastic expansion of the soil as it enters
the tube, and thus produces disturbance of soil structure and
reduction of density in dense sand .to minimize the expansion and
disturbance of soil sample , inside clearance should not be more than
1 to 3%
Inside clearance reduces frictional drag on the sample from the wall
of the tube and helps to retain the cores
58

Sample Disturbance
The outside clearance should also not be much greater than inside
clearance. It is usually between 0 to 2%.
Outside clearance facilitates the withdrawal of the sample from the
ground

59

Sampling Methods
Common types of samplers
i. Split-Spoon- With these sampler-disturbed samples of
soft rock, cohesive and cohesionless soils are obtained.
This sampler is used for making standard penetration.
ii. Thin wall tube(shelly tube) for soils sensitive to
disturbance and suitable to take undisturbed sample only
for cohesive soils( clays/silt)
iii. Piston sampler - For very soft silts and clays and
provides best-undisturbed sample of cohesive soils

60

For Standard Split-Spoon Sampler Di=1.38in, Do=2in

AR(%)=111.5%>10%
disturbed sample
used for soil tests to obtain soil index properties

For Thin-Walled Tube (Shelby tube) Sampler

Di=1.875in, Do=2in

This indicates that the

sample collected by
Split-spoon is highly
disturbed

AR(%)=13.75%>10%

Relatively undisturbed sample

used for soil tests to obtain soil engineering properties

61

In-situ Tests
These test are used to determine the properties of the soil without
disturbing effect of boring and sampling. The most commonly used field
tests are:

Penetration or sounding Test

Vane Shear Test
Plate Loading test
Pile Loading Test
Dutch Cone Penetration
62

SPT
VST

In bore
holes

CPT

63

63

In-situ Tests
Penetration tests are conducted mainly to get information on
the relative density of soils with little or no cohesion.
The tests are based on the fact that the relative density of a
soil stratum is directly proportional to the resistance of the soil
against the penetration of the drive point.
From

this,

correlations

between

values

of

penetration

resistance versus angle of internal friction ), bearing

pressure, density have been developed.

64

Standard Penetration Test

SPT

65

Standard Penetration Test(SPT)

This is the most commonly used in-situ test, especially for
cohesionless soils which cannot be easily sampled.
The test is extremely useful for determining the relative density
and the angle of internal friction of cohesionless soils.
It can also be used to determine the unconfined compressive
strength of soils..
The sampler is driven into the soil by hammer blows to the top
of the drill rod, the number of blows required for the last two
intervals are added to give the standard penetration number, N
66

Standard Penetration Test

The blows required to produce the first 150mm penetration,
termed as seating blows, are usually ignored as it is
assumed that it is disturbed due to drilling process. The test is
refusal and halted if
a. 50 blows are required for any 150-mm increment
b. If a total of 100 blows are obtained to drive the required 300mm
c.

10 successive blows produce no advance

67

Standard Penetration Test

Energy Ratio
It is necessary to standardize SPT to some energy ratio(Er),which
is the ratio of the actual hammer energy to the sampler to input
energy.

Actual Hammer energy to sampler, Ea

Er
x100
Input energy, Ein
Energy ratio (Er) x blow count should be constant for any soil and
can be expressed as

Er1 N 1 =E r2 N 2
This indicates that the larger values of energy ratio
decreases the blow count linearly
69

Corrections to Measured SPT Value

In the field, the energy can vary from 30% to 90%.
The discrepancies appear to be rise from the ff factors:
Difference in some features of SPT equipment, drilling rig,
hammer and skill of operation
Driving hammer configuration and the way hammer load is
applied
Whether liner is used inside the split barrel sampler Side
friction increases the driving resistance (N)

70

Corrections to Measured SPT Value

overburden pressure- the bigger the o.b.p the more is N
value for soil of the same density.
Degree of cementation: The more cemented zone the
higher is N value
Length of the drill rod- the shorter the rod the more is N
value
Bore hole diameter - the smaller the size of the hole the
more is N value

71

Corrections to Measured SPT Value

So, the standard practice now is to express the N-value to an
average energy ratio of 60% , i.e. N60 (Skempton 1986)

N60 N mCE CBCS CR

where:
CE: Hammer Energy ratio (Er) factor (efficiency)=actual energy
ratio/Standard energy ratio (60%)
CB: correction for borehole diameter
CS: sampler correction
CR: correction for rod length
Nm: measured SPT N value
N60 is used to correlate the soil properties of cohesive soil
( e.g. qu, Su, OCR etc. )

72

Skempton 1986

73

Correction for Overburden Pressure

This type of correction is applied only to Cohesionless soils. The
Correction suggested by Liao and Whitman (1986) is as follows:

N '60 C N N60

95.76
CN =
v

where:
CN: Adjustment for effective overburden pressure
sv(kPa): in-situ effect vertical stress

74

Corrections to Measured SPT Value

Correction for Dilatancy

Terzaghi and Peck considered dilatancy correction for N>15,which is

an indication of Dense sand.
In such soil, the fast rate of application of shear through the blows
of hammer, is likely to induce negative pore water pressure in
saturated fine sand under undrained loading condition

75

Corrections to Measured SPT Value

Correction for Dilatancy
Saturated Sands that contain appreciable fine soil particles such as
silty or clayey sands could give abnormally high N values if they
have the a tendency to dilate or abnormally low N Values if they have
tendency to contract during undrained shear conditions associated
with driving SPT.
Silty fine sands and fine sands below the water table develop pore
water pressure which is not easily dissipated. The pore water pressure
increases the resistance of the soil and hence the penetration number
(N).

76

Corrections to Measured SPT Value

Correction for Dilatancy
Terzaghi and peck (1967) recommend the following correction

N'' = 15+ 0.5(N'-15)

For N >15 ..Terzaghi and Peck

N'' = N' for N' 15.0

where:
N= corrected value
N= Value obtained after overburden correction

77

Corrections to Measured SPT Value

Correction for Water Table
Terzaghi and Peck(1974)

Dw

Cw= 0.5 1
D+B
where:

D = Depth of footing base from surface

Dw=Depth of water table from surface

In current practice the correction for water table is ruled out due to
its conservative nature

78

not corrected
for
overburden

N60

cu (kPa)

consistency

visual identification

0-2

0 - 12

very soft

Thumb can penetrate > 25

mm

2-4

12-25

soft

Thumb can penetrate 25

mm

4-8

25-50

medium

8-15

50-100

stiff

Thumb will indent 8 mm

15-30

100-200

very stiff

Can indent with thumb

nail; not thumb

>30

>200

hard

Cannot indent even with

thumb nail
79

Thumb penetrates
moderate effort

with

Use with caution; unreliable.

79

(N)60

Dr (%) (deg)

consistency

not corrected
for overburden

0-4

0-15

<28

very loose

4-10

15-35

28-30

loose

10-30

35-65

30-36

medium

30-50

65-85

36-42

dense

>50

85-100

>42

very dense
80

80

 The relative density is useful to describe the consistency of sand. It

may be determined from SPT data using the following empirical
correlations(Kulhawy and Mayne 1990)

Dr =

N 1 60
CpC ACOCR

where:

X100%

Cp = 60 + 25logD50
t
C A = 1.2 + 0.05log

100
COCR = OCR 0.18

Dr= relative density

(N1) 60 = SPT N value corrected for field procedures and overburden stress
Cp=grain-size correction factor
CA= aging correction factor
COCR =overconsolidation correction factor
D50 =grain size at which 50% of the soil is finer(mm)
t= age of soil(time since deposition((years)
OCR=overconsolidation ratio

81

82

Cone Penetration Testing

(ASTM D 5778)

Cone Penetration Test is a static in-insitu test used for

subsurface exploration in fine and medium sands, soft silts and
clays without taking soil samples

The test is not well adapted to gravels deposits or to stiff/hard

cohesive deposits.

The corrected total tip resistance can be estimated as:

qt = qc u c (1 a )
where:

qt= corrected total cone resistance

qc = Qc/Ac =cone resistance
Qc=force required to push the cone
Ac= end area of the cone
a=net area ratio
uc =measured pore water pressure immediately
behind the cone

83

Cone Penetration Testing

(ASTM D 5778)

84

Cone Penetration Testing

(ASTM D 5778)
Friction sleeve resistance can be estimated as:
Qs
fs =
As
where:

Qs= Force on friction sleeve

As = Area of friction sleeve

Friction Ratio
fs
Rf=
qc

The CPT defines the soil profile with much greater resolution
than SPT does
However the CPT has disadvantages
a. No soil sample is recovered . So there is no opportunity to
inspect the soil
b. The test is unreliable in soils with significant gravel content
85

Cone Penetration Testing (ASTM D 5778)

ASTM D 5778

86

qt (MPa)
0

10

20

30

fs (kPa)
40

50

100

200

u2 (kPa)
300

400

1000

2000

3000

Clayey Silt
5

Depth (m)

Sand
10

10

10

15

15

15

20

20

20

25

25

25

30

30

30

35

35

35

Clean
Sand

Clay
40

40

40

87

Cone Penetration Testing

88

CPT Correlations for Cohesive soils

The undrained shear strength Friction sleeve resistance can be

For normally consolidated clay of
estimated as:
low sensitivity (S<4) and PI <30, a
qc Po
su =
value of Nk=18 may be used

Nk

Where: po=overburden pressure above the tip of the

cone and it is in the same unit of qc and
same type of pressure
Nk= cone factor(constant for soil)

With adjustment

su =

qt Po
N kt

N kT = 13

For normally consolidated clay of

low sensitivity (S<4) and PI <30, a
value of Nkt=14 may be used

5.5
PI 2
50

Bowles (1996)
89

CPT Correlations for Cohesive soils

90

CPT Correlations for Non Cohesive soils

The design friction angle can be estimated as follows

= 29 + qc 5

- for silty sand

+ for gravel

Bowles (1996)

91

CPT Correlations

92

Comparisons of SPT and CPT

93

Rock Sampling
Core recovery percentage
Rock Quality Designation (RQD)

Defines the fraction of solid core recovered greater

than 4 inches in length

Calculated as the ratio of the sum of length of core

fragments greater than 4 inches to the total drilled
footage per run, expressed as a percentage

94

Rock Coring

Rock core drilling is commonly used to advance the borehole and

provide core samples for examination and testing

Core Recovery ,Lr is a measure of determining sample disturbance

and can be expressed as :

Length of recovered sample

Core recovery(%)=
x100
Length of rock cored

Rock Quality Designation(RQD) is an index or measure of the quality

of a rock mass [Stagg and Zienkiewicz(1698)].
RQD(%)=

Lengths of intact pieces of core>100mm

x100
length of core advance
95

Recovery ratio, Lr is a measure of determining sample

disturbance and can be expressed as :

Lr = 1.0 a good recovery

Lr > 1.0 indicates swelling in the sample

Lr < 1.0 means the sample is compressed

96

9cm

97

Vane Shear Test

Fairly reliable results for the undrained shear strength, cu (=0
concept), of very soft to medium cohesive soils may be obtained
directly from vane shear tests

Shear vane apparatus.

98

3/10/2016

Vane Shear Test

(a) resisting moment of shear force ; (b) Assumed variation in shear

strength mobilization
99

3/10/2016

Vane Shear Test

Calculation of Undrained Shear strength for Rectangular-Shaped
ends Vane
dA=rddr

Suo
a

Su

100

3/10/2016

Su
b

Vane Shear Test

T = Ms + Me + Me
Two ends
The resisting moments can be given as:

1
M s (2 RH ) Su R D 2 HSu
2
For calculation of Me, let the distribution of mobilized shear strength
follows triangular and then we can develop an equation for others.

Me

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3/10/2016

rS

r 0

uo

dA

Vane Shear Test

where dA rd dr and

Suo Su

r
R
R

2
r
r3
M e rSu rd dr
Su d dr
0

0
R
R
r 0
r 0
2

S
= u
R
=

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3/10/2016

Su
R

r 3 d dr

r 0
4

r
0 4
2

d
r 0

S u R 4 2
= d
R 4 0
S u R 4 2
= 0
R 4
D3
=
Su
16

r
Suo Su
R

Vane Shear Test

From above equation
T M s 2Me
D3
1 2
D HSu 2
Su
2
16
1 2 D3
Su D H

2
8

T
T
Su =
=
2
3
2
3

D
H
D
D
H
1
D

2 + 8
2 +2 4

T
Su =
2
3

D
H
D

2 +a 4

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3/10/2016

Anisotropic with
respect to shear
strength

T M s 2Me
D3
1 2
D HSu, vv 2
Su , vh
2
16

Vane Shear Test

Su=

T
D2 H
D3

+a
4
2

For rectangular end vane

where a=constant
=1/2 for triangular end shear
= 2/3 for uniform end shear
= 3/5 for parabolic end shear

T
Su=
D 2 H D3

2
6

For rectangular shaped

vane and uniform end shear,

both ends of vane are fully
submerged

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end

Vane Shear Test

The Undrained Shear strength obtained from Vane shear test may
give results that are unsafe( overestimated) for foundation design.
Therefore reduction factor should be used

Su(design)= Su(Vane shear)

=1.7-0.54log(PI) Bjerrum(1974)

=1.05-0.045(PI)0.5 Chandler(1998)

105

105

106

General Expression

107

Plate Load Test

108

108

Plate Load Test

It is the

most reliable method to determine the bearing

capacity and the settlement at site

2

S b(bp 0.3)
=
............f or footing rest on sand
S p bp(b 0.3)
S
b
=
..... for footing rest on clay
S p bp
where :
S= Settlement of proposed foundation
Sp= settlement of test plate
bp= width(diameter) of plate
109
b=width of proposed footing(least dimension)
109

Plate Load Test

For a given maximum permissible settlement, Sp can be
calculated using the eqn.
From the load-settlement curve the load intensity under the
plate could be read
The ultimate bearing capacity is determined as follows:

q u ,F
q u ,p
q u ,F
q u ,p

b
............ for footing rest on sand soils
bp

1.0..... for footing rest on clay soils

110

110

Limitation of Plate Load Test

111

111

Geophysical Method
Seismic Refraction Method
When a shock or impact is made at a point on or in the earth,
the resulting seismic (shock or sound) waves travel through
the surrounding soil at speeds related to their elastic
characteristics
The radiating waves are picked up by detector called
geophones placed at increasing distance from the origin of
shock

112

112

113

114

Seismic Method

115

115

Geophysical Method

116

116

Geophysical Method

117

117

Geophysical Methods
Limitations
The basic eqns. Made is based on assumption that P-wave velocity
V1<V2<V3
The methods cannot be used when hard layer overlies a soft layer
The method cannot be used in an area covered by concrete of
pavement
When soil is saturated , the p-wave velocity is deceptive
This methods are used as preliminary or supplementary to others

118

118

119

119

Groundwater Table Location

Establishing the highest and the lowest possible levels of
water during the life of the project is necessary.
In

soils with high coefficient of permeability, the level of

water in bore hole will stabilize in a bout 24 hrs

after

completion of the bore hole drilling.

The depth of the water table can then be measured
using a chalk coated steel tape.

120

Groundwater Table Location

In soils with low K-values, this process may take a
week.
The depth of the water table can then be measured
by installing piezometer
If the seasonal ground water table variation is to be
measured, piezometer may be installed in to bore hole
and the variation is recorded for longer time.

121

121

Laboratory Tests
Laboratory tests are useful in providing reliable data for
calculating ultimate bearing capacity of soils, stability and
settlement behavior of foundation, and for determining physical
characteristics of soils. Results of laboratory tests should be
used in conjunction with borehole records and results of field
test.
The common laboratory tests that concern the foundation
engineers are
Grain size analysis ASTM D422
Classification-ASTM D2487
Atterberg limits ASTM D4318
Natural moisture content ASTM D2216

122

122

Laboratory Tests
Unit weight
Specific gravity-ASTM D854
Unconfined compression test ASTM D2166
Direct shear test ASTM D3080
Triaxial compression test
Unconsolidated Undrained--ASTM D2850
Consolidated Drained--ASTM D7181
Consolidated Undrained--ASTM D4767
Consolidation testASTM D2435
Compaction
123

Standard---ASTM D698
Modified--ASTM D1557

123

Soil Exploration Report

1. Introduction:

purpose

of

investigation,

type

of

investigation carried out.

2.

General description of the site: - general configuration and

surface features of the site.

3. General geology of the area:- from available geology

records a summary of the

geology and other relevant

conditions of the site are described since these could affect

the scope of the work
4.

Details of the field exploration program, indicating the

number of borings, their location and depth.

5.

Details of the methods of exploration.

124

124

Soil Exploration Report

6. Description of soil conditions found in bore holes (and test
pits):- A brief summary of

the sequence of deposits their

nature, thickness and variability.

7. Discussion of laboratory test results.
8. Discussion of results of investigation in relation to foundation
design and constructions.
9. Recommendations on the type and depth of foundations,
allowable bearing pressure and methods of construction.
10. Conclusion: - The main findings of investigations should be
clearly stated. It should be brief but should mention the salient
points.

125

125

126

Soil Exploration Report

Why is a geotechnical subsurface exploration conducted?
What are the drilling methods that are commonly used in the
geotechnical subsurface exploration?
Under what soil conditions is mud rotary drilling used?
What are the types of samplers that are commonly used in
sampling soils?
What factors affect the SPT blow count (Nvalue)?

127

127